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 This is strictly for
EDUCATIONAL and CLASS
USE only.
OBJECTIVES

The learners demonstrate an

understanding of…
1. concept of a system
2. physical and chemical properties of
minerals
3. common rock-forming minerals
4. mineral classification based on
chemical affinity
Prentice Hall

Tarbuck Lutgens
Earth’s Systems
A View of Earth

Earth's Major Spheres

1. Hydrosphere
• Ocean is the most prominent feature of the
hydrosphere.
- Is nearly 71% of Earth's surface
- Holds about 97% of Earth's water
• Also includes fresh water found in streams,
lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found
underground
A View of Earth

Earth's Major Spheres

2. Atmosphere
• Thin, tenuous blanket of air
• One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)
3. Biosphere
• Includes all life
• Concentrated near the surface in a zone that
extends from the ocean floor upward for
several kilometers into the atmosphere
A View of Earth

Earth's Major Spheres

4. Geosphere
• Based on compositional differences, it
consists of the crust, mantle, and core.
- Crust—the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth.
- Mantle—the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of
Earth located below the crust.
- Core—the innermost layer of Earth, located
beneath the mantle.
Minerals
Minerals

Definition of a Mineral
1. Naturally occurring
2. Solid substance
3. Orderly crystalline structure
4. Definite chemical composition
5. Generally considered inorganic
Minerals

How Minerals Form

1. Crystallization from magma
2. Precipitation
3. Pressure and temperature
4. Hydrothermal solutions
Minerals Formed as a Result of
Crystallization of Magma
Minerals

Mineral Groups
 Can be classified based on their
composition
1. Silicates
• Silicon and oxygen combine to form a structure
called the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. This
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron provides the
framework of every silicate mineral.
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron
Minerals

Mineral Groups
2. Carbonates
• Minerals that contain the elements carbon,
oxygen, and one or more other metallic
elements
3. Oxides
• Minerals that contain oxygen anion (O2-) and
one or more other elements, which are usually
metals
Minerals

Mineral Groups
4. Sulfates (SO4)- and Sulfides (S2)-
• Minerals that contain the element sulfur
5. Halides
• Minerals that contain a halogen ion plus one or
more other elements
6. Native elements
• Minerals that exist in relatively pure form
Sulfides
Native Copper
Properties of Minerals

Color
 Small amounts of different elements can
give the same mineral different colors.
Properties of Minerals

Streak
 Streak is the color of a mineral in its
powdered form.
Properties of Minerals

Luster
 Luster is used to describe how light is
reflected from the surface of a mineral.
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine
(brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky,
pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc.
Pyrite (Fool’s Gold) Displays
Metallic Luster.
Properties of Minerals

Crystal Form
 Crystal form is the visible expression
of a mineral’s internal arrangement of
atoms.
Quartz Often Exhibits
Good Crystal Form.
Properties of Minerals

Hardness
 Hardness is a measure of the resistance
of a mineral (not specifically surface) to
abrasion.
 Mohs scale consists of 10 minerals
arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest).
Mohs Scale of Hardness
Properties of Minerals

Cleavage
 Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to
cleave, or break, along flat, even
surfaces.
Mica Has Cleavage in One Direction
Properties of Minerals

Fracture
 Minerals that do not show cleavage
when broken are said to fracture.
 Fracture—the uneven breakage of
a mineral
Conchoidal Fracture
Properties of Minerals

Density
 Density is a property of all matter that
is the ratio of an object’s mass to its
volume.
Properties of Minerals

Distinctive Properties of Minerals

 Some minerals can be recognized by
other distinctive properties.
The Rock Cycle

Rocks
 Rocks are any solid mass of mineral or
mineral-like matter occurring naturally
as part of our planet.
 Types of Rocks
1. Igneous rock is formed by the crystallization
of molten magma.
The Rock Cycle

Rocks
 Types of Rocks
2. Sedimentary rock is formed from the
weathered products of preexisting rocks that
have been transported, deposited, compacted,
and cemented.
3. Metamorphic rock is formed by the alteration
of pre-existing rock deep within Earth (but still
in the solid state) by heat, pressure, and/or
chemically active fluids.
The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle

 Shows the interrelationships among the three
rock types (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic)
 Magma is molten material that forms deep
beneath the Earth’s surface.
 Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
 Weathering is a process in which rocks are
broken down by water, air, and living things.
 Sediment is weathered pieces of Earth
elements.
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle

Energy That Drives the Rock Cycle

 Processes driven by heat from the Earth’s
interior are responsible for forming both
igneous rock and metamorphic rock.
 Weathering and the movement of weathered
materials are external processes powered by
energy from the sun.
 External processes produce sedimentary
rocks.
Igneous Rocks

Formation of Igneous Rocks

1. Intrusive igneous rocks are formed
when magma hardens beneath Earth’s
surface.
2. Extrusive igneous rocks are formed
when lava hardens.
Igneous Rocks

Classification of Igneous Rocks

 Igneous rocks can be classified based
on their composition and texture.
1. Texture
• Coarse-grained texture is caused by slow
cooling resulting in larger crystals.
• Fine-grained texture is caused by rapid
cooling resulting in smaller, interconnected
mineral grains.
Course-Grained Igneous Texture
Fine-Grained Igneous Texture
Igneous Rocks

Classification of Igneous Rocks

1. Texture (continued)
• Glassy texture is caused by very rapid cooling.
• Porphyritic texture is caused by different rates
of cooling resulting in varied sized minerals.
2. Composition
• Granitic composition rocks are made mostly
of light-colored quartz and feldspar.
Obsidian Exhibits a Glassy Texture.
Porphyritic Igneous Texture
Igneous Rocks

Classification of Igneous Rocks

2. Composition (continued)
• Basaltic composition rocks are made mostly
of dark-colored silicate minerals and
plagioclase feldspar.
• Andesitic composition rocks are between
granitic light-color minerals and basaltic
composition dark-colored minerals.
• Ultramafic composition rocks are made mostly
from iron and magnesium-rich minerals.
Basalt
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

 Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
• Erosion involves the weathering and the
removal of rock.
• Deposition occurs when an agent of
erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses
energy and drops sediments.
Sedimentary Rocks

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

 Compaction and Cementation
• Compaction is a process that squeezes, or
compacts, sediments.
• Cementation takes place when dissolved
minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces
among the sediments.
Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

 Two Main Groups
1. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed
of weathered bits of rocks and minerals.
• Classified by particle size
• Common rocks include
- Shale (most abundant)
- Sandstone
- Conglomerate
Shale with Plant Fossils
Conglomerate
Sedimentary Rocks

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

 Two Main Groups
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks form when
dissolved substances precipitate, or separate,
from water.
• Common rocks include
- limestone—most abundant chemical rock
- microcrystalline quartz known as chert, flint,
jasper, or agate
- evaporites such as rock salt or gypsum
- coal
Fossiliferous Limestone
 Classification of
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks

Features of Some Sedimentary Rocks

 Features of sedimentary rocks are clues
to how and where the rocks are formed
Metamorphic Rocks

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

 Metamorphism means “to change
form.”
 Most metamorphic changes occur at
elevated temperatures and pressures.
 Conditions for formation are found a few
kilometers below the Earth’s surface and
extend into the upper mantle.
Metamorphic Rocks

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

 Contact metamorphism occurs when
magma moves into rock.
• Occurs near a body of magma
• Changes are driven by a rise in temperature.
Metamorphic Rocks

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

 Regional metamorphism results in
large-scale deformation and high-grade
metamorphism.
• Directed pressures and high temperatures
occur during mountain building.
• Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic
rock
Metamorphic Rocks

Agents of Metamorphism
 Heat
• Provides the energy needed to drive chemical
reactions
 Pressure
• Causes a more compact rock with greater
density
Origin of Pressure in
Metamorphism
Metamorphic Rocks

Agents of Metamorphism
 Hydrothermal Solutions
• Hot water-based solutions escaping from the
mass of magma
• Promote recrystallization by dissolving original
minerals and then depositing new ones
Metamorphic Rocks

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

 Two main categories
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rock
• Has a banded or layered appearance
2. Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock
• Does not have a banded texture
 Classification of
Metamorphic Rocks
Gneiss Typically Displays a
Banded Appearance
Marble—A Nonfoliated
Metamorphic Rock
Supplementary Materials

A Brief Introduction to Minerals

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8a7p1NFn64s

Introduction to Minerals (2019)

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fnHgMLJq7VI
Sources

Commission on Higher Education, 2016. Earth and Life

Science.
Tarbuck & Lutgens. (n.d.). Earth science [PowerPoint
slides]. Prentice Hall.