Chapter 8: Introductions, Questions, and Activities

Eusebius, Early Christian Martyrs

SOURCE: Eusebius. History of the Church, Book 5, Chapter 1. The Ecclesiastical History of
Eusebius Pamphilus, Bishop of Cesarea, In Palestine (Philadelphia, R. Davis and Brother, 1833),
169, 175–179. Ten Volumes, Translated from the original by the Rev. Christian Frederic Crusé,
A.M.

Introductory Note:

This account of the exemplary torment to which the Christians of Lyons, France, were subjected
in 177 CE is evidence that its author was engaged in promoting the courage and nobility of early
Christians in the face of a campaign against them and their faith. However colorful Eusebius's
descriptions, they are profoundly misleading in multiple ways.

First, the tortures Eusebius—the official court historian to Emperor Constantine—describes were
not uniquely used against Christians for reasons of faith and their refusal to honor the gods of the
Roman pantheon, but rather those used for many criminals.

Second, official imperial policy was rarely concerned with Christians. There was no organized
imperial campaign against Christians. In fact, most Roman emperors did not find Christians nor
Christianity much of a threat to their political power. In many cases, local people in different
provinces took the initiative, an early example of mob violence.

Lastly, Eusebius had not been born at the time these events took place, and could not have been
an eyewitness to them. Eusebius uses the events to promote the heroism and conviction of early
Christians as a way to exalt the faith of the new emperor.

Short-Answer Question:

We know that Eusebius could not have been a witness to the events he describes here. Identify
specific instances in the document that indicate this.

Discussion Questions:

Explain how this account may have been influential in the history of early Christianity. What
attributes do Christians possess (according to this author) that make their suffering appear noble?

Why does Eusebius focus on the exemplary courage of Blandina, a slave girl, under torture?
How does her example inspire the other victims?

How can we tell that the author of this text was himself a devout Christian? Evaluate the imagery
he used to describe the struggles of the accused. How does he describe their persecutors? What
motivates them to maintain their faith despite the torments to which they are being subjected?

Activity Idea:
Imagine that you are living at the time Eusebius was writing. If you read this passage, how much
of it would you believe? What would you be skeptical about? Write a short review (about one
page) of Eusebius's work, either recommending it to your peers to read or advising them to steer
clear.

Saint Augustine, The Confessions

SOURCE: The works of Aurelius Augustine, Bishop of Hippo: a new translation. Rev. Marcus
Dods, ed. (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1872) 15 volumes, multiple translators. Pages 240, 241.
Excerpts from The Confessions (translated by J. G. Pilkington).

Introductory Note:

The significance of St. Augustine on the development of Christianity as moral philosophy and
practice can hardly be overstated. His extensive works are meditations on philosophy and
theology, and, in many ways, serve as a bridge between the ancient and the early medieval
western worlds. He wrote at a time when Christianity was no longer forbidden, having been
embraced by Emperor Constantine. But Christian theology—as it developed—was fluid, and
doctrinal debates and tensions were never settled. Augustine's works shaped what we think of as
Christian orthodoxy, even as he engaged traditions associated with the ancient world. His ideas
about Christianity were shaped by his knowledge of Greek and Roman philosophy. In these
passages from The Confessions, Constantine meditates on the meaning and purpose of
confession.

Short-Answer Question:

How does this passage express Augustine's conception of the relationship between sin,
forgiveness, and redemption?

Discussion Questions:

What metaphors does Augustine employ to illustrate his commitment to and understanding of
Christianity? What are the benefits of his confessions—for himself as well as others? What does
he think can be learned from them?

Activity Idea:

In this passage, Augustine uses some fairly poetic language and descriptive imagery. Rethink
Augustine's ideas as a song. What would the genre be? What might be some lyrics? If you were
to direct a music video, what types of images or actions would you include as the visual
component? Spend a few minutes writing down or sketching your ideas, then share with a
classmate. How were your ideas similar? How were they different?
Faxian

SOURCE: Fa-Hsien, A Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886),
translated by James Legge.

Introductory Note:

Faxian (Fa-Hsien) was a devout Buddhist monk who made a pilgrimage to India, the birthplace
of Buddhism, from 399 to 412 CE in order to collect scriptures and develop a deeper
understanding of how Buddhism was practiced and understood in India and elsewhere. Upon his
return, Faxian devoted the rest of life to translating Buddhist scriptures, which is believed to
have led to the expansion of Buddhist knowledge and practice in China, as well as a tradition of
pilgrimage that led to stronger ties between people in China and India.

In this excerpt, Faxian describes some miraculous events and provides a type of ethnography of
Indian Buddhist practices. The account also hints at the diffusion of Buddhism to the west and
describes forms of worship involving relics.

Short-Answer Questions:

What is the main focus of Faxian's descriptions of Indian Buddhist rituals? How is the power of
Buddhist faith expressed here?

Discussion Questions:

Explain why Buddhist worship involves incense and flowers. What do you think they symbolize?

What do you think about the miraculous events Faxian describes? How did he acquire
knowledge of these events?

In this account, does Buddhism seem more like a religion or a philosophy? How does this
account help us to understand the spread of Buddhism and the ways in which it might have
changed or been adapted by different peoples?

Activity Idea:

How did rulers acknowledge the power of Buddhist monks? How is the political power of
Buddhism expressed here? Imagine a dialogue between Faxian and some of the local people he
encountered on this pilgrimage. What questions might he have asked? What questions might
local people have asked him? Spend a few minutes writing down your dialogue, and then share
with a classmate.

Relief with Enthroned Ruler, 770s CE

SOURCE: Metropolitan Museum of Art, released into the public domain.

Introductory Note:

This panel, believed to have been carved sometime in the 770s CE, was recovered from a site in
modern-day Guatemala. It has retained so much of the original pigment, which allows a viewer
to get a sense of how vivid and bright the original panel was and how it would have been
perceived by people at the time. One of the figures on this panel is believed to represent a sajal, a
provincial lord of a lesser Maya kingdom caught between the power struggles of two larger and
more powerful kingdoms, Yaxchilan to the north and Piedras Negras to the south.

These power struggles unfolded over several centuries sometime between 300–900 CE, falling
within the "classic" Maya period. In this case, the struggles of these two powerful dynasties were
characterized not by open warfare and efforts at total domination, but through shifting alliances,
diplomacy, strategic marriages, and minor conflicts with leaders of smaller communities. This
carved panel could signify an alliance between two kingdoms, with the smaller and less powerful
accepting its subordination.

Short-Answer Questions:

How does this image suggest a negotiation or alliance? What specific features on this panel
indicate that one of the figures is more powerful than the others? How does this carving serve to
memorialize a political event?

Discussion Questions:

How do the clothing and ornaments in this image indicate wealth and political power? Why
would rulers, male and female, commission this type of carving? Where were they likely to be
displayed?

Discuss how Maya rulers expressed their power and authority. How do they use certain symbols
and ritual behavior to emphasize their right to rule? How do they express their connection to the
power of the divine? What does that suggest about their worldview and the maintenance of a
relationship between humans and gods?

Activity Idea:

Imagine that you are from a Maya community in northwestern Guatemala. Why would you
accept the royal authority of Maya kings and queens? Why might you reject it? What options
would you have? Write a short scene depicting a discussion between yourself and a Mayan
friend, in which you discuss the royals and how you feel about their authority.