MOTORS AS ACTUATORS:

An actuator is a motor that converts energy into torque which then moves or controls a
mechanism or a system into which it has been incorporated. It can introduce motion as well as
prevent it.

There will be primary and secondary windings within the motor. Voltage is applied to the stator
assembly – the primary winding – which results in inducing the
flow of current to the rotor assembly, or the secondary winding.
The interaction of these two creates a magnetic field which results in motion.

There are two types of motors: AC motors, which commonly move at a constant speed; and

DC motors, which move at variable speeds.

The speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of voltage applied by the number of
magnetic poles.

In DC motors, the rotor assembly rotates in an attempt to align itself with the stator assembly
but is prevented by a part known as the commutator. This provides the means to control speed
and positioning.

There are several types of actuators, each of which function somewhat differently from the
other.

1. Pneumatic motors are air driven, using either vacuum or compressed air, which
converts energy into linear or rotary motion. Air pressure and flow determine both speed
and torque. These are used in applications in which positional accuracy is not a
requirement.
2. Hydraulic motors move a piston through a tube using pressurized fluid. The higher the
fluid pressure, the higher the torque produced. Hydraulic motors output linear, rotary, or
oscillating motion but acceleration is limited. Hydraulic motors are typically inefficient,
can be a fire hazard and require more than usual maintenance.
3. Clutch/Brake motor functions by coupling a continuously rotating shaft with a load,
stopping only when the load is uncoupled. While this motor is easy to apply, relatively
inexpensive, and great for light loads, its acceleration is uncontrolled as well as
inaccurate.
4. Stepper motors (DC motor) are electromechanical, converting a digital pulse into
rotational movement or displacement. While stepper motors are not good for varying
loads and are typically not energy efficient, they are great for constant loads and
positional accuracy.
5. AC Motors (induction type) use electric starters to provide connections, startup, and/or
overload protection. While Induction motors are more commonly thought of as having
constant speeds, the introduction of microprocessor technology provides some variable
speed capabilities.
6. Servo motors (DC motor) are extremely high performing with few weaknesses. Servos
provide speed control and position accuracy due to its feedback device, are small, and
priced relatively low.
7. Stepper Motor Construction and Control

8. In our simple example of a variable reluctance stepper motor above, the motor consists
of a central rotor surrounded by four electromagnetic field coils labelled A, B, C and D.
All the coils with the same letter are connected together so that energising, say coils
marked A will cause the magnetic rotor to align itself with that set of coils.
9. By applying power to each set of coils in turn the rotor can be made to rotate or “step”
from one position to the next by an angle determined by its step angle construction, and
by energising the coils in sequence the rotor will produce a rotary motion.
10. The stepper motor driver controls both the step angle and speed of the motor by
energising the field coils in a set sequence for example, “ADCB, ADCB, ADCB, A…” etc,
the rotor will rotate in one direction (forward) and by reversing the pulse sequence to
“ABCD, ABCD, ABCD, A…” etc, the rotor will rotate in the opposite direction (reverse).
11. So in our simple example above, the stepper motor has four coils, making it a 4-phase
motor, with the number of poles on the stator being eight (2 x 4) which are spaced at 45
degree intervals. The number of teeth on the rotor is six which are spaced 60 degrees
apart.
12. Then there are 24 (6 teeth x 4 coils) possible positions or “steps” for the rotor to
complete one full revolution. Therefore, the step angle above is given as:
360o/24 = 15o.
13. Obviously, the more rotor teeth and or stator coils would result in more control and a
finer step angle. Also by connecting the electrical coils of the motor in different
configurations, Full, Half and micro-step angles are possible. However, to achieve
micro-stepping, the stepper motor must be driven by a (quasi) sinusoidal current that is
expensive to implement.
14. It is also possible to control the speed of rotation of a stepper motor by altering the time
delay between the digital pulses applied to the coils (the frequency), the longer the delay
the slower the speed for one complete revolution. By applying a fixed number of pulses
to the motor, the motor shaft will rotate through a given angle.
15. The advantage of using time delayed pulse is that there would be no need for any form
of additional feedback because by counting the number of pulses given to the motor the
final position of the rotor will be exactly known. This response to a set number of digital
input pulses allows the stepper motor to operate in an “Open Loop System” making it
both easier and cheaper to control.
16. For example, lets assume that our stepper motor above has a step angle of 3.6 degs
per step. To rotate the motor through an angle of say 216 degrees and then stop again
 at the require position would only need a total of: 216 degrees/(3.6 degs/step) = 80
pulses applied to the stator coils.
17. There are many stepper motor controller IC’s available which can control the step
speed, speed of rotation and motors direction. One such controller IC is the SAA1027
which has all the necessary counter and code conversion built-in, and can automatically
drive the 4 fully controlled bridge outputs to the motor in the correct sequence.
18. The direction of rotation can also be selected along with single step mode or continuous
(stepless) rotation in the selected direction, but this puts some burden on the controller.
When using an 8-bit digital controller, 256 microsteps per step are also possible
An electric linear actuator is a device that converts the rotational motion of an AC or DC motor
into linear motion. It can provide both push and pull movements. This movement makes it
possible to lift, drop, slide, adjust, tilt, push or pull objects with the simple push of a button.

INDUCTIVE SENSOR:

An inductive sensor is a device whose action is based on a changing magnetic field in an

inductive coil. When an object made of metal enters its field of action, it is captured and
recognized. A circuit built into the device produces electromagnetic radiation. When an induced
voltage appears in it, the oscillations decrease. Inductive sensors read this immediately.

Simply put, an inductive sensor is a proximity switch that got its name because of the principle
of operation. The sensor has a sensor element with a magnetic circuit open towards the
working surface of the sensor.
Inductive sensors are known for their reliability and safety in harsh environments. This
makes them the best choice for the military, aerospace, railroad, and heavy industries.
According to the number of measuring circuits, inductive sensors are divided into single and
differential.
A single inductive sensor contains one measuring branch and a differential one-two.

In a differential inductive sensor, when the measured parameter changes, the inductances of
two identical coils change simultaneously, and the change occurs by the same amount, but
with the opposite sign.

According to the method of data transmission, inductive sensors are divided into analog,
electronic and digital.
In analog, the same coils and ferromagnetic cores are used.
Electronic ones use a Schmidt trigger instead of ferromagnets to obtain a hysteresis
component.
Digital ones are made in the format of printed circuit boards on microcircuits. In addition, the
types are divided according to the number of sensors leads two, three, four, or five.
Working Principle of Inductive Sensor
The oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that radiates from the ferrite core
and coil array at the sensing face. When a ferrous target enters this magnetic field, small
independent electrical currents (eddy currents) which are induced on the metal’s surface.
An inductive proximity sensor has the frequency range from 10 to 20 Hz in ac, or 500 Hz to 5
kHz in dc. Because of magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively narrow
sensing range like from fractions of millimetres to 60 mm on an average.

Due to this, load will be caused on the sensor that decreases the electromagnetic field
amplitude. If the metal object moves towards the proximity sensor, the eddy current will increase
accordingly. Thus, the load on the oscillator will increase, which decreases the field amplitude.

The schmitt trigger block monitors the amplitude of the oscillator and at particular level
(predetermined level) the trigger circuit switches on or off the sensor. If the metal object or target
is moved away from the proximity sensor, then the amplitude of the oscillator will increase.
The above image shows the waveform of the inductive proximity sensor oscillator in the
presence of the target and in the absence of the target.

Advantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Contactless detection
 Environment adaptability- resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such as
dust and dirt
 Capable and versatile in metal sensing
 High switching rate
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life

Disadvantages of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 60 mm

 Can only detect metal objects
 External conditions like extreme temperatures, cutting fluids or chemical affects on the
performance of the sensor.

Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Machine tolls, assembly line, automotive industry

 Detection of metal parts in harsh environments
 High speed moving parts

LVDT: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

Instrumentation

LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is an important type of inductive
transducer; those transducers that work on the principle of transduction mechanism are known
as inductive transducers. LVDTs are considered the most accurate inductive transducer to
measure the linear displacement from the polarity and magnitude of the net induced
electromotive force (emf), which is why they are also known as the Linear Variable
Displacement Transducer. Basically, LVDT is a position sensor that can sense and convert the
linear motion or vibrations into electrical signals or a variable electrical current in the circuit.
LVDT has high accuracy level so it is also used as an Inductive sensor.LVDT Working Principle

 The structure of LVDT is similar to the transformer; it consists of one primary winding,
i.e., P and two secondary windings, i.e., S1 and S2.
 The primary and secondary windings are wounded on a hollow cylindrical shaped
structure, called former.
 The former is usually made of glass-reinforced polymer wrapped in a highly permeable
material and then covered with cylindrical steel.
 The primary winding is at the centre of the cylindrical former and the secondary
windings are present on both sides of the primary winding at an equal distance from the
centre.
 Both the secondary windings consist of an equal number of turns, and they are linked
with each other in series opposition, i.e., they are wounded in opposite directions but are
connected in series with each other.
 The series-opposed connection ensures that the induced emf in both the secondary
coils opposes each other. The primary winding is connected with the constant source of
the AC power supply whose values ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz. This whole coil
assembly remains stationary during the linear distance measurement process.
 The movable part of LVDT is a separate arm that is made up of a magnetic material. It is
usually a soft iron core, which is laminated to reduce the losses due to eddy current.
The core can freely move within the hollow coil (former), and the object whose
displacement is to be measured is attached to the core through a non-magnetic rod. The
hollow former has a larger radial diameter than that of the core to ensure zero physical
contact between them so that the coil can easily move within the former.

Working Principle of LVDT

The working of LVDT is based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
that states that “the net induced emf in the circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux across the circuit, and the magnetic flux of the coil wounded with wires can be
changed by moving a bar magnet through the coil.”As the primary winding of the LVDT is
connected to the AC power supply, the alternating magnetic field is produced in the primary
winding, which results in the induced emf the secondary windings.

CASE 1: Core at the Null Position

As both of the secondary windings have an equal number
of turns, and they are placed at an equal distance from the
primary winding, hence at the normal position when the
core is placed at the centre, the rate of change of magnetic
flux will be the same in both the secondary windings. This
implies that the induced emf’s E1 and E2 in the secondary
windings S1 and S2 respectively will be the same, i.e.,
E1=E2. Hence, the net induced emf (Eo) in the circuit at
the normal position of the core is zero (E1-E2=0). The
normal position of the soft iron core at which the net induced emf is zero is called the ‘Null
Position’ of the LVDT.

CASE 2: Core at the Left of Null Position

When the position of the core is displaced from the null
position, it will result in the electromagnetic imbalance
between the secondary windings, and a differential AC
voltage will generate across the output terminal of the
secondary coils. If the core is moved towards the left
from the null position, the magnetic flux associated with
the secondary coil S1 will become larger than the
magnetic flux associated with the coil S2, i.e., the
induced emf in coil S1 will be larger than the induced emf
in coil S2.

Hence, the tool output voltage (E0) of LVDT is given by,

E0= E1 – E2 = Postive (E1 > E2)

This implies that the total output voltage of the LVDT is positive, i.e., in-phase with that of the
primary voltage.

CASE 3: Core at the Right of Null Position

If the core is displaced from the null position and

moved towards the right, the magnetic flux associated
with the winding S1 will be more than that of the inding
S2, i.e., induced emf in winding S2 will become more
than the emf induced in winding S2.

Hence, the tool output voltage (E0) of LVDT is given

by,

Eo= E1 – E2 = Negative (E2 > E1)

This implies that the total output voltage of the LVDT is negative, i.e., out of phase
(Φ=18001800) with that of the primary voltage.
From all the three cases discussed above, it can be concluded that the displacement of the
body is directly proportional to the output voltage, i.e., the more the displacement of the body,
the more will be the output voltage of LVDT. Hence, the direction of the movement of the body
attached to the core of the LVDT can find out with the help of net output voltage obtained
across the output terminal of the LVDT. One can analyse that the body is moving away from
the null position towards the left direction if the output voltage of LVDT is positive, and if the
output voltage of the LVDT is negative it means that the body is moving towards the right from
the null position.

Graphical Representation of the Output Voltage of LVDT with respect to the Displacement

The above graph indicates the transfer function of the

linear variable differential transducer. The x-axis
represents the displacement of the body, and the y-axis
represents the magnitude of the output voltage of
LVDT. Ideally, when the displacement is zero, the
output voltage should also be zero, but there exists a
small output voltage even when the core is at the null
position because of the residual magnetism of the soft
iron core, hence it is called residual voltage of LVDT. When the core is moved away from the
null position to either right or the left the output voltage increases linearly with respect to the
displacement of the core to a certain value, and after that non-linear increase of output voltage
is observed.

Advantages of LVDT
 LVDT output is very high
 Power consumption of LVDT is very low.
 Measurement range is very high.
 LVDT is small in size and has excellent repeatability.
 LVDT has high resolution.
 Easy to align & not affected by external Environment.
 Direct Conversion to electrical signal.
 Fast Dynamic response
Disadvantages of LVDT
 LVDT gets damaged by temperature
 Vibration due to displacement can affect the performance of output.
 For small output, large displacement is applied.
 Since LVDT reacts to magnetic fields by moving away from them, a device to prevent
magnetic field drift is continually required.
 LVDT is also sensitive to stray magnetic field.
Applications of LVDT
 Apart from the measurement of displacement, LVDT can also be used to measure other
physical quantities like force, pressure, and weight if it is used as a secondary transducer.
 LVDT is used in civil engineering to test the strength of the various soil samples and rocks
to be used in the construction of buildings or bridges and to measure other factors like
spring tensions, weight, and displacement.
 It is also used in the medical field for the manufacturing of pills. A computer-controlled
hybrid mechanism consisting of primary and secondary windings transducers are used for
this purpose; it reduces human errors and accurately measures the weight and thickness
of the pills.
 They also find its applications in inspecting the quality of flat display panels by monitoring
the waveform at the output terminal of LVDT.
 It is used in ṭhe aerospace industry to monitor various mechanisms like flight control and
pilot control. Various mini-positon transducers are mounted at the fixed positions, and the
 moving core is attached to the moving parts, for example, landing gears. When the landing
gears are moved, the core also displaces from the null position, and various output
electrical signals will provide the angles, lengths, motion, and rate of the moving
depending upon the sensitivity of LVDT and the mounting system.
 It is used in hydraulics for the detection of any leaks or damage to objects that are
submerged in non-corrosive and non-conductive fluids. LVDT sensors are also used in
robotic manipulators.

RVDT:

A Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is an electromechanical transducer that

provides a variable alternating current (AC) output voltage that is linearly proportional to the
angular displacement of its input shaft. A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) is a
type of electrical transformer used for measuring angular displacement. LVDT is an acronym
for Linear Variable Differential Transformer. It measures absolute linear displacement. RVDT is
a Rotary Variable Differential Transformer. It measures absolute rotary angle. The main
function of RVDT is to detect the angular displacement and converts it into an electrical signal.
The both the RVDT and LVDT workings are similar, but LVDT employs the flexible iron core for

displacement measurement whereas in RVDT employs a cam type core.

RVDT Construction and Its Working

RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a normal transformer such as primary winding
and two secondary windings shown in the following RVDT diagram. The two windings of the
transformer wounded, where the two secondary windings have an equivalent number of
windings. These are located on both sides of the primary winding of the transformer. A cam
formed a magnetic core which is made with a soft iron is coupled to a shaft. Thus, this core can
be twisted among the windings. When the excitation is applied to Primary of transformer, the
magnetic field is induced in secondary winding.

The construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are similar but the main difference is the shape
of the core in transformer windings. This core will turn between the two windings of the
transformer due to the shaft.

 When the Core is at Null Position

 When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
 When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
When the Core is at Null Position

In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced e.m.f in the
secondary windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differential o/p potential
will be zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction

In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more section of
the core will enter across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary
winding is higher than secondary winding. Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and
the condition will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = positive.

When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction

In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise, more section of
the core will be entered across the secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f across the
secondary coil is higher than the primary coil. Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative
that means 1800 phase shift, and the condition will be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

The RVDTs have many advantages over other types of sensors. But, there are some
parameters to be considered in selecting the RVDT which include the following.

The advantages of RVDT :

 The consistency of RVDT is high
 The exactness of RVDT is high
 The lifespan is long
 The performance is repeatable
 The construction is compact and strong
 Durability
 Low cost
 Easy to handle electronic components
 Resolution is infinite
 Linearity is Excellent
 A wide range of dimension ranges

The disadvantages of RVDT :

 The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not possible for all time.
 The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it restricts the usability.

Applications

 Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic  Weapon and Torpedo Systems

 Modern machine tools  Engine fuel control
 Controls Cockpit  Nose wheel steering systems
 Controls Fuel  Fly by wire systems
 Brake with cable systems  Push reverser
 Engines bleed air-systems  Actuators for controlling Flight as well as
 Robotics Engine
 Aircraft and Avionics  Ecological control systems
 Process Control industry

MAGNETORESISTIVE SENSOR:
Magnetoresistor: The resistance of some of the metal and the semiconductor
material varies in the presence of the magnetic field, this effect is called the
magnetoresistance. The element which has these effects is known as
the magnetoresistor. In other words, the magnetoresistor is a type of
resistor whose resistance varies with the magnetic field.
Magnetoresistance is the change in resistance corresponding to an applied electric field
because of the effects of a simultaneously applied magnetic field. A magneto resistor can be
used to measure magnetic field presence, strength, and direction. They are also known as
magnetic dependent resistors (MDR). A magneto resistor is a subfamily of magnetic field
sensors or magnetometers. The utilisation of the AMR-effect (“anisotrope magnetoresistive
effect”) is particularly well-known. The resistance in this case is dependent on the angle
between the current direction and the magnetisation (M), which can be influenced through an
external magnetic field. The resistance is smallest at a 90 degree angle and highest when the
current flows in parallel.

The measurements are particularly precise, even under difficult conditions. These sensors are
thus primarily used in extreme conditions.
Working of Magnetoresistive Sensor :
The magnetoresistive sensors are based on the magnetoresistive effect. The magnetoresistive
effect is the change of the resistivity of a current carrying ferromagnetic material due to a
magnetic field. MGR sensor can be called as magnetically controllable resistors

The below figure shows the Magnetoresistive effect.

When the current is passed through the ferromagnetic material the internal magnetisation
vector(M) of the ferromagnetic material is parallel to the current flow. When an external
magnetic field is applied opposite to the direction of the current flow as shown in the figure the
internal magnetisation vector changes its position(M1) by an angle depending on the strength
of the magnetic field. The resistance depends on the angle formed by the internal
magnetisation vector(M) of the ferromagnetic material and the direction of the current(I) flow.
Resistance is largest if the current flow and the internal magnetisation vector are parallel. The
resistance in ferromagnetic material is smallest if the angle is 90° between the current flow and
the internal magnetisation vector.

Normally 4 sensors are connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration to form a complete

MGR sensor with each resistor arranged to maximize sensitivity and minimize temperature
influences. In the presence of a magnetic field, the values of the resistors change, causing a
bridge imbalance and generating an output voltage proportional to the magnetic field strength.
The Wheatstone bridge configuration provides reduction of temperature drift and doubles the
signal output
Advantages of Magnetoresistive sensors:
 Non contact operation so there is no wear and friction. Hence unlimited number of
operating cycles
 high reliability due to their rugged construction
 Low and stable offset
 Due to its high sensitivity it can be used to measure weak magnetic fields
 Low sensitivity to mechanical stress
 Much more Insensitive to vibrations than inductive sensors
 high operating temperature
 Wide operating frequency range (0 Hz to 1 MHz)
 Can be used in harsh environments
 Reasonable cost
 Can measure zero speed
 Small size
 Fast response

Disadvantages of Magnetoresistive sensors:

 Sensitive to interfering magnetic fields. Very strong magnetic field can damage the
sensor
 Temperature drift
 Limited linear range
 Poor temperature characteristics
Some of the applications of Magnetoresistive sensor are
 Wheel speed sensors
 Angle measurement
 Linear displacement measurement
 Current measurement
 Earth magnetic field detection for compass and navigation applications
 Metal detection
 Magnetic field measurement
 The magnetoresistor is used for determining the presence of a magnetic field their strength
and the direction of the force. It is made of the indium antimonide or indium
arsenide semiconductor material.
 The resistance of the magneto resistor is directly proportional to the magnetic field, i.e.,
their resistance raises with the increase of the magnetic field. The variation in resistance
occurs because of the magneto effect.
 The magnetoresistor operates without physical contacts which is their major advantage.
The magnetoresistor has various applications like it is used in the hard disk of the
computer, an electronic compass, for measuring the current etc.
 Characteristic of Magnetoresistor

 The sensitivity of the magnetoresistor

depends on the strength of the magnetic
 field. The characteristic curve of the magneto resistor is shown in the figure below.
 In the absence of the magnetic field, the magnetization of the element becomes zero. When
the magnetic field slightly increases the resistance of the material reaches near to b. The
magnetoresistor element moves by an angle of 45º because of the presence of a magnetic
field.
 The further increases in the magnetic field make the curve saturates, which is represented
by the point C. The magnetoresistive element either operates at O or at b. It gives linear
characteristic when operates at b.

Types of Magneto resistor

 The magnetoresistor is classified into three categories.

 Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) – In this effect, the resistance of the magneto resistor
becomes small when their ferromagnetic layers are parallel to each other. The resistance
becomes very high for the antiparallel alignment of the layer. The construction of the GMR
is shown in the figure below.

 Extraordinary Magnetoresistance – In this effect, the resistance of the metal is high in the
absence of magnetic field and low in the presence of a field.
 Tunnel Magneto Resistor – The current will flow from the one ferromagnetic electrode
through the insulator. The magnitude of current flows through the tunnel depends on the
direction of magnetization.

 The current heavy will flows if the magnetisation of the electrodes is parallel to each other.
The antiparallel arrangement increases the resistance between the layer.
Applications of Magnetoresistive Sensors

Magnetoresistive sensors have a myriad of applications in various industries due to their high
sensitivity and accuracy. Here are some key areas where they are commonly used:

1. Automotive Industry: These sensors are used for detecting wheel speed, steering angle,
and transmission gear speed, among other applications. They are crucial in the
functioning of Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) and Electronic Stability Control (ESC)
systems.
2. Data Storage: In hard disk drives, GMR sensors are used to read data. The high
sensitivity of GMR sensors allows for increased data storage density, making them an
essential component in modern computing.
3. Industrial Automation: Magnetoresistive sensors are used for non-contact position
sensing in automated systems, contributing to increased efficiency and safety.
4. Medical Technology: In medical devices, these sensors help in precise measurement
and control. For example, they are used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
machines to measure the magnetic fields.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SENSORS:

Magnetostrictive sensors work on the principle of magnetostriction, a property of ferromagnetic

materials, in which the application of a magnetic field causes strain which results in a change in
the size or shape of the material.

The magnetostrictive effect relates a material’s elastic state to its magnetic state. Nearly all FM
materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and their alloy, exhibit a change in size and shape
resulting from magnetization change. This effect is known as Joule effect.

Joule effect can be understood by considering an FM material consisting of many tiny, oval
shaped, permanent magnets. When the material is not magnetized, the domains are randomly
arranged. If the material is magnetized, the domains are oriented with their axes approximately
parallel to one another.

As a result, the overall dimension of the material changes (expands or contracts, depending on
the direction of the magnetic field applied) Additional magnetostrictive effects
are Wiedemann and Matteuci effects. When a current carrying FM rod is placed in a
longitudinal magnetic field, the rod experiences twisting. This phenomenon is called
Wiedemann effect. Inversely, twisting a magnetostrictive element or a magnetized wire
causes a change in magnetization (Matteuci effect).

Inversely, applying a force to an FM material will cause a change in its magnetization. This
effect is called Villari effect.
Magnetostrictive Sensor Working Principle

A magnetostrictive sensor operates based on Joule, Villari, Wiedemann, or Matteuci effect.

On the one hand, the stress created by an applied force or torque alters the permeability of a
magnetostrictive material, causing its magnetization change; on the other, an applied magnetic
field changes the magnetic state of a magnetostrictive material, resulting in a variation in its
elastic constant. Depending on whether an excitation is used in the measurement,
magnetostrictive sensors can be classified as active, passive, or hybrid sensors. Active
sensors use an internal excitation of the magnetostrictive element to facilitate the
measurement. Passive sensors “passively” rely on the change in the magnetostrictive material
properties to perform the measurement. Hybrid sensors use a magnetostrictive element to

actively excite or change another magnetostrictive element to make the measurement.

The main components of the magnetostrictive sensor are

 Waveguide  Electronics
 Strain pulse detection system
 Position magnet  Damping module
The basic part of the magnetostrictive sensor is the sensing element called the waveguide. The
waveguide is made of ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys. The
position magnet which is round in shape moves around this waveguide.

Initially when position has to be determined the sensor electronics sends a current pulse called
the interrogation pulse through the waveguide and starts the timer. So a magnetic field is
created around the waveguide. When the magnetic field of the position magnet interacts with
the magnetic file around the waveguide a strain pulse is generated which travels at the speed
of sound on both sides.

On one side this strain pulse is detected by the strain pulse detection system and then
processed by the electronics and converted into electrical pulse. The position is determined
based on the time the strain pulse takes to reach the strain pulse detection system. The un
useful pulse which travels opposite to the electronics is damped by damping module to prevent
any interference by reflections from the waveguide tip.

Voice coil actuators:

Voice coil actuators (VCAs) are a type of direct-drive, linear motor that generate precise,
controlled linear motion. They have numerous applications in industries such as robotics,
aerospace, and medical equipment. In this article, we will explore the working principles, types,
and advantages of voice coil actuators.
Working Principle of Voice Coil Actuators
A voice coil actuator consists of three main components: the voice coil, the permanent magnet,
and the magnetically permeable core. The voice coil is a coil of wire, typically made of copper,
wound around a bobbin. The permanent magnet generates a static magnetic field, while the
core is used to concentrate the magnetic flux and provide a low-reluctance path for the flux
lines.
When an electric current flows through the voice coil, it produces a magnetic field. This
magnetic field interacts with the static magnetic field generated by the permanent magnet,
creating a force. The direction and magnitude of this force are determined by the direction and
magnitude of the current flowing through the voice coil. This force is then transferred to the
load, causing it to move in a linear motion.
Types of Voice Coil Actuators
There are two main types of voice coil actuators: moving magnet and moving coil. In both
types, the basic working principle remains the same, but the construction and arrangement of
components differ.
Moving Magnet VCAs : In a moving magnet VCA, the voice coil is stationary, while the
permanent magnet is attached to the moving part of the actuator. This design has a lower
moving mass and reduced inertia, allowing for faster response times and higher acceleration
rates. However, the moving magnet design may be more susceptible to external magnetic
fields and may require additional shielding.

Moving Coil VCAs : In a moving coil VCA, the permanent magnet is stationary, while the
voice coil is attached to the moving part of the actuator. This design has the advantage of
better heat dissipation, as the heat generated in the voice coil can be easily transferred to the
surrounding environment. However, the moving coil design generally has a higher moving
mass and inertia, which may result in slower response times and lower acceleration rates
compared to moving magnet VCAs.
Advantages of Voice Coil Actuators
Voice coil actuators offer several advantages over other types of linear actuators, such as:
 High precision: VCAs are capable of providing extremely precise positioning and control,
with resolutions down to the nanometer range.
 Fast response: Due to their low moving mass and direct-drive design, VCAs can
achieve very high acceleration rates and fast response times.
 Long life: With no mechanical contact between the moving parts, VCAs have a long
operational life and require minimal maintenance.
 Wide force range: The force generated by VCAs can be easily controlled by adjusting
the current supplied to the voice coil, allowing for a wide range of forces to be produced.