Section 23

Crushers and Pulverizers

GENERAL

In the processing of minerals, ores, rocks, and other similar materials, it is usually necessary to
reduce large pieces of material to small particle sizes. This cannot be done in a single step, but
instead generally requires two or three steps, depending on the physical nature of the material
and the particle size required. The rough, preliminary, or secondary breaking of large pieces into
smaller pieces is termed crushing. This may be accomplished by impact, attrition, shear, or
pressure, or by a combination of all four.
• Impact crushing requires one body to strike another with a sharp blow.
• Attrition crushing refers to grinding or rubbing the material between two surfaces.
• Shear crushing size reduction is accomplished with a cutting or cleaving action.
• Pressure crushing is accomplished when large pieces are crushed between two surfaces with
direct pressure.
Various machines and devices are employed in the industry to achieve crushing. Jaw Type,
Gyratory, and Roll Type crushers will be discussed.
Pulverizing or grinding is generally related to those operations where the size of the product is
small. The fineness of the product will vary with the type of material and may be as large as one
inch or as small as one micron or less. In some fields, grinding may cover product sizes even
outside of these ranges. Since the product may be as large as one inch, the feed can be as large
as five inches. Grinding equipment will be discussed under three different categories:
• Impact machines
• Roller mills
• Attrition mills

JAW TYPE CRUSHERS

Jaw crushers operate on the principle of compression in which the material is squeezed with great
force between a fixed surface and a movable surface. The fixed surface is often referred to as
the anvil jaw. The two jaws form a V-shaped chamber, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom,
within which the crushing takes place. The other two walls of the chamber are formed by the
frame. Both jaws are usually essentially flat, except that in some models they may have shallow
vertical ribbing. A few models use curved jaw surfaces, to reduce any tendency to clog.

The surface of the movable jaw forms an angle of a little less than 30 degrees with the vertical
anvil jaw. In some designs, both jaws lean back from the vertical to form an angle with each other
of about the same size. The swinging jaw is suspended at one point and receives its motion from
an eccentric shaft on which it rides at its unsupported end. Jaw crushers must be designed and
built for heavy duty, so that bearing design and lubrication are important.

In operation, the charge is introduced at the top. As the swinging jaw moves out, the charge slips
down. When the jaw moves in, the space remaining is too small, placing the material under
severe compression, and resulting in crushing. On the next outward motion, the crushed material

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Section 23 Crushers and Pulverizers

slips down again into a narrower space, and the cycle is repeated. It typically takes 8 to 10 such
slips for most of the material to reach the bottom, where it is discharged. The width of the
discharge is adjustable, and controls the size of the final product. At the end of its working stroke,
the movable jaw is brought back to its starting position by a spring acting through a tension rod.
The jaws may operate between 200 and 3,000 openings per minute. Jaw crushers are generally
belt-driven, and are usually fitted with heavy flywheels.

The two oldest types of jaw crushers are the Blake crusher and the Dodge crusher.

Blake-Type Crusher

In the Blake or double toggle crusher shown in Figure 23-1, the swing jaw is suspended from the
top. Its bottom lip has the maximum motion. The eccentric acts on the pitman which in turn
affects a toggle joint. One toggle plate rests on the frame, while the other imparts motion to the
movable joint. Maximum force is exerted when the jaw is at the extreme of travel on its working
stroke, which is where this great force is most needed. The discharge opening is adjustable. The
swing jaw tends to force the material upward, causing a rubbing action against the jaws. Such
rubbing action results in rapid wear on the jaw faces, increases the amount of fines produced,
and tends to reduce the effective capacity of the crusher. In most models, the fixed jaw is vertical
and flat, while the movable jaw face may either be flat or curved, and set at an angle from the
vertical.
Since there is considerable
motion between the jaws at the
point of discharge, there tends
to be a large variation in the
size of the product discharged
from the Blake type crusher.
The jaw faces are usually made
of a special hard alloy due to
the amount of wear in service
and are so arranged as to be
easily removed for replacement.
Since the Blake type crusher
has its maximum motion at the
discharge end, it has a
minimum tendency to choke
and may therefore be used for
materials that have some
FIGURE 23-1 - BLAKE TYPE OR DOUBLE TOGGLE JAW
tendency toward caking.
CRUSHER
Variations of the Blake type are the Denver and Dalton types which are also top pivoted. These
models which are sometimes called single toggle types, also have an overhead eccentric which
gives the movable jaw some up and down motion.

Dodge Type Crusher

In the Dodge type crusher shown in Figure 23-2, the swinging jaw is pivoted at the bottom. The
discharge opening has almost no motion and the greatest movement is at the top. While the
capacity of a given size Dodge is less than that of the same size Blake, the final product

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 Crushers and Pulverizers Section 23

discharged is of more uniform size. The Dodge does not, however, readily clear itself when
choked and is therefore limited in use to free flowing materials. The Dodge also cannot take as
large sized feed as does the Blake. For these reasons, the Dodge is less commonly used than
the Blake and is normally used where:
• Tonnage requirements are lower
• The material is dry and free flowing
• Considerable fines are desired

1. FRAME 11. PITMAN EYE BOLT 22 LEFT HAND SIDE LINER

2. MAIN BEARING CAP 12. PITMAN JAW SPRING CAP 23 RIGHT HAND SIDE LINER
3. OIL WELL COVER 13. SWING JAW AND PITMAN 24 PLAIN STATIONARY JAW PLATE
WELL COVER
4. OIL WELL COVER SPRING 14. SWING JAW COVER 25 PLAIN SWING JAW PLATE
5. SWING JAW SHAFT BOX 15. SWING JAW 26 HOPPER
6. BREAKING PLATE 16. FLYWHEEL 29 STATIONARY JAW PLATE BOLT
7. SHIM 17. ECCENTRIC SHAFT 30 SWING JAW PLATE BOLT
8. PITMAN 18. LOOSE PULLEY 31 BOG BOLT
9. PITMAN CAP 19. TIGHT PULLEY 32 OUTBOARD BEARING
10. PITMAN PIN 20. SWING JAW SHAFT 33 OUTBOARD BEARING CAP

FIGURE 23-2 - DODGE TYPE CRUSHER

GYRATORY CRUSHER

The gyratory crusher, shown in Figure 23-3, has a central vertical, cone shaped rotating element,
working in a conical chamber which is open at the top. The truncated cone crushing head is
mounted on a vertical shaft which in turn is driven eccentrically. This gives the crushing head
both a rotary motion and a gyratory motion. The space between the cone and the chamber wall

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Section 23 Crushers and Pulverizers

decreases gradually, with the narrowest gap being at the bottom of the crushing space. At this
level, the material drops out of the crusher through a chute.

1. FEED OPENING 7. BEVEL GEARS 13. V-BELT

2. MANTLE 8. ROLLER BEARINGS 14. DUST SEAL
3. 2-ARM SPIDER 9. SHAFT 15. TWO PIECE MANTLE
4. POWER DRIVE 10. SPIDER ARMS AND RIMS 16. BRONZE BEARINGS
5. MACHINE HOUSING 11. BOTTOM DISCHARGE 17. HYDRAULIC ADJUSTMENT
6. CONCAVE INTERIOR 12. LOCKNUT 18. FEED POINT

FIGURE 23-3 - GYRATORY CRUSHER

The material to be crushed is fed into the open top. As the crushing head gyrates, it comes
closer to the chamber wall at one spot and moves away from the chamber wall on the opposite
side. A material charge is loaded when the gap is at its maximum. At the next half gyration, this
gap is reduced which places the material under compression and results in the crushing action.
The size of the final product may be adjusted by raising or lowering the central shaft, thus
changing the spacing between the crushing head and the chamber wall. In the larger gyratories,
the shaft extends beyond the truncated cone of the crushing head, and is supported by a bearing
in a spider across the open top. Gyratory crushers are essentially continuous in action. Gyratory
crushers may be designed for either primary crushing of large material, or for smaller, lighter "fine
reduction" work.

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 Crushers and Pulverizers Section 23

ROLL TYPE CRUSHERS

Single roll toothed crushers,

shown in Figure 23-4, function
by impact, shear and
compression. They pull the
material between the roll and
a fixed anvil. They are
particularly useful for friable
materials, even when wet and
sticky. Made in sizes with
capacities to 800 tons per
hour and greater, such
crushers produce a negligible
quantity of fines. FIGURE 23-4 - SINGLE-ROLL CRUSHER

Double roll crushers consist of two identical steel rimmed rolls mounted with their axes horizontal,
on suitable bearings and frame, made to revolve toward each other at equal speeds. Each roll is
driven by its own pulley. The material to be crushed is fed from above, and is discharged
beneath the rolls. In the usual form, one roll is made movable so that tramp iron or other
unbreakable material may be passed without damage to the equipment. This is accomplished by
mounting the bearings of one roll on a slide, and holding the roll to its work by springs and tension
rods. The diameter of the roll is generally greater than the width of the face, and may run two or
three times as great. The distance between the rolls, called the crusher setting, is adjustable and
controls both the size of the final product and the capacity.
Crushing rolls are generally used for secondary or intermediate crushing. Their capacity is high.
The rolls may be smooth, or may have tooth like or knife like projections.

IMPACT MACHINES

As the name implies, the primary force behind size reduction in these units is impact. It may be
impact created between the particles themselves, but more often it is impact between the par-
ticles and adjacent parts of the mill. Other forces such as attrition, compression, and shear may
also contribute to a lesser extent.

Hammer Mills

The hammer mill is generally defined as a unit with the hammers mounted on a horizontal shaft or
to discs on the shaft, with feed entering the top, sides, or ends of the unit but with discharge
always at the bottom. The hammer mill is one of the more versatile comminuting or pulverizing
machines. It can be used for a variety of materials and over a wide range of product sizes. One
reason for this is the number of arrangements that can be made within the machine.
The hammer can be fixed, swinging, or the rolling ring type. As shown in Figure 23-5, the
hammers can have different sizes, shapes, and numbers which are particularly suitable for the
material or size reduction desired.

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Section 23 Crushers and Pulverizers

FIGURE 23-5 - HAMMER MILL HAMMER TYPES

Up-Running Type Hammer Mills

As shown in Figure 23-6, the Up-Running Type Hammer Mill impacts the feed with the hammers
while it is suspended in the air and is thrown against the breaker plate where further impact
occurs. The breaker plate is generally designed so the material rebounds into the path of the
hammers for further impact. This is particularly true when no grates or screens are used at the
bottom of the mill because all the grinding has to occur in the area between the breaker plate and
the hammers. Oversize material which cannot pass through the grate openings is then subjected
to further action by the hammers.

REVERSIBLE HAMMERMILL NON-REVERSIBLE HAMMERMILL

UP-RUNNING DOWN-RUNNING
FIGURE 23-6 - HAMMERMILLS

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 Crushers and Pulverizers Section 23

Down-Running Type Hammer Mills

As shown in Figure 23-6, the Down-Running Type Hammer Mill subjects the material to impact by
the hammers while it is supported against the breaker plate. This type of hammer mill is used for
friable materials since the unit provides a shorter period of grinding action than in the up-running
machine. With some materials, there is a tendency for plugging with this type of mill so units are
made with a traveling breaker plate.

Rolling Ring Type Hammer Mills

As shown in Figure 23-7, the Rolling

Ring Type Hammer Mill provides some
impact action but the majority of the
grinding occurs by the compressive
forces imparted to the material as it is
caught between the rolling ring and
grinding plate or screen. The basic
machine is still a hammer mill,
however.

Vertical Hammer Mills

FIGURE 23-7 - ROLLING RING HAMMER MILL There are a number of varieties of
Vertical Hammer Mills but they all have
the common feature of fixed hammers
on a vertical shaft. Size reduction
takes place by the impact action of the
hammers and attrition between the
particles and on the walls of the unit.
One of the more popular types of vertical hammer mills uses air classification to remove material
from the grinding zone and additional air and mechanical separation in a separate chamber with
oversize material returned for regrinding. As the feed enters, it is subjected to the impact of the
hammers. The heavier, larger particles are thrown to the outside by centrifugal force and are
therefore subject to the impact by hammers traveling at the highest linear speed. Air entering
through the bottom carries the fines material up into the classifying chamber where it is separated
into product and oversize. The air can be recirculated after removal of the product or it can be
discharged with or without fines separation.

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Section 23 Crushers and Pulverizers

Horizontal Impact Mills

As shown in Figure 23-8, material is fed to the

Horizontal Impact Mill on to a rotating disc. As the
feed comes to the rotor, it begins to pick up some
circumferential velocity, and centrifugal force moves it
toward the periphery of the rotor where it comes in
contact with impact pins on the rotor. This results in
some pulzerization, but additional grinding takes place
as the material strikes the stationary pins in the
housing of the unit.

ROLLER MILLS

The primary crushing or grinding action in roller mills is

a compression mechanism. Impact forces would
FIGURE 23-8 - HORIZONTAL rarely come into play, but attrition may be important,
IMPACTOR especially in the finer sizes. All roller mills operate by
compressing the material between the surfaces with at
least one of them rotating.

Single Roll Crushers

The action of Single Roll Crushers depends on the tooth design present on the single roll.
Variations may range from a few protrusions distributed along the length and diameter of the roll
to a number of toothed segments similar to saw blades. As the material is fed to the machine, it
is subjected to the impact of the teeth or the housing, plus shearing action as the teeth try to draw
the material through the unit. Sometimes the teeth may run through channels to give a combing
effect and discharge may be through a screen.

Crusher Rolls

Crusher Roll grinding equipment consists of a set of rolls rotating toward each other at the same
or different speeds. The coefficient of friction between the material and the rolls is utilized to
draw the material down into the nip of the roll where it can be subjected to the compressive
crushing action. Smooth rolls are sometimes used, but the effective friction can be increased
considerably by corrugating the rolls or by using saw tooth rolls. The corrugations can be varied
in depth, sharpness, design, number of cuts per inch, and spiral pattern. The type of corrugation
and the relative speed of the two rolls will cause the compressive crushing to be supplemented by
cutting, shearing, and tearing action.

Roller Mills

In addition to being a general category of crushing rolls, Roller Mills are also a specific type of roll
that operates with rollers rotating against a stationary ring. Crushing in a roller mill takes place as
the rollers revolve against the pulverizing or bull ring and material is fed between the rollers and
the ring by plows moving ahead of the rollers. The rollers themselves are attached to a freely
swinging vertical shaft which is fastened to a spider on the main vertical shaft. No power is
supplied to the rollers. Their rotation is caused by friction between the rollers and the material

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 Crushers and Pulverizers Section 23

being crushed. The crushing force is obtained by the centrifugal force imparted to the rollers as
the central shaft rotates. Commercial units normally have 5 or 6 rollers.

Bowl Mills

The Bowl Mill is similar to the roller mill and takes its name from the bowl whose rim serves as one
of the grinding surfaces. Unlike the roller mill, the bowl of this unit rotates while the roller journals
remain stationary. The centrifugal forces developed in the bowl cause the material to gravitate to
the rim, where it is crushed between the rollers and the rim. Compression springs force the rollers
against the material, and adjustments can be made to the roller journals to establish the proper
angle to the ring and to compensate for wear. Because of the centrifugal force on the material, it
always lines the grinding ring so there is no direct contact between the rollers and the ring. The
action in the mill causes the material to move upward and out of the grinding zone where the
fines are removed by the air stream for classification and the oversize returns to the feed line for
further pulverizing.

Ring Roll Mills

Ring Roll Mills are similar to a bowl mill except that the pulverizing roll rotates in a vertical plane
instead of in a horizontal plane. As with the bowl mill, the ring rotates and the roller journals are
stationary. The compression springs on the rollers will develop a force up to 60,000 pounds on
the rollers. Centrifugal force holds the material on the ring and prevents metal to metal contact.
As the material is reduced in size, it falls off both sides of the ring and escapes to the bottom of
the mill where it is taken away for separate classification.

ATTRITION MILLS

Grinding by attrition is generally most applicable when the product has to be fine. The attrition
can be either between the material and surfaces of the mill or between the particles themselves.
Wear of the mill parts is quite high where the attrition is between the mill and the material, so self
attrition is very desirable.

Disc Mills

This is probably the most widely used type of attrition mill and the term "attrition mill" is often used
synonymously with "disc mill". There are a large number of varieties of disc mills, some operating
in horizontal planes and others in vertical planes. In some, grinding takes place across a
relatively wide disc face, and in others only a small ring is used as the grinding surface. They all
have in common the establishment of the product size by the clearance between the mating
parts, and all grinding is accomplished between the material and the mill parts so grinding plate
wear can be high.
In the single runner disc mill one disc is rotated while the other remains stationary. In a double
runner unit both discs rotate, usually in opposite directions, but differential speeds in the same
direction can be used. The grinding plates are usually an alloy steel and various patterns are
used on the surface to accomplish various grinding objectives. The clearance between the plates
is usually adjustable, with spring loading, in increments as small as 0.001 inch while the unit is in
operation.

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Section 23 Crushers and Pulverizers

Material is fed into the center of the discs with a special feeder plate which is usually used to
impart a radial flow of the feed into the grinding space between the discs. Centrifugal force
carries the material to the outside as it is ground.

Impeller Attrition Mills

This type of unit is somewhat of a jet mill and a disc mill combined. Feed enters the center of the
mill and is carried to the inside periphery by an impeller. The inside periphery of the unit is of a
corrugated or stone construction, and as the material is processed, attrition takes place until the
product is fine enough to escape through a clearance port. In some units, the inner periphery
consists of conical shaped corrugated baffle plates in which one of the plates rotates but in some
units, only the impeller rotates. The clearance between the two baffle plates can be adjusted to
give the desired product size. Most of the grinding is accomplished by jet attrition action but
impact and shear forces may also come into play.

Fluid Energy Mills

As the name implies, fluid energy is used to accomplish the size reduction in these units.
Generally the fluid is air at 45-115 psi or steam at 100-250 psi. The fluid is admitted through
nozzles tangential to the periphery of the unit and carries the material around the unit until is has
been reduced to a size that can be carried out by the exit fluid stream. The size reduction takes
place by impact and attrition between the particles and to some extent with the inside of the unit.
Centrifugal force acting on the larger particles keeps them in the machine.

Vibro Energy Mill

The Vibro energy mill accomplishes its pulzerization by means of vibration energy which causes
material to be subjected to attrition, impact, and shear forces. The unit consists of an annular
chamber which is caused to vibrate by an electric motor and eccentric weights. A vertical
planetary gyration is superimposed on a horizontal planetary gyration each at 1150 cycles per
minute and results in a three dimensional, high frequency vibration of the unit.

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