Optical Sensors

The main principle of optical sensors is the transmission and reception of light. The
light reflected or interrupted by the target object is evaluated by several types of optical
devices based on the type of material, such as wood, metal, plastic, transparent, or
colored product.
Different types of light sources are used in optical sensors, which must be monochromatic,
long-lasting, and compact. The two common types of light sources are Light Emitting
Diodes (LEDs) and Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation (LASER).
Optical sensors are either placed externally or internally in a device. External optical
sensors, also known as extrinsic sensors, gather and transmit a required quantity of light.
In contrast, internal or intrinsic sensors are commonly used to measure the bend and
other changes regarding the direction of light. Intrinsic sensors are typically embedded
within an optical fiber or other devices.
Based on the application, different types of optical sensors are used. For instance,
in photoconductive devices, optical sensors measure the resistance by converting a
change in incident light to a change of resistance.
The sensors convert the incident light into an output voltage in solar cells. A
photodiode converts the incident light to the output current. The function of a
phototransistor, a type of bipolar transistor, is similar to a photodiode but with an internal
gain. Some of the common types of optical sensors are discussed below.

Through-beam Sensor

Through-beam sensors transmit the light beam only in a single direction. In this sensor,
both the sender & receiver are arranged in different housings & there is no return of the
light. This kind of sensor is common as compared to retro-reflective type sensors because
both the transmitter & receiver of this sensor are contained within a single unit. This sensor
detects objects once it interrupts the light ray in between the two sensors.

Through Beam Type Sensor

The main benefits of using this thru-beam sensor are, that it is a very accurate type and its
detecting range is high. So these sensors are the best choice to use in a dirty environment
also.

Retro Reflective Sensor

In these types of sensors, both the transmitter & receiver are arranged within a single unit.
The light ray is transmitted to the reflector and it will be returned back to the light receiving
element. Once a target is available in between these two, then the light is interrupted.
These sensors are used on a conveyor belt to detect objects.
 Retroreflective Type

This sensor is very affordable and less accurate as compared to thru-beam sensors.
These sensors are suitable to use when transparent or clear products need to be detected.

Diffuse Reflection Sensors

In these types of sensors, the transmitter & receiver are arranged within a single housing.
Not like the retro-reflective, this sensor uses the target object like the reflector rather than
using an installed reflector. When selecting this sensor, the detecting range as well as the
reflection angle must be considered. This sensor detects objects once the light beam is
transmitted in the direction of the target & is reflected back by the target toward the sensor.

Diffuse Reflection Sensor

These sensors are very easy to install because everything is built-in this device. These are
less accurate as compared to thru-beam & retroreflective sensors once used to detect
position. Additionally, these sensors are affected by texture, color, the position of incidents,
dirty environments, characteristics of the target, etc.

Photodiode sensor
A photodiode is an active component that converts light into an electrical voltage

(photovoltaic effect) or photocurrent.

Photodiode : Working Principle & Its Characteristics

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an
electric current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-
sensor. These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means
that the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery,
and the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very
sensitive to light so when light falls on the diode it easily changes light into an electric
current. The solar cell is also branded as a large-area photodiode because it converts
solar energy into electric energy.
 Photodiode comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and also surface areas. These
diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode increases.
Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that they may be either visible
to let light reach the delicate part of the device.
Types of Photodiode
Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market and they all
work on the same basic principles, though some are improved by other effects. The
working of different types of photodiodes works in a slightly different way, but the basic
operation of these diodes remains the same. The types of photodiodes can be classified
based on their construction and functions as follows.
 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode
PN Photodiode
The first developed type of photodiode is the PN type. As compared with other
types, its performance is not advanced, but at present, it is used in several applications.
The photodetection mainly happens in the depletion region of the diode. This diode is quite
small but its sensitivity is not great as compared with others
PIN Photodiode
At present, the most commonly used photodiode is a PIN type. This diode gathers
the light photons more powerfully as compared with standard PN photodiode because the
wide intrinsic area between the P and N regions allows for more light to be collected, and
in addition to this, it also offers a lower capacitance.
Avalanche Photodiode
This kind of diode is used in low light areas due to its high gain levels. It generates
high levels of noise. So this technology is not appropriate for all applications.
Schottky Photo Diode
The Schottky photodiode uses the Schottky diode, and it includes a small diode
junction that means, there is small junction capacitance so, it operates at high speeds.
Thus, this kind of photodiode is frequently utilized in high bandwidth (BW) optical
communication systems like fiber-optic links. Please refer to this link to know more about
the Schottky diode.
Each type of photodiode has its own benefits and drawbacks. The selection of this diode
can be done based on the application. The different parameters to be considered while
selecting photodiode include noise, wavelength, reverse bias constraints, gain, etc. The
performance parameters of photodiode include responsivity, quantum efficiency, transit
time or response time.
These diodes are widely used in applications where the detection of the presence of light,
color, position, the intensity is required. The main features of these diodes include the
following.
 The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light
 Noise is low.
 The response is wide spectral
 Rugged mechanically
 Lightweight and compact
 Long life
 The required materials to make a photodiode and the range of electromagnetic spectrum
wavelength range includes the following
 For silicon material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be (190-1100)
nm
 For Germanium material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be (400-
1700) nm
 For Indium gallium arsenide material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range
will be (800-2600) nm
 For Lead (II) sulfide material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range will be
<1000-3500) nm
 For Mercury, cadmium Telluride material, the electromagnetic spectrum wavelength
range will be (400-14000) nm
Because of their better bandgap, Si-based photodiodes produce lower noise than Ge-
based photodiodes.
Construction
The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. In this
design, the formation of P-type material can be done from the diffusion of the P-type
substrate which is lightly doped. So, the P+ ions layer can be formed because of the
diffusion method. On the substrate of N-type, the N-type epitaxial layer can be
grown.

Photodiode Construction
The development of a P+ diffusion layer can be done over the heavily doped N-type
epitaxial layer. The contacts are designed with metals to make two terminals like anode
and cathode. The front region of the diode can be separated into two types like active &
non-active surfaces.
The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon dioxide (SiO2). On an
active surface, the light rays can strike over it whereas, on a non-active surface, the light
rays cannot strike. & the active surface can be covered through the material of anti-
reflection so that the energy of light cannot lose and the highest of it can be changed into
the current.
Working of Photodiode
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the
carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the
sum of the absence of light and the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced
to maximize the sensitivity of the device.
A photodiode always works in reverse biased condition. That is the n region of the
semiconductor is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the p region of the
semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

When the photodiode is exposed to light, the

electrons from n region moves towards the
positive terminal and holes from the p region
move towards the negative terminal. Thus a
photocurrent is produced which is proportional
to the intensity of light. It is called the
photoelectric effect.

Modes of Operation
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic
mode, Photoconductive mode, an avalanche diode mode
Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero-bias mode, in which a voltage is
produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear
necessity of the voltage formed.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more
usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer’s
width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction capacitance. This mode is
too fast and displays electronic noise
Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition,
which permits the multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced
electron-hole pair. This outcome is an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly
increases the device response.
V-I Characteristics of Photodiode
A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The characteristics of the
photodiode are shown clearly in the following figure, that the photocurrent is nearly
independent of reverse bias voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent
is almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano amperes. As
optical power rises the photocurrent also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is
incomplete by the power dissipation of the photodiode.
Why is Photodiode Operated in Reverse Bias?
When the diode is connected in reverse bias, then the depletion layer width can be
increased. So this will diminish the capacitance of the junction & the response time. In fact,
this biasing will cause quicker response times for the diode. So the relation between
photocurrent & illuminance is linearly proportional.

The advantages of photodiode:

 Less resistance
 Quick and high operation speed
 Long life span.
 Fastest photodetector.
 Spectral response is good.
 Doesn’t use high voltage.
 Frequency response is good.
 Solid and low-weight.
 It is extremely responsive to the light.
 Dark current is less.
 High quantum efficiency.
 Less noise.
The disadvantages of photodiode:
 Temperature stability is poor.
 Change within current is extremely little, therefore may not be enough to drive the
circuit.
 The active area is small.
 Usual PN junction photodiode includes a high response time.
 It has less sensitivity.
 It mainly works by depending on the temperature.
 It uses offset voltage.
Applications of Photodiode
 The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of photodetectors like
charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact
disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in
science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than
photoconductors.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas
monitors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and
hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.
Phototransistor :
A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component
which relies on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse
current flows which is proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used extensively
to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical signals. These are operated by
light rather than electric current. Providing a large amount of gain, low cost and these
phototransistors might be used in numerous applications.
It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in
a similar way to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but are
able to produce both current and voltage while photoresistors are only capable of
producing current due to change in resistance.
Phototransistors are transistors with the base terminal exposed. Instead of sending
current into the base, the photons from striking light activate the transistor. This is because
a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses on the energy that is
passed through it. These are activated by light particles and are used in virtually all
electronic devices that depend on light in some way. All silicon photosensors
(phototransistors) respond to the entire visible radiation range as well as to infrared. In
fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlington’s, TRIACs, etc. have the same basic radiation
frequency response.
The structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimized for photo applications.
Compared to a normal transistor, a phototransistor has a larger base and collector width
and is made using diffusion or ion implantation.
Construction
A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the base region is
exposed to illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types having different
configurations like common emitter, common collector, and common base but generally,
common emitter configuration is used. It can also work while the base is made open.
Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base and collector areas.

Ancient phototransistors used single semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium
but now a day’s modern components use materials like gallium and arsenide for high-
efficiency levels. The base is the lead responsible for activating the transistor. It is the gate
controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector is the positive lead and the
larger electrical supply. The emitter is the negative lead and the outlet for the larger
electrical supply.

With no light falling on the device there will be a small

current flow due to thermally generated hole-electron
pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be
slightly less than the supply value due to the voltage
drop across the load resistor R. With light falling on the
collector-base junction the current flow increases. With
the base connection open circuit, the collector-base
current must flow in the base-emitter circuit, and hence the current flowing is amplified by
normal transistor action.
The collector-base junction is very sensitive to light. Its working condition depends upon
the intensity of light. The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of
the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several thousand. A
phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a lower level of
noise.
Working of Phototransistor
A normal transistor includes an emitter, base, and collector terminals. The collector
terminal is biased positively relating to the emitter terminal & the BE junction is reverse
biased.
A phototransistor activates once the light strikes the base terminal & the light triggers the
phototransistor by allowing the configuration of hole-electron pairs as well as the current
flow across the emitter or collector. When the current increases, then it is concentrated as
well as changed into voltage. Generally, a phototransistor doesn’t include a base
connection. The base terminal is disconnected as the light is used to allow the flow of
current to supply throughout the phototransistor.
Types of Phototransistor
Phototransistors are classified into two types namely BJT and FET.
BJT Phototransistor
In the deficiency of light, BJT phototransistor allows leakage among collectors as well as
an emitter of 100 nA otherwise low. Once this transistor is exposed to the beam, it
performs upto 50mA. This distinguishes it from photodiode which cannot allow much
current.
FET Phototransistor
This kind of phototransistor includes two terminals that connect inside through its collector
& emitter otherwise source & drain within FET. The transistor’s base terminal reacts to light
& controls the current flow among the terminals.
Amplification
The operation range of a phototransistor mainly depends on the applied light
intensity because its operating range is dependent on the input of the base. The current of
the base terminal from the incident photons can be amplified through the transistor’s gain,
which results in a current gain that ranges from 100 to 1000. A phototransistor is more
sensitive as compared to a photodiode through a less noise level.
Extra amplification can be supplied through a photodarlington-type transistor.
This is a phototransistor including an emitter output that is connected to the base terminal
of the next bipolar transistor. It gives high sensitivity within the levels of low light as it
provides a current gain that is equivalent to the two transistors. The gain of the two stages
can offer net gains higher than 100,000A. A photodarlington transistor includes less
response as compared to a normal phototransistor.
Modes of Operation
In phototransistor circuits, the basic modes of operation include two like active &
switch where the commonly used mode of operation is switch type. It explains a non-linear
response toward the light; once there is no light then there is no flow of current into the
transistor. Current starts to supply like exposure toward light increases. The switch-mode
works in an ON/OFF system. Active mode is also called a linear that reacts in such a way
that, it is proportional toward the light stimulus.
.
 The characteristics of a phototransistor include the following.
 Low-cost visible and near-IR photodetection.
 Available with gains from 100 to over 1500.
 Moderately fast response times.
 Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy-coated, transfer-molded, and
surface mounting technology.
 Electrical characteristics were similar to that of signal transistors.
Advantages of Phototransistor
Phototransistors have several important advantages that separate them from another
optical sensor some of them are mentioned below
 Phototransistors produce a higher current than photodiodes.
 Phototransistors are relatively inexpensive, simple, and small enough to fit several of
them onto a single integrated computer chip.
 Phototransistors are very fast and are capable of providing nearly instantaneous output.
 Phototransistors produce a voltage, that photo-resistors cannot do so.
Disadvantages of Phototransistor
 Phototransistors that are made of silicon are not capable of handling voltages over
1,000 Volts.
 Phototransistors are also more vulnerable to surges and spikes of electricity as well as
electromagnetic energy.
 Phototransistors also do not allow electrons to move as freely as other devices do,
such as electron tubes.
Applications of Phototransistors
The Areas of application for the Phototransistor include:
 Punch-card readers.
 Security systems
 Encoders – measure speed and direction
 IR detectors photo
 electric controls
 Computer logic circuitry.
 Relays
 Lighting control (highways etc)
 Level indication
 Counting systems

Photoresistor
The name photoresistor is the combination of words: photon (light particles) and
resistor. A photoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance decreases when the
intensity of light increases. In other words, the flow of electric current through the
photoresistor increases when the intensity of light increases. Photoresistors are also
sometimes referred as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), semiconductor photoresistor,
photoconductor, or photocell. Photoresistor changes its resistance only when it is exposed
to light.
Working of Photoresistor :
When the light falls on the photoresistor, some of the valence
electrons absorbs energy from the light and breaks the bonding with the atoms. The
valence electrons, which break the bonding with the atoms, are called free electrons.
 When the light energy applied to the photoresistor is highly increased, a large number
of valence electrons gain enough energy from the photons and breaks the bonding with
the parent atoms. The large number of valence electrons, which breaks the bonding
with the parent atoms will jumps into the conduction band.

When the valence electron left the atom, a vacancy is created at a particular
location in an atom from which the electron left. This vacancy is called as hole. Therefore,
the free electrons and holes are generated as pairs.
The free electrons that are moving freely from one place to another place carry the
electric current. In the similar way, the holes moving in the valence band carry electric
current. Likewise, both free electrons and holes will carry electric current. The amount of
electric current flowing through the photoresistor is depends on the number of charge
carriers (free electrons and holes) generated.
When the light energy applied to the photoresistor increases, the number of charge
carriers generated in the photoresistor also increases. As a result, the electric current
flowing through the photoresistor increases.
Increase in electric current means decrease in resistance. Thus, the resistance of
the photoresistor decreases when the intensity of applied light increases.
Photoresistors are made of high resistance semiconductor such as silicon or
germanium. They are also made of other materials such as cadmium sulfide or cadmium
selenide.
In the absence of light, the photoresistors acts as high resistance materials whereas
in the presence of light, the photoresistors acts as low resistance materials.
Photoresistors are classified into two types based on the material used to construct them:
 Intrinsic photoresistor
 Extrinsic photoresistor

Intrinsic photoresistor

Intrinsic photoresistors are made from the pure semiconductor materials such as silicon
or germanium. The outermost shell of any atom is capable to hold up to eight valence
electrons. However, in silicon or germanium, each atom consists of only four valence
electrons. These four valence electrons of each atom form four covalent bonds with the
neighboring four atoms to completely fill the outermost shell. As a result, no electron is left
free.
When we apply light energy to the intrinsic photo resistor, only a small number of
valence electrons gain enough energy and becomes free from the parent atom. Hence, a
small number of charge carriers are generated. As a result, only a small electric current
flows through the intrinsic photo resistor.
 We already have known that increase in electric current means decrease in resistance.
In intrinsic photoresistors, the resistance decreases slightly with the increase in light
energy. Hence, intrinsic photoresistors are less sensitive to the light. Therefore, they are
not reliable for the practical applications.
Extrinsic photoresistor

Extrinsic photoresistors are made from the extrinsic semiconductor materials. Let us
consider an example of extrinsic photoresistor, which is made from the combination of
silicon and impurity (phosphorus) atoms.
Each silicon atom consists of four valence electrons and each phosphorus atom
consists of five valence electrons. The four valence electrons of the phosphorus atom form
four covalent bonds with the neighboring four silicon atoms. However, the fifth valence
electron of the phosphorus atom cannot able to form the covalent bond with the silicon
atom because the silicon atom has only four valence electrons. Hence, the fifth valence
electron of each phosphorus atom becomes free from the atom. Thus, each phosphorus
atom generates a free electron.
The free electron, which is generated will collide with the valence electrons of other
atoms and makes them free. Likewise, a single free electron generates multiple free
electrons. Therefore, adding a small number of impurity (phosphorus) atoms generates
millions of free electrons.

In extrinsic photoresistors, we already have large number of charge carriers. Hence,

providing a small amount of light energy generates even more number of charge carriers.
Thus, the electric current increases rapidly.

Increase in electric current means decrease in resistance. Therefore, the resistance

of the extrinsic photoresistor decreases rapidly with the small increase in applied light
energy. Extrinsic photoresistors are reliable for the practical applications.

The American standard symbol and the international standard symbol of the
photoresistor is shown in the below figure.

Advantages of
photoresistor
 Small in size
 Low cost
 It is easy to carry from one place to another place.
Disadvantages of photoresistor
 The accuracy of photoresistor is very low.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTORESISTOR (LDR)
Photoresistor is a light dependent resistor. When light energy fall on it
the resistance decreases and no fall of light resistance increases. When we kept in dark
the resistance is high in mega ohms. It also called dark resistance. When constant voltage
applied on is and light intensity increases the current starts increasing. The resistance vs
illumination curve for photoresistor is shown in below:

Photodiode and photoresistor are non-liner passive device. Its sensitivity depends
on the wavelength of light. Some photocell or photoresistor are made for certain range of
wavelengths. Based on the material are uses on it. It has different spectral response
curves.
When light is incident on photocell. It usually takes 8 to 12 ms for change in
resistance. While it take one or more second for resistance to rise back again to its initial
value after removal of light and this phenomenon is known a resistance recovery rate. And
it is use in audio compressors. The LDR is less sensitive than photodiode.
The photodiode and photoresistor are not same, a photodiode is a P-N junction diode that
converts light energy to electrical energy while photoresistor is a passive component and it
does not convert light energy to electrical energy.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTORESISTORS
Photoresistors have low cost and simple structure. It is often used as light sensors.
Some application of photoresistor is given below

 It is use in camera light meter for Detect absences or presences of light.

 Used in street lighting for automatic ON and OFF
 Alarm clocks
 Burglar alarm circuits
 Light intensity meters
 It is use SCADA industry to perform functions such as counting the number of
packages on a moving conveyor belt.

Photomultiplier
An electrical device designed for the detection of weak electromagnetic radiation,
usually light, by amplifying the energy of the photons that strike it into stronger electrical
signals. Photomultipliers are used in night-vision technology and in telescopes to detect
light not strong enough to be visible by the unaided eye.♦
The most common photomultiplier is the tube photomultiplier; it exploits
secondary emission of electrons in a vacuum tube in the manner of an electron multiplier.
When radiation strikes the cathode of a tube photomultiplier, electrons
called photoelectrons are emitted and attracted to positively charged electrodes called
 dynodes. When they collide with the dynode, more electrons are released; these are in
turn attracted to another dynode at a higher voltage to release yet more electrons, and so
on. At the end of this process, there is a current flow at the anode that is strong enough to
be easily detected.
Photomultipliers (sometimes called photon multipliers) are a type of photoemissive
detectors which have a very high sensitivity due to an avalanche multiplication process,
and also exhibit a high detection bandwidth.

Construction and Operation Principle of a Photomultiplier

The Tube
A photomultiplier contains various parts in a vacuum glass tube, in which the following
happens:
 Light is absorbed on a photocathode and generates free photoelectrons
(external photoelectric effect).
 The electrons are subsequently accelerated with a high voltage (hundreds of volts) to a
first dynode (an electrode), where they generate several secondary electrons. Those are
accelerated towards further dynodes, where the number of electrons is getting several
times larger each time.
 Finally, a strongly amplified photocurrent is collected with an anode near the last dynode.

Figure 1 shows a typical design (box-

and-grid design) of a photomultiplier tube,
exhibiting a high electron collection efficiency.
A focusing electrode directs most
photoelectrons to the first dynode. The
voltage between two subsequent dynodes is
e.g. 100 V, also between the last dynode and
the anode. The dynodes have a surface which
is optimized for the emission of secondary
electrons – usually a semiconductor like AgMgO, SbCs3, GaP, GaAsP, BeO or oxidized
copper with some beryllium.
There are various other electrode designs for photomultiplier, which can be
optimized concerning various aspects like electron collection efficiency, maximum output
current, uniformity of response over a large active area, detection bandwidth and
sensitivity to magnetic fields, for example. For example, one can use specially curved
focusing electrodes, which reduce the spread of electron transit time for a minimum rise
time and maximum bandwidth. There are certain trade-offs, and therefore one uses
different designs such as box-in-grid, circular, linear-focused, venetian blind and mesh,
depending on the requirements for a specific application.
A very compact form of photomultiplier tubes are microchannel
photomultipliers (MCPs = microchannel plates). These contain a large number of very
narrow channels, only e.g. 1 mm long, in which the electron amplification occurs. They can
exhibit a particularly high detection bandwidth.
In any case, one needs to maintain a high vacuum (typically between 10 −6 Pa and 10−4 Pa)
in a photomultiplier tube.
IR Sensor:

IR technology is used in daily life and also in industries for different purposes. For
example, TVs use an IR sensor to understand the signals which are transmitted from a
remote control. The main benefits of IR sensors are low power usage, their simple design
& their convenient features. IR signals are not noticeable by the human eye. The IR
radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum can be found in the regions of the visible &
microwave. Usually, the wavelengths of these waves range from 0.7 µm 5 to 1000µm. The
IR spectrum can be divided into three regions like near-infrared, mid, and far-infrared. The
near IR region’s wavelength ranges from 0.75 – 3µm, the mid-infrared region’s wavelength
ranges from 3 to 6µm & the far IR region’s infrared radiation’s wavelength is higher than
6µm.
The working principle of an infrared sensor is similar to the object detection sensor. This
sensor includes an IR LED & an IR Photodiode, so by combining these two can be formed
as a photo-coupler otherwise optocoupler. The physics laws used in this sensor are planks
radiation, Stephan Boltzmann & weins displacement.

An infrared (IR) sensor is an electronic device that measures and detects infrared
radiation in its surrounding environment. Infrared radiation was accidentally discovered by
an astronomer named William Herchel in 1800. While measuring the temperature of each
color of light (separated by a prism), he noticed that the temperature just beyond the red
light was highest. IR is invisible to the human eye, as its wavelength is longer than that of
visible light (though it is still on the same electromagnetic spectrum). Anything that emits
heat (everything that has a temperature above around five degrees Kelvin) gives off
infrared radiation.

Once it is used as the combination of an IR transmitter & receiver, then the receiver’s
wavelength must equal the transmitter. Here, the transmitter is IR LED whereas the
receiver is IR photodiode. The infrared photodiode is responsive to the infrared light that is
generated through an infrared LED. The resistance of photo-diode & the change in output
voltage is in proportion to the infrared light obtained. This is the IR sensor’s fundamental
working principle.

IR sensor is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion. Usually, in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal
radiation. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, but infrared sensor can detect
these radiations.
The emitter is simply an IR LED and the detector is simply an IR photodiode .
Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength which is emitted by the IR LED.
When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output voltages will change in
proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared
source, a transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers and
signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific wavelength used as infrared
sources.

The three main types of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere
and optical fibers. Optical components are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the
spectral response.

There are two types of IR sensors :

 Active Infrared Sensor

 Passive Infrared Sensor
Active Infrared Sensor

Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared detector.
Infrared sources include the LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors include
photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the infrared source is reflected by an
object and falls on the infrared detector. Active infrared sensors both emit and detect infrared
radiation. Active IR sensors have two parts: a light emitting diode (LED) and a receiver. When
an object comes close to the sensor, the infrared light from the LED reflects off of the object
and is detected by the receiver. Active IR sensors act as proximity sensors, and they are
commonly used in obstacle detection systems (such as in robots).

Passive Infrared Sensor

Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors. Passive infrared sensors do not use
any infrared source and detector. They are of two types: quantum and thermal. Thermal
infrared sensors use infrared energy as the source of heat. Thermocouples, pyroelectric
detectors and bolometers are the common types of thermal infrared detectors. Quantum type
infrared sensors offer higher detection performance. It is faster than thermal type infrared
detectors. The photo sensitivity of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent.

Passive infrared (PIR) sensors only detect infrared radiation and do not emit it from an LED.
Passive infrared sensors are comprised of:

 Two strips of pyroelectric material (a pyroelectric sensor)

 An infrared filter (that blocks out all other wavelengths of light)
 A fresnel lens (which collects light from many angles into a single point)
 A housing unit (to protect the sensor from other environmental variables, such as
humidity)

PIR sensors are most commonly used in motion-based detection, such as in-home security
systems. When a moving object that generates infrared radiation enters the sensing range of
the detector, the difference in IR levels between the two pyroelectric elements is measured.
The sensor then sends an electronic signal to an embedded computer, which in turn triggers
an alarm.

IR Sensor Working Principle

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths, output power
and response time. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR Photodiode, together they
are called as PhotoCoupler or OptoCoupler.
IR Transmitter or IR LED
 Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations called
as IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the radiation emitted by it is
invisible to the human eye.

IR Receiver or Photodiode

Infrared receivers or infrared sensors detect the radiation from an IR transmitter. IR

receivers come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are
different from normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared radiation.
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc.
When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the receiver
should match with that of the transmitter.
The emitter is an IR LED and the detector is an IR photodiode. The IR photodiode is sensitive to
the IR light emitted by an IR LED. The photo-diode’s resistance and output voltage change in
proportion to the IR light received. This is the underlying working principle of the IR sensor.

When the IR transmitter emits radiation,

it reaches the object and some of the
radiation reflects back to the IR receiver.
Based on the intensity of the reception
by the IR receiver, the output of
the sensor defines.

Applications of IR Sensor

IR sensors use in various projects and also in various electronic devices. They all are as follow,

Night Vision Devices

An Infrared technology implemented in night vision equipment if there is not enough visible
light available to see unaided. Night vision devices convert ambient photons of light into
electrons and then amplify them using a chemical and electrical process before finally
converting them back into visible light.
Radiation Thermometers
IR sensos uses in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the following
features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements

Infrared Tracking
An Infrared tracking or Infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which operates
using the infrared electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target to track it.
IR Imaging Devices
IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its
property that is not visible. It uses for thermal imagers, night vision devices etc.
Other Key Application Areas
Other key application areas that use infrared sensors include:

 Climatology
 Meteorology
 Photobiomodulation
 Flame Monitors
 Gas detectors
 Water analysis
 Moisture Analyzers
 Anesthesiology testing
 Petroleum exploration
 Rail safety
 Gas Analyzers