AN ASSESSMENT OF JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS

(CASE STUDY OF LAGOS, NIGERIA)

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Rural-urban migration in Nigeria take place or occur with the migration of rural residents,
many of them young men and women in search of greener pastures in the city. The movement in
the direction of traditional pre-colonial centers, Lagos, and the cities of the South South region of
eastern Nigeria is due largely to the possibilities of employment, to glee in the "good life”, pious
study, trade and the apprentice and agriculture along the parts of the river basin.
Rural areas are a key sector in the economy of each nation and their rapid development
and modernization have drawn the attention of policy makers and governments worldwide.
Indeed, a large majority of the population lives there so; the country's future depends largely on
it.
The US Census Bureau classifies a group of people living in a community with a
population of more than 2,500 rural, while in Nigeria, the Federal Statistical Office defines a less
than 20,000 people that rural community. According Afolayan (2005), rural areas can be
straightforwardly recognized by numerous criteria, apart from the population. These criteria
include the level of development of infrastructure ie roads, educational institutions, water supply,
electricity, health amenities, communication, etc. Other benchmarks used take account of
occupancy, housing, extent of community planning, etc.
In general, rural populations are less vocal, considered by an ethos of poverty, as most
individuals live only just above survival level (Laah, 2013). Rural regions in unindustrialized
countries are in general deprived of the basic necessities of life such as housing, medical care,
postal communication, education, transport, etc.
Unambiguously, rural regions speak of geographical areas that lie outside the densely
built environment of cities, towns and villages, urban sub whose inhabitants are mainly engaged
in agriculture, and the most basic of the rudimentary form of secondary and tertiary activities
(Ezeah, 2005). Rural area, which is the opposite of an urban area, refers to the country whose
population mainly engages in primary production activities such as agriculture, fishing and
livestock (Ele, 2006). About 90 percent of the active population of the rural workforce involves
unswervingly on the other hand in a roundabout way in horticulture (Nyagba, 2009).The
provincial division of Nigeria is very vital to the socioeconomic development of the nation.
According Nyagba (2009), the largest sector of the Nigerian population is rural. Indeed, the rural
sector is the fundamental wellspring of capital arrangement for the nation and a major market for
domestic materials and raw materials for industrial processes (Ugwuanyi and Emma, 2013). The
inhabitants of the rural area were found to exert primary economic activities that form the basis
for the country's economic development (Abah, 2010).
Considering the contribution of the rural sector to the national economy, improving the
development of the sector should be at the center of government what's more, open organization.
This is fundamental in that capacity would further strengthen the sector's capacity for better
contribution to overall national growth and development. In most countries, the development is
most eager in rural areas where most of the populace lives. The advancement of rural regions
reported a greater extent the level of national development and the state of affairs of the nation-
state growth.
Migration has been a significant source of human survival, adaptation and growth
through the centuries and millennia. This was true in the early days of human existence, when
hunters and gatherers roamed as individuals and groups across Africa to Eurasia and then
through the Bering Strait into North America and South America (Castles and Miller, 2010).

Rural development has been described in different ways by different authors, according
to the discipline or line of thought. Indeed, the rural development approach is multidisciplinary.
According to Aslam (2013) rural improvement is a progression pointed at developing the rural
poor, their economy and institutions of a state of stagnation or low productivity equilibrium in
the dynamic process leading to higher living standards and a better quality of life. Similarly,
Schumacher (2013) defined the rural development by developing the skills of the masses for self-
making through instructions that provide appropriate and relevant knowledge on self -help
methods. Rural development is a strategy to improve economic what's more, social existence of a
particular gathering of individuals, the rustic poor.
It involves extending the progress of development and benefits people who seek a livelihood in
rural areas such as small farmers, tenants, etc., to improve their livelihoods and reduce the
exodus massive rural (Aliy, 1999). The rural exodus occurs at different levels in all countries.
However, the challenges and opportunities for rural development in Nigeria have been of great
concern for the various levels of government because of the rate of rural-urban migration.
Different patterns represent the rural exodus among rural residents such as socio-cultural issues
where people are forced to migrate to avoid many social problems to their place of origin
(Agyemang, 2013), the development of poor infrastructure and lack of basic amenities, looking
for better economic opportunities such as employment, etc. accessibility and ease of transport
and communication was also noted for facilitating the rural exodus, this view is based on the
expansion of road networks of large cities to rural and urban bordering regions which stemmed
in the decline transport costs and improved communication systems.

Before colonialism in Nigeria, extended families lived a communal life. They carried out their
daily activities as well as in the agreement and shared their return following a properly
understood custom. Colonialism exposed Nigerians in the international market through the
introduction of cash crops and the creation of administrative offices in the planned areas that
need investment in socio-economic infrastructure in these areas. This has stimulated the search
for paid employment and migration of labor in these areas and therefore caused the beginning of
the rural-urban migration in Nigeria. '' This has led to increased migration to new cities such as
Lagos, etc: inexpert work was needed to menial jobs in the urban centers of the colonial
administration '' (Nwanna, 2004). The theory behind this study is the Todaro model of migration.
This theory provides a theoretical basis for understanding the rural exodus. It provides an
overview of why migration occurs. According to Todaro (1997), migration is an economical
choice where individuals or households decide to migrate from rural to urban areas, where a
higher expected income in urban areas. This model suggests that the results of the migration in
retort to urban-rural variations in expected rather than actual income. The basic principle is that
migrants deliberate on the different perspectives of the labor market that are accessible between
rural and urban areas, and select the one that make the most of their anticipated gains from
migration. Due to the creation of urban centers by the colonial administration, urban centers have
become more attractive to young people in large numbers from the use of superior quality and
other socio-economic amenities, it resided. Rural areas were regularly abandoned by young,
leaving aging men, women and children to work on farms.
This led to a decrease in agricultural production and its contribution to GDP
Product (GDP) in Nigeria has lowered the standard of living of rural people, and the desertion of
rural areas. The migration of rural population to urban areas has caused many social and
economic problems in rural areas. McCarthy (2004), said that '' excessive urbanization led to
strong rate congestion of the city, delinquency and lowly infrastructure such as proper sewage
method, drinking water, electricity and other services, chronic unemployment and the creation of
large shanty towns and Shanty ‘‘.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Considering the contribution of the rural sector to the national economy, strengthen the
sector's development should be the priority the Government and relevant stakeholders. This is
necessary as such would further strengthen the sector's capacity for better contribution to overall
national growth and development. Unfortunately, over the years, strategies and development
efforts in Nigeria was more urban hospitals based on the result of the relative neglect of rural
areas as evidenced by the lack of basic infrastructure in rural areas such as good roads, well
equipped and functional, electrical energy, pipeline borne water etc (Abah, 2010).
Abonyi & Nnamani (2011) also noted that rural poverty persists in Nigeria regardless of
the opulence fashioned by the country's oil wealth as evidenced by the difficulty in obtaining
basic daily needs such as food, water and shelter. The absence of these vital basic needs in rural
areas has a number of rural dwellers migrate to urban centers in the hope of improving their
living standards. According Abah (2010), the deplorable state of the rural sector of Nigeria is
emphatic and more worrying is that even some policies and programs developed and
implemented by the government over the years has not resulted in a significant improvement in
the development of the rural population areas in Nigeria (Ezeah, 2005).
 Incessant and excessive rural exodus caused many socio-economic problems, both in
rural and urban areas. McCarthy, (2004) held that "excessive urbanization leads to high rates of
urban congestion, crime and poor infrastructure such as adequate system of sewage disposal, safe
and portable drinking water, electricity and other services, chronic unemployment with attendant
creation of large slums and slums'. Numerous creating nations, including Nigeria have made a
few endeavors to solve these problems of rural underdevelopment and desertion. In Nigeria,
since the colonial period to date, successive governments have attempted to reform the rural
areas where over 75% of Nigerians live in order to achieve growth and balanced development,
and discourage the exodus rural, in vain (Omonigho, 2013). According Nwakeze (2004),
Nigeria's population is developing at a yearly rate of 2.8 percent that of the urban populace is
developing at 5.5 percent; it is pertinent to note that this rate is among the most noteworthy on
the planet today. This thusly calls for critical action to fast-tracking rural development to reduce
urban population explosion.
Urbanization is generally considered the rural transformation of nature in cities. It is, in
other words, the growth of cities in their base away from rural areas. In an ideal framework and
Orthodox, the urbanization process should normally come with industrialization through the
establishment of factories and expansion of employment opportunities, which should ideally
however produce a thriving industrial city. The obvious relationship between urbanization and
industrialization is the focal link of the workforce not only in trade and industry, but especially in
agricultural production. Thus, the possibility of extending the conditions in urban areas, they,
however, dialectically worse in rural areas that people are drawn permanently in urban areas
where they are dangerously forced to abandon rural life searching for a way frivolous life in
cities. The rural residents apparently see the attraction in cities with apparently better
opportunities. But in fact, many people give up rural life, preferably in often overcrowded and
poor, poverty and slums in cities where they can not find suitable employment opportunities
(Gadd, 2011: 1). What causes these rural residents to uproot their places of this city life can be
better appreciated in policy analysis. One wonders if these sectors, characterized with features of
poverty, etc., are indeed within the urban land in Nigeria.
Such fields include, inter alia, the poor roads, lack of water, poor health and in most cases,
without electricity supply. Other serious problems that border urban Nigerians social problems
include insufficient employment opportunities that result in the increasing incidence of
insecurity; resulting crimes, robbery, burglary, theft, etc. - As the only attractive options left to
those who can not legitimately make ends meet to keep. However, even the employees
legitimately engaged in intense fraudulent activity because the state forced them to see that crime
is necessary so they can continue to afford to live in high - urban prices (Adedeji & Rowland,
1973: xi)
Despite the rapid growth of urbanization, Nigeria is predominantly a rural environment.
The accession of Nigeria flag independence in 1960, more than three decades, has tried various
rural development strategies, which aim to be successfully stabilized (Abbass, 1977). Rural
society over time and within these strategies continued to be neglected and ignored and chronic
and alarming circumstances influences around rural Nigeria have a picturesque threat to the
future of human settlements. The nature of rural conditions to abundant vis-à-vis resources is a
paradox. Threats to sustainable development by transforming rural areas have been created over
time by connecting State public policy and the convolutions of state power via the political
economy in determining and undermine control the means of production and class interests.
Therefore, the defense of the interests of social scientists, physical planners and other researchers
on the imperative of rural societies in the dynamics of the overall adequacy of the company and
development was never challenged. Such appeal also argued that the economy and other rural
issues' behavior and state interests are better analyzed and understood in their political context
"(Abbass 1997: 12) or the socio-political justification and social implications -economic.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The general aim of this study is to investigate the actual job opportunities for rural people
migrating to the booming urban area of Lagos and compare them with their expectation.
The specific objectives are;

1. To identify factors that influence the decisions made by rural people to migrate to urban
regions (Push/Pull factors).

2. To determine how migration to urban regions affects the standard of living of migrants.
 3. To find out whether rural development can serve as a panacea for rural urban migration

4. To identify the socio-economic causes of rural urban migration

5. To explore the effects of rural urban migration on rural development

6. To ascertain measures put in place for rural development by government

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i. What are the factors that influence the decisions made by rural people to migrate to urban
regions?

ii. Can migration to urban regions affect the standard of living of migrants?

iii. Can rural development serve as a solution to rural urban migration?

iv. What are the socio-economic reasons of rural urban migration?

v. What are the consequences of rural urban movement on rural development?

vi. What methods are put in place by government to develop the rural areas?
1.5 HYPOTHESES

H i: There is significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving from
rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving
from rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.

H i: There is significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to

urban regions and job availability in the rural areas

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to
urban regions and job availability in the rural areas
Ho: Rural development does not have any effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria.

H i: Rural development has an effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will beam flash or searchlight on rural development and its end effect in the
fight against the rural-urban migration in Nigeria. The study aims to find the socio -economic
and cultural causes of rural -urban migration in the study area and its implications for rural
development from the study area; this will help highlight the strategies adopted by members of
the community to deal with the situation and what can be done to stop the situation.
This study will likewise help expose the level of the problem to important stakeholders so
that they can seize the opportunity and implement measures to develop rural areas to reduce the
rural-urban exodus. Finally, this research project will add to the existing physique of facts on the
significance of rural development in the fight against the rural-urban migration in Nigeria.

1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study will focus on employment opportunities and its impact on the fight against the rural-
urban migration in Nigeria with particular reference to the actual influence it has on the activities
and lives of rural residents socio- economic, causes of the rural migration and the measures
implemented by the relevant stakeholders in the fight against the threat of the rural-urban
migration in the study area. The study will also address the impact of rural-urban migration in
Nigeria.

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Rural area: a topographical zone situated outside cities and towns with a somewhat low
population density and small settlements.
Migration: movement of persons across a definite boundary for the tenacity of founding a new
or semi-permanent residence.
Rural development: the course of enhancing the quality of life and economic well being of
people living in somewhat remote areas
Rural urban migration: is a process of people transference from rural areas to urban areas with
attendant upsurge in proportion of people living in urban areas.
Infrastructure: fundamental physical and organizational structures and amenities needed for the
operation of a society or enterprise.

CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

In general, there is a large body of literature on human migration. Most early migration studies
are theoretical, which have neoclassical models for the individual decision to migrate.
In recent years, the rural-urban migration has become alarming rate as more people drift to urban
centers from rural areas; it is in this context that this study in addition examined the causes of the
rural exodus and effects in Lagos State. A survey will be conducted to indicate the main causes
of the rural migration which could believe to be because of; looking for better education,
employment and business opportunities. Others are identified as poverty, unemployment, hunger,
and inadequate social facilities in rural areas. While some of the effects of rural-urban migration
are; rural migration puts pressure on urban housing and the environment, the high rate of
population growth in urban centers also reduces the quality of life, overcrowding encourages the
crime rate in the migration and rural society -urbanite slows the pace of development of the rural
population areas.

However, people migrate for different reasons they had to consider the pros and cons of staying
in a rural area in particular relative to the movement. A hand full of theories and correlation in
literature was published to give a deep insight on the topic of migration. These theories and
literature are studied to gain the knowledge to understand the causes and effects of rural-urban
migration.
Human migration in the globally is mainly the movement of people from rural to urban areas in
order to obtain opportunities as permanent residences or temporary installations, Famine,
seasonal droughts, floods or other calamities, in such cases, people might choose to migrate
voluntarily called "voluntary migration" or be forced too, in which case it will be "involuntary
migration. Migration is a common norm that occurs in Nigeria, it can be viewed has a household
strategy which has been influenced by the existence of regional inequalities in socio-economic
development, employment and related opportunities. The inequalities between rural and urban
areas in Nigeria have instigated the movement of people from one area to another. The major
reason why Nigerians tend to move from one place to another is basically based on economic
reasons. They move to places where they expect prospective employment and income generating
opportunities to enjoy a better standard of living. The highest movement trend is towards the
Island, the metropolitan city of Lagos state.

2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

As indicated by Cornwell and Inder (2004) a significant part of the contemporary literature on
economic incentives for the rural exodus is based on the seminal work of Todaro (1969) and
Harris and Todaro (1970). Their models provided a theoretical framework widely accepted
explaining the relationship between rural-urban migration and urban unemployment in many
LDCs. Assuming that potential migrants have the probability of urban employment and
treatment of rural migration fundamentally as a monetary wonder, the Harris-Todaro model (HT)
then shows that in certain parameter ranges, an increase urban employment can actually lead to
higher levels of urban unemployment and the same national product reduced (the Todaro
Paradox). The paradox is due to assumptions that the choice between labor markets, risk neutral
agents consider salary provided; that the probability of obtaining an urban job is approximated
by the ratio of urban jobs in the urban labor force; and that the urban wage rate is fundamentally
and reliably higher than the rural wage rate. In these cases, the inter-labor market (rural-urban)
requires balance urban unemployment. This ensures that the unemployment expected urban wage
equals the country wage (which is thought to be steady all through). The repercussion of this
simple set of assumptions is that, contrary to popular belief, once the response of migration is
taken into account, several policies to reduce urban unemployment will increase urban
unemployment rather than reduce it (Riadh , 1998).

In the migration of HT model is considered the adjustment mechanism by which workers are
distributed among the different labor markets, some of which are located in urban areas and
some rural areas while trying to maximize their expected income . The model has led to many
applied studies, most of which confirmed that relative wages and perceived likelihood of finding
a job were indeed important determinants of the decision to move. In addition, the main
conclusion of the HT model has had extensive impact on arrangement detailing in LDCs. The
empirical perspective, the HT model generates unemployment rates that are impossibly high.
From a theoretical perspective, the model leaves its driving force, the disparity in urban and rural
wages and the fixity of urban earnings, inexplicable. Nonetheless, the model, with or without
salary, can be altered in various approaches to present numerous fascinating aspects (of risk
aversion, priority hiring, informal sector, travel costs) will be probably reduce the unemployment
level as predicted by the model start. One of the HT model predictions is that the proportional
size of the balance of traditional urban sector varies inversely with the rate of job creation.
Arellano (1981) stated that this prediction refers to the equilibrium state and is secured by a
specific hypothesis on the elasticity of migration rates. Fields (1975) presented four extension of
the HT model using "a more general formulation of the work look handle" .The outcome of these
extensions is an anticipated unemployment rate much lower. Fields (1989) has also built a multi-
sector working model, including research on the job with many other interesting features of the
labor market. The innovative aspect of this model is the distinction between ex-ante allocation of
labor between research strategies and ex-post allocation of work between the results on the labor
market. Three main results are derived more effective on the job search lowers the equilibrium
rate of unemployment; rational expectations equilibrium, rural and urban wages means will not
be equal; the expansion of the modern sector may leave conditions of the labor market in one of
the unaffected areas, even when wages and employment in this sector are fully flexible (Riadh
1998).
By introducing the optimal search behavior, Stigler, in a double urban economy sector Todaro
type Mohtadi (1989) derive the probability of entry of the urban formal sector based on optimal
search intensity of rural-urban migrants. A key conclusion is that the wages of higher formal
sector, not only induces the usual Todaro reduce the risk of entry (by increasing migration and
thus urban unemployment), in addition an "impetus impact" inverse increasing this chance, by a
more intensive research on the part of those who can afford the additional research (Riadh 1998).
Vishwanath (1991) developed a theoretical model where the temporal dimensions to urban
perspectives, as well as the dispersion of urban wages are considered. In this model, a rural
person, who is considered the entity of decision making, has three options: stay at home (of the
battle) always, take part in examination in rustic zones for employment of the city, or move to
the city and engage in urban areas based on research. Furthermore, when used in the city, it is
hoped more involved in the employee or at work seek. The different inquiry procedures are
described by their respective rate of flow of information, considered as a random process, and
research costs. Income should maximize individual takes its optimal decision in an environment
characterized by the dispersion of urban wages (Riadh 1998).
Amano (1983) shows that in his model, where migration is governed by the VAT mechanism,
but the urban wage rate, unlike the HT model is endogenously determined, the dynamic system
has a unique balance (steady state) which contains, according to the values of model parameters,
ie full employment with equal pay rates between the two sectors (urban, rural), or the urban
unemployment with a salary differential. In addition, the balance appears to be either stable or
unstable, again depending on the parameter values. Barlett (1983) uses a dynamic version of the
mechanism (1969) Todaro migration and shows that in this model of stable growth equilibrium is
characterized by a positive rate of unemployment and unstable. Day et al (1987) found that, in
the HT instability base model is indeed a possibility and that regular or irregular, non-periodic
fluctuations can be propagated. Funatsu (1988) and Neary (1988) showed that when the earth is
explicitly included as third scarce factor (with capital and labor) in agriculture, the stability
condition is ignored when the land is necessary or sufficient for stability (Riadh, 1998).

In many communities of migrating a member of a family is often a family decision and recent
field studies strongly suggest that the interdependencies between family members and the
existence of links with the place of origin are of great importance for achieving a better
understanding of the production decision making process migration and exchanges inside of the
financial advancement (Collier and Lal, 1984; Banerjee, 1981; Ulack, 1986; Stark, 1995). After
migration, the family members are expected to pooling and sharing of their income as a form of
insurance against the uncertain flow of specific markets. Thus, if future income is uncertain and
imperfect, but positively related in a specific geographic area, and taking into account the roles
of risk aversion and financial markets and imperfect insurance, the decision to migrate a family
member considered an investment involves risk-reducing diversification of sources of income
portfolio (Stark 1995).

2.2 What is Migration?

Migration is the changing of environment through movement of people from one place to
another, involving permanent or temporary settlement. The people of the region live in before
migrating is called the source region so that the area where people decide to go to is the
destination region. While rural-urban migration is the movement of people from rural areas
(villages) to urban centers (cities). The rate at which people migrate from rural areas to urban
centers can not be overstated. As a result, urban areas are becoming population, while rural areas
are declining in population, respectively. The literature of migration has come to regard the rural-
urban migration as "the main factor contributing to the ubiquitous phenomenon of urban surplus
work and as a power that keeps on compounding already serious urban teething troubles of
unemployment" (Todaro, 1976) the escalating growth of migrants in urban areas has skyrocketed
in recent decades, for instance, the UN archives that 40% of the aggregate populace minimum
created nations lived in urban regions contrasting rate of 2000, compared to 27.1% in 1975 all
the more precisely, 34% of the African populace was urban in 2000 sub-Saharan - a bounce of
more than 62% more than 15 years (Inder and Cornwell, 2004).
2.2.1 NEO-CLASSICAL DEVELOPMENTALIST OPTIMISM

The theory of neoclassical migration sees migration as a form of optimal allocation of factors of
production to countries of origin and destination. In this perspective of "balanced growth," the
reallocation of labor from the rural agricultural areas to urban industrial sectors (within or across
borders), is considered a prerequisite for growth economic and, therefore, as a component of the
whole development process (Todaro, 2009). The free movement of labor market freely in the
environment will eventually lead to the increasing shortage of labor, which coincides with a
higher peripheral profitability of work and expanding wage levels in the countries of origin of
migrants. Capital flows should go in exactly the opposite direction, that is, the scarce labor
migrant sending countries scarce capital. Finally, this process of price equalization factors (the
Heckscher-Ohlin model) provides that migration ceases once the wage level in the starting point
and destination merge (Massey et al., 2003).

In a strictly neo-classical world, the role of developing the migration is fully achieved through
equalization factor prices. As Djajic (2008) points out, the earlier neo-classical migration theory
ruled out the possibility of a gain for non-migrants. Strictly speaking, the theory of neoclassical
migration therefore has room to money remittances to countries of origin (Taylor, 1999). The
theory of neoclassical migration tends to consider migrants as atomistic, utility maximizing
individuals, and tends to disregard other migration patterns and migrants belonging to social
groups such as households, families and communities. According to the prevailing views of the
1950s and 1960s in the development theory, return migrants were seen as important agents of
change what's more, advancement. It was normal that transients not just bring money but also
new ideas, knowledge and entrepreneurial attitudes. In this way, migrants should play a positive
role in the development and contribute to the accelerated modernization of spatial diffusion in
developing countries. Also remittances have been assigned an important role in stimulating
economic growth.
These optimistic views were rooted in previous studies of rural-urban migration in Europe and
the US and based on historical experience with emigration from Europe to North America. This
also reflects a "developmentalist" views that have dominated development theory and theory in
the first two decades after World War II. Rooted in the view of the evolution of development,
freshly decolonialized countries should quickly follow the same path of modernization,
industrialization and rapid economic growth in many Western countries had gone through.
Assuming that capital constraints formed the major problem these countries face the
developmentalist model postulated that the large-scale transfer of capital (for example, through
loans, aid and remittances) countries poor would be able to jump on the bandwagon of rapid
economic development and industrialization, migration of domestic and international labor was
considered an integral part of this process contribute to a more optimal spatial distribution of
production factors and hence better overall results. In the same period of post-war migration of
labor on a large scale from "developing" to "developed" countries began to grow. Many labor
surplus countries are involved in the migration process amid expectations of the "dawn of a new
era" (Papademetriou 1985: 212). Governments of developing countries, for example in the
Mediterranean, began to actively encourage emigration, which they regarded as one of the main
instruments to foster development (Adler, 1981 Penninx, 1982 Heinemeijer et al. 1977). At the
macro level, remittances have been considered a vital source of hard currency. At the meso and
micro level, was planned migration to lead to economic improvement of regions of origin of
migrants. Remittances would "improve the distribution of income and quality of life beyond
what other development approaches available could provide" (Keely and Tran 2010: 500)
Furthermore, it was expected that migrant workers or "guest workers" would re-invest
substantially in companies in the country after their widely expected return.
Migrant workers were regarded as representing "a hope for the industrial development of their
countries of origin" (Beijer, 2007: 102) and it was widely felt that "the significant scale
relocation can add to the best of both worlds: rapid growth in the country of immigration what's
more, fast development in the nation "(Kindleberger, 2005: 253).... Although this optimism
diminish after 1970, many governments, particularly in the Pacific and Asia, continued to view
international migration as a major instrument of national economic development (Bertram 2008,
Bertram, 2009 Fraenkel, 2006) was expected A combination of migration, remittances, aid and
(government) bureaucracy (the so-called model "MIRAB" (Bertram 2009, Bertram, 2008) to
contribute to the economic boom in developing countries (Hayes, 1991 McKee and Tisdell 1988:
418).
It is important to note that the current optimism on the development potential of migration and
development also has a strong ideological dimension, because it is going very well in (neo)
liberal political philosophies. On a critical note, Kapur (2003) emphasized the ideological roots
of the recent surrender of euphoria. He argued that remittances strike the right cognitive
agreements, what's more, mirror a "third way" bunch approach, illustrating the guideline of self
improvement: "Immigrants, rather than governments, and become the largest supplier of "remote
guide" (Kapur 2003: 10). This demonstrates a real danger that ignorance or negligence of
previous empirical and theoretical work led to misinformed and therefore naive optimism
somehow remind developmentalist belief earlier in the migration and development. If anything,
the empirical and theoretical data accumulated underlines the fundamentally heterogeneous
nature of the interactions between migration and development, and in particular their
contingency on broader development conditions. In other words, the account structure, public
policies that improve the functioning of social, legal, economic and political access of ordinary
people to amenities and basic markets and restore confidence in governments, are essential not
only to create a fertile ground for development in general, but also forcing more migrants to
return and / or invest in the country. Political and scientific speech commending movement,
settlements and transnational engagement as the development of self-help "from below" divert
attention from structural constraints and limited but real capacity of individuals to overcome.
This illustrates the crucial role states should play in the development of favorable general
conditions for human development to occur.

2.2.2 NEO MARXIST OR STRUCTURALIZED PESSIMISM

Neo - Marxism is a loose term for different approaches of the twentieth century that modify or
extend Marxism and Marxist theory, usually by elements from other intellectual traditions , such
as critical theory, psychoanalysis and existentialism ( in if Sartre ) incorporating (Hein, 2010).
The open deliberation on movement and advancement has swung back like a pendulum, the
developmentalist optimism in the 1950s and 1960s, and the neo-Marxist pessimism over the
years 1970 and 1980, to more optimistic views in the years 1990 and 2000. This paper argues
how these discursive shifts in the debate on migration and development should be primarily
considered part of the more- broad outlook changes in social theory and development (Hein,
2010). However, the classic hostility between pessimistic and optimistic sights is throwing down
the gauntlet by empirical evidence showing the heterogeneity of impacts of migration (Hein,
2010). By integrating and modifying an overview of the new economics of migration of labor,
livelihood prospects in developing and transnational perspectives studies in migration studies -
which share many conceptual parallels much unobserved - that document indicates the outline of
a conceptual framework that simultaneously integrates the agency and the outlook structure and
is thus able to account for the heterogeneous nature of the interactions between migration and
development. The resulting perspective reveals the naivete of the recent celebration views
migration as self- improvement advancement "from beneath". These perspectives are to a great
extent ideological and divert attention away from structural constraints and the critical role of
States in developing favorable conditions for positive development impacts of migration to occur
(Hein, 2010).

As of late, there has been a surprising renaissance optimism and the general interest in the issue
of migration and development by policy makers and researchers. After decades of pessimism and
concerns about the brain drain from countries of origin of migrants governments have new hopes
on transnationally oriented migrants and "diaspora" as investors and stakeholders in the potential
development. Soaring Remittances, in particular, are often seen as a more effective instrument of
redistribution of income, poverty reduction and economic growth that large bureaucratic
development programs or development aid (Jones, 1998; Kapur 2003; Ratha, 2003).

However, the recent re-discovery of the link between migration and development tends to go
hand in hand with a certain negligence of the ideas that emerged from decades of previous
research and experience of politics. In addition, there has been a tendency to study the causes and
effects of migration separately, which is a widely separated strand of the literature of migration.
This is unfortunate, given that development factors influencing migration decisions are also
likely to shape development outcomes in countries and communities (Taylor, 1999) sent. Third,
and more generally, the scientific debate on migration has tended to separate the development
causes (determinants) and effects (impacts) of the migration artificially more general process of
social life (including economic) change.

Rather, we need to see migration as a process that is part of more extensive change forms
encapsulated in the term "development", but also his internal self and self-undermining dynamic,
and impacts of this transformation process in its own right. This contextuality has important
theoretical suggestions. Since relocation is not an exogenous variable, but rather an indispensable
piece of more extensive social and development process, the development impacts of migration
are also fundamentally heterogeneous. The specific debate on migration and development has
evolved quite separately from the general theory of migration. Because of their focus on the
process of migration or their focus on migrant receiving societies, theories of general migration
do not offer a lot of specific knowledge about the nature of the impacts of migration on
development in sending companies, not to mention the heterogeneity of these impacts. So we
need to put the particular open deliberation on relocation and advancement in a broader
perspective of social theory and migration.

PLURALISTIC MODELS: NEW ECONOMICS OF LABOR AND LIVELIHOOD

APPROACH

Most empirical studies of the late 1980s and 1990s increasingly recognized the heterogeneity,
non - deterministic impact of migration on development (Hein, 2010). This corresponded to a
general paradigm shift in contemporary social theory; far from the great theories to more
pluralist hybrid approaches that take into account both the agency and structure. Sociologists
impacted by the reasoning post - innovator and Giddens (2008) structuration theory, sought to
harmonize the agencies and approaches the structure. Recognizing the relevance of the structure
and the agency is essential because it allows us to better deal with the heterogeneity of the
interactions between migration and development (Hein, 2010). In such a "pluralistic" approach,
the results of interactions actors structure allows a greater variety of results than would have
been allowed to leave, or the single aggregation of individual decision making (Skeldon, 2007:
18) or the imperatives unidirectional structures.

This change in general social theory paradigm has also deeply affected the scientific debate on
migration and development (Hein, 2010). During the 1980s and 1990s, the most crucial
innovation for the debate came from the new economics of migration of labor (NELM). Due to
disciplinary divisions, it remained unnoticed that NELM has strong conceptual likenesses with
other "pluralistic" strands being developed thinking - vocations called approaches - and the
sociological and anthropological research on transnationalism of migrants (Hein, 2010). The
following sections examine these three aspects of literature and show how these can be
integrated to provide a more nuanced perspective on the interaction of migration and mutual
development, which incorporates the structure and outlook agency, and gives food sufficient
analytical to explain the heterogeneous relationship between migration and broader development
process (Hein, 2010). In the 1980s and 1990s, the new economics of labor migration has
emerged as a critical response to the theory of neoclassical migration (Massey et al., 2009: 436).
The NELM theory rejects the neo-classical models largely ignore the constraints and were
assessed as being too rigid to meet the diverse realities of interaction of migration and
development. He was particularly Stark (2008, 2009), which has revitalized the debate on
migration and the developing world by placing the behavior of individual migrants in a broader
societal context and not considering the individual but the family or household as the most
appropriate decision -Make unit (Hein, 2010). This new approach also increases the range of
factors other than individual utility maximization as affecting the migration decision integrating
decision (Hein, 2010).

The new economics of labor migration models such as sharing risk behaviors of families or
family units. Superior to anything people, families appear able to diversify their resources, such
as work to minimize the risks of income (Stark and Levhari 2002). The assumption is that
people, households and families act to amplify pay, as well as to minimize and spread danger.
Internal and international migration can then be seen as a response to the risk of household
income, such as remittances provide insurance income for original households (Hein, 2010). This
risk distribution pattern can even explain the appearance of migration in the absence (expected)
wage differentials. The idea is that for all households, it can be a Pareto superior strategy to have
members migrate elsewhere, either as risk-sharing means and / or as an investment in access to
more income streams high (Lucas and Stark 2005: 902). Migration is not only perceived as a risk
to household spreading strategy but also as a way to overcome various market constraints. The
new economics of labor migration instead the imperfect credit household (capital) and risk
(insurance) contracts that prevail in most developing countries (Stark and Levhari, 1982; Stark
and Bloom, 2008 Taylor, 1986; Taylor and Wyatt, 1996; Taylor, 1999). These markets are often
poor or difficult to access for non-elite groups. Particularly through international settlements,
movement can be a family unit system to succeed the constraints of the market by allowing
households to invest in productive activities and improve their well-being (Stark, 2008). While
remittances are ignored in the theory of neoclassical migration within NELM they are perceived
as one of the most essential reasons for migration (Hein, 2010).
Conceptually, this also implies that the contributions to the development of migrants are not
necessarily linked to the return migration. Always overseas migrants, permanent settlers and
their descendants can contribute to development by handing over money (Hein, 2010). In
addition to providing a radically different conceptualization of migration as a household strategy
to diversify risk and overcoming market constraints, NELM also criticized the design of most of
the empirical work before. According to Taylor et al. (1996a: 1)

Previous work has been too pessimistic about the prospects for development as a result of
international migration, largely because it failed to take into account the complex, often indirect
ways that migration and remittances influence economic situation of households and
communities that contain them (Hein, 2010). This criticism has focused on the lack of
explanatory thoroughness, the pervasiveness of deductive thinking on empirical tests, and the
significant methodological shortcomings of many previous empirical works (Hein, 2010). Many
studies on the impacts of migration consists NDR comparative studies of employments who don't
regard the fungibility of pay and indirect impacts at the community level migration (Taylor,
1999).
Rural-urban migration in Nigeria
The cargo of rural-urban migration in Nigeria is polygonal and interweaving. As such, an
analysis of a component or a consequence decomposable, such as intolerable population density,
encroaches on other issues identified in the cycle specifications. For example, by examining the
immediate effect of the rural migration, which is increase in the population or to the extreme
burst, are expected various other subsequent effects to consider explosion of the workforce to the
challenge of housing at both the macro and micro family company (Hein, 2010).
Lagos is the most affected in terms of unplanned growth city, about 85% of industrial activity in
the country is located in Lagos, and is one of the most dynamic cities in the world. Its annual
growth rate was estimated at nearly 14% in 1970 and its current population is estimated at 15
million (2006 census). Projections indicate that by 2020, it will be the third largest in the world
(USAID, 2002). The rural migration has a significant impact on levels of unemployment
destination cities. Between 1998 and 1999, the urban unemployment from fifty point five percent
to six point five, a rate higher than the nationwide being without a job rate rose from 3.9% to
4.7% during the same period (USAID, 2002). Unplanned population increase in most cities
explain the decay of infrastructures in relevant contexts. This is particularly the case in Nigeria
where support of existing gear, which are ab-initio randomly located because of the
unprecedented corruption and biased allocation of contracts, are not a priority (Okafor, 2005). It
is interesting to note that most of the country's roads are impassable, hospitals lack necessary
human and material resources, schools are dilapidated and electricity supply is far from stable -
in most rural communities, however, none of these infrastructures exist. The agony of the people
is visible in the frustrations of preventable illness and death, lack of access to clean water,
economic activities remaining, various types of unemployment, child abuse in all its
ramifications and the dwindling focus on standards and values (Nwokocha, 2007) of the
company.
Rural communities share this burden with the loss of labor needed for agricultural activities and
production. The impoverishment of rural areas in Nigeria is partly explained by the exodus of
young people able to search for work in the cities. Therefore, agriculture which, before the
discovery of oil has been the mainstay of
Nigeria's economy was much relegated to the background leading to mono-economy of the state
of the country (Hein, 2010).

Excessive dependence on oil, it is argued here, has led to the employment crisis and avoidable
imports of horticultural items, which together have throughout the years had a negative net
impact on industries and local productions and international trade balances. Several analyzes of
the Nigerian economy insist that oil resources have been more of a curse than a blessing for the
country's development (Iwayemi, 2006).
It is crucial to note that certain migrants in the category discussed herein have overcome their
impotence locality imposed in new locations, while the vast majority of others became poor that
become otherwise known social eccentrics as "youths both young men and women in the region”
(Hein, 2010). Another encumbrance of the rural exodus is the growing number of cohabitation
and consensual unions resulting between hitched and not wedded (Hein, 2010). In spite of the
fact that it could be contended in a few quarters that this union, especially when it involves
people of different ethnic origins, could have positive consequences for the unity of the country
at the macro level, the negative impact on existing marriages and family unit in micro are
enormous (Hein, 2010). The above interrogations are the charge and, in some cases, the agony of
rural-urban migration in Nigeria which has organized thinking strategies and critical context
specific intervention is essential (Hein, 2010).

Factors Affecting Rural-Urban Migration

Three groups of factors are professed as imperative reasons for the rural-urban migration
(Mabawonku 2007). The first set identifies with the requirement for training and aptitudes in
different jobs. The second set relates to the lack of desirable employment prospects in rural areas
(Mabawonku 2007). These take account of lack of employment, lack of industries and businesses
and boredom in agriculture. The third set of factors is social, such as inadequate facilities and the
expulsion of rural areas because of an offense or a crime committed by the migrant (Mabawonku
2007). The first two factors are common in the literature of rural-urban migration as factors
responsible for the movement of migrants. Among the social factors are, however, only the
inadequate social amenities just a mention in the literature (Mabawonku 2007).
The choice to migrate encompasses "push factors" that coerce migrants to rural areas, as well as
"pull factors" that fascinates migrants to urban areas (Adegoke, 2011). In other words, labors will
carry on to migrate from rural to urban areas until the wages they expect to earn in urban areas
are equal to the salary they expect to earn in rural areas. Some studies indicate that the factors of
economic incentives (eg the lack of rural credit, unemployment, landlessness, general rural
poverty) are the most important while others suggest that the economic pull factors ( for
example, the perception of high wages of urban employment) are predominant (Adegoke, 2011).
A number of other reasons for the rural-urban migration, including educational opportunities in
urban areas, marriage and joining family already at the destination are cited in the literature
(Adegoke, 2011). In addition, some studies suggest that rural-urban migration is facilitated by
the concentration of migrants from the same origin in the destination city (Mora & Taylor,
2005). Migrants often have a difficult time to find jobs in the cities because they are more likely
to have only imperfect information about the type or quality of employment opportunities; they
face (Banerjee 2004). To discover an occupation, they for the most part run with companions,
family and other casual systems (Banerjee and Bruce, 2005). In addition, Yamauchi and Tanabe
(2003) claim that finding a job is often made easier if there is a large network of people of the
same origin as the migrant to the destination, but it could also reduce the likelihood of finding
employment if these migrants have to compete for the same jobs. It is also important to
understand how the rural migration evolved over the development process, but the available
research is limited and inconclusive. On the other hand, Ledent (2008) concludes that the
development of rural-urban migration rates and living standards follows the following pattern "it
first rises, reaches a maximum and then decreases to a value of zero."

DETERMINANTS OF MIGRATION
Migration is driven by differences in perceived usefulness to live or work in two geographic
locations (Frank, 2010). A final section uses an economic model to simulate international labor
markets and thus judge the impact of improving the quality of life in host countries on migration
patterns (Frank, 2010). The simulation concludes that improvements in policies furthermore,
foundations of the sending nations might moderate migration and maybe make strides incentives
for circular migration, a form of migration in which the migrant goes from intermittent time at
home and away (Adegoke, 2011). Regarding economic development, internal migration in
creating nations has ended up a standout amongst the most essential issues in the process of
urbanization (Adegoke, 2011). Structural changes such as the shift from an economy based on
agriculture to a more industrialized embrace voyagers from a horticultural segment in rustic
zones to mechanical locales in urban areas (Kuznets, 2007). In recent decades, migration has
been and continues to be considerable scale in a number of developing countries, although
migration rates appear to have slowed in some countries. Given the overall importance of
internal migration to urbanization and development, it is also important to observe the
determinants of migration decision (Frank, 2010). Migration is a selective process, individual
and family attributes of the individuals who relocate and those who stay are different. For
example, migration mainly young adults are more inclined to have a positive net expected profit
for relocation due to their hope of longer remaining life, or because social norms require that
young adults migrate to the looking for a better life (De Haan and Rogally, 2002).
Therefore, the strategies of the family and in addition, in some cases, the human capital theory
would anticipate that informed individuals have a higher inclination to move than those with less
education (Frank, 2010). However, this would be the case if the school makes them relatively
more productive workers to a destination at home or if migration costs are lower for more
educated workers (Lucas and Stark, 2005). . Understanding the determinants and selectivity of
migration is important for a number of reasons. Migrant people and features households can
shape migrant success to their destinations and their effects on their families at home, such as the
distribution of the potential benefits of migration through remittances. These qualities can
likewise figure out which people bear the cost of the loss in human capital through the migration
process (Frank, 2010). Therefore, knowing the nature of the characteristics of migrants and
migration selectivity patterns may give direction to arrangement mediations to impact movement
and its impact on migrant families (Lall and Selod Shalizi, 2006).

Migration Pattern in Nigeria

Despite the wide variation in migration patterns in the region and the extremely complex
combination of microeconomic and social motivations of migration, similar motivations seem to
support decisions to migrate throughout the region (Frank, 2010). The flow of the latest labor in
Nigeria and part of Africa seems largely to be a response to poor functioning of labor markets,
insufficient productive capital, poor quality of life in a number migration of the country, and a
growing demand for unskilled labor for non-service sector in importing economies -traded labor
in Nigeria (Frank, 2010). As the neoclassical approach or Harris-Todaro argued, differences in
real income or expected income clearly lead this migration offering in many cases. Yet income
disparities explain only part of the story (Frank, 2010).

There is a large volume of internal migration in the country caused by the scarcity of land, poor
soils, declining crop yields, crop failures and soil erosion, among others (Frank, 2010).
Acquiring a certain level of education or skills is also an important factor that encourages
migration. Internal migration takes different forms and models, but the most significant is the
movement from rural to urban centers. The rural migration is responsible for the depopulation of
some rural areas and the influx of people in towns and cities (Frank, 2010).

Facing the biting economic crisis and political uncertainty, Nigeria has also, by a last decade has
seen increasing levels of emigration. This is responsible for quite worrying phenomenon of
"brain drain" in which the nation has come to be connected with. Global movement, particularly
in the West African region, also got to be escalated inside of the system of the Economic
Community of West African States emerging (ECOWAS) (Frank, 2010).
The rapid growth rate of the population of large urban centers through migration was a great
concern to successive governments in the country since the second half of the 1950s (Frank,
2010).
The urban centers of Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri, Jos, Kaduna and Kano have experienced very
rapid growth. Abuja, the federal capital and some of the new state capitals also phenomenal
growth experience as a result of migration. Rapid urban growth has caused problems of urban
congestion or overcrowding, poor housing, poor environmental sanitation, unemployment, crime
and other social vices that have come to characterize the major urban centers in Nigeria (Frank,
2010).
According to figures from the 1991 census, Nigeria was then about 36 percent in urban areas; so
the country can still be said to a largely rural society with more than 60 percent of its total
population living in small, remote rural, the western part of the country, inhabited by the Yoruba
that established cultural tradition of life in larger concentrations of population is more urbanized
than other parts of the country (Frank, 2010). However, their major cities like Ibadan, Osogbo,
Ondo, Abeokuta and llorin are mainly traditional and industrial pre part feature with, at best, a
mixture of modern and old (Frank, 2010).
The nation is however confronted with the mystery of being one of the least urbanized regions of
the world, but knows the phenomenon of over-urbanization. This is because urban growth is not
in response to industrialization; therefore, there is a high unemployment / underemployment, low
productivity, a tertiary or service rather inflated and marginalization of the working population in
towns and cities (Frank, 2010).

Causes of Rural-Urban Migration

Scholars admitted that government policies are in favour of urban development, by designedly
and ceaselessly making employment opportunities, instructional opportunities and different
infrastructural amenities a lot of within the urban areas, compared to the agricultural areas. This
has resulted to difference within the development and quality of life between the agricultural and
concrete areas, and thus enhancing rural-urban migration (Todaro 1997, McCatty 2004, Nwanna
2004, Adepoju 1990, Makinwa 2007, Aboyade 2008, and Nwakeze 2004). ‘‘People are
interested in urban areas as a result of they assume they'll have larger opportunities there’’
(Frank, 2010).
There additionally looks to be a consistent understanding among financial analysts including;
McCatty (2004), NISER (1993), Nwanna (2004), Brockerhoff (1995), Gould (1990), Ohadike
and Teklu (1990), zed (1979), Adewale (2005), Makinwa (2007), and Olujimi (2001), that call
taken by folks to migrate from the agricultural to urban areas is as a reaction to socioeconomic
problems for example, mediocre social and monetary offices, for example, medicinal services,
instructional open doors, installation, power, channel borne water, lodging conditions amongst
others, within the rural areas compared to those within the urban areas, and degrading read of
rural areas and its inhabitants.

Nwanna (2004), Morrissey (2008), McCatty (2004), and Adewale (2005), additionally
thoroughbred that call to migrate may well be spontaneous. Some folks might conceive to
migrate as a result of their rural economy is discontinuous. Such spontaneous call may well be as
a results of natural catastrophe such as: flood, dry season, avalanche disintegration seismic
tremor, creepy crawly and vermin's infestation, escape lack of right and justice, political
instability, impotent soil, lack of cultivable land for cultivation, communal clashes, family
dispute, natural event of war and different adversities. Todaro (1997) summed it up by saying:
The factors influencing the choice to migrate are varied and complicated. stress has
multifariously been placed, as an example, on; Social factor; together with the need of migrants
to interrupt far from ancient constraints of social organizations; Physical factor; together with
atmosphere and meteorologic catastrophes like surges and dry spells; Demographic factor;
together with the reduction in mortality and therefore the concomitant high rates of rural
population growth; Cultural factors; together with the safety of urban 'extended family'
relationships and therefore the allurements of the questionable 'bright town lights';
Communication factor; ensuing from improved transportation, Urban-orientation; instructional
systems and therefore the 'modernizing' impact of the introduction of radio, TV and therefore the
cinema.

(Adefolalu, 2007) announced that the farming zones in African country are being experiencing
numerous inadequacies in numerous levels of severity such as: inconvenience, separation,
underdevelopment, neediness, dullness, fatigue, obliviousness, environmental condition, hunger,
and every one forms of sicknesses, it's the final agreement amongst writers like Udo (2004),
Makinwa (2007), Adepoju (1990), Essang and Mabawonku (2007) that Migration from rural to
urban areas results in a discount within the range of rural public. This contains a negative impact
on rural agricultural output and so hinders the pace of development within the rural areas.
Migration of young people takes away the glamorous social life inside of the rural areas, deed
the realm during a gloomy state. The youths migrate from the villages taking on their energy and
vigor, and jettisoning the feeble recent men, ladies and kids to work on the ranch since
cultivating is their real occupation. This has semiconductor diode to a discount in agricultural
turn out with its eventful impact on the gross domestic product of the state, down funds for
development, financial gain and commonplace of living of rural inhabitants, underdevelopment,
and total desertion of the agricultural areas. Rural areas in African nation lack socio-economic
facilities including: channel borne water, power, engine ready roads, industries, high paid
employment. They bear plenty of deprivations of these have confined the agricultural areas in
African nation to a vicious circle of poorness. Lykke (2002), thoroughbred that one huge worry
concerning rural-urban migration is that it's possibly the extremely educated and most agile those
that migrate from rural to urban areas, jettisoning the terribly frail and chiefly uneducated people
that aren't prepared to battle poverty with achievement. This he charged includes to an increase
within the variations within the standards of living of the agricultural and concrete inhabitants.
However, Lykke (2002), McCarthy (2004), Adedeji, and Rowland (1984), united that the drift of
the agricultural public to the urban areas has semiconductor diode to social, economic,
environmental, physical, and different severe issues like congestion within the urban centers that
has exaggerated the unfold of communicable diseases within the centers, short physical, and
social infrastructural amenities like, electricity, health, instructional, recreational facilities, motor
ready roads, pipe borne water, housing among others.
This has caused overstretched use of physical and social infrastructural facilities. Others issues
include: tie up, state, high rate – advance free fraud(419), employed assassins, robbery,
alcoholism, drug abuse, harlotry, shenanigan, peril from pollution; air, water, and noise, as an
example, ototoxic smoke from industrial plants and vehicles, inadequate refuse assortment and
disposal system, poor system which ends to flood and overflowing gutters and thus inflicting
Asiatic cholera epidemics, growth of slums resulting in shanty settlements, and long distance to
figure further as serious tie up that makes commuters pay range of hours on the road to figure
and different places, cultural amendment, misbehavior, and decline in ancient values (Frank,
2010).

MIGRATION INTERVENING OBSTACLES

Humans can encounter obstacles involved in migration and travel (Baig, 2010). Deserts and
mountains are particularly difficult for man to cross, while forests and cities are easy for humans
to cross (Baig, 2010). Over time, the often human settlements near these difficult features built as
a final judgment in which travelers could refuel and rest before endure travel difficult (Frank,
2010).

The obstacles which may prevent or slow migrates to get to their destination there are laws
Example - environment and religion -Years, there were more obstacles for immigrants because
we do not have planes, trains, or automobiles, or other means of transport (Baig, 2010).

In Ravenstein theory most migrants relocates and a short stay in the country (Baig, 2010). Long
distance migrants to other countries look to the major centers of economic activity (Frank, 2010).
Intervening obstacle environmental or cultural characteristic that prevents or slows the migration
Geographers summarize the motivations of migration by considering how the relationship
between two focuses (beginning and destination) are affected by the push factors and pull factors
(Baig, 2010). Push factors exist at Origin level and act to trigger emigration; these include the
lack of economic opportunity, religious or political persecution, the hazardous environmental
conditions, and so on (Baig, 2010). Pull factors exist at the destination and incorporate the
accessibility of employments, religious or political flexibility, and the perception of a relatively
benign environment (Baig, 2010). Pushes and pulls are complementary - that is, migration can
not occur if the right to emigrate (thrust) is corrected by traction corresponding to an accessible
destination (Baig, 2010). In the context of labor migration, push factors are often characterized
by the lack of job opportunities in sending countries or regions, and pull factors are the economic
opportunities presented in reception areas or country (Baig, 2010). The flow of migrants between
two places can not fully develop if the intermediate obstacles between them (Frank, 2010). The
number of migrants is directly proportional to the number of possibilities in a given place and
inversely proportional to the number of intermediate hurdles. (One can also think to intervening
obstacles as opportunities, it is the presence of other places between an origin and destination
point at which it could migrate.) Consequently, the volume of movement starting with one place
then onto the next is connected with not just the separation between places and the number of
people in both places, but also with the number of opportunities or obstacles between each place
(Baig, 2010). This is especially true in the migration of the workforce (Baig, 2010).
 Lee (1966), the push-pull theory shows the possible migration between an origin and a
destination, with positive and negative signs mean pull and push factors, respectively. The flows
are between two places, but there are obstacles stakeholders to these movements in space. While
these obstacles are represented by forms "mountain", keep in mind that obstacles should not be
limited to physical barriers, restrictive immigration laws, for example, can be a formidable
obstacle for potential migrants. Note that the origin and destination are pushes and pulls,
reflecting the reality that all migrants must take into account both the positive aspects of stay and
negative displacement and their converses (Baig, 2010). The logic of the push-pull theory is that
if the plusses (out) to the destination outweigh the positives of staying behind, as shown below,
migration is likely to occur (Frank, 2010). The reasons why people migrate are due to push and
pull factors. Push and pull factors are forces that can either encourage people to move to a new
location or force them to leave old houses; they can be economic, political, cultural, and based
on the environment (Frank, 2010). Push factors are conditions that can lead people to leave their
homes, they are energetic and relevant to the country from which a person migrates (Baig, 2010).
A few examples of push factors are: not enough jobs in your country; couple of chances;
"Primitive" conditions desertification; starvation / drought; political fear / persecution; poor
medical care; loss of riches; and regular fiascos. Pull factors are precisely the opposite of push
factors; these are factors that attract people to a certain place (Baig, 2010). Examples of these
push factors are the employment opportunities; better living conditions; political and/or religious
opportunity; happiness; education; better medical care; and safety (Baig, 2010). To migrate,
people place so attractive that they feel drawn to it (Baig, 2010).
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter acts as map of operation as it considers the various techniques by which information
was gotten for the purpose of testing the previously stated hypotheses, and research questions.

This chapter is discussed under the following sub-headings:

3.1 Research design

3.2 Area of study

3.3 Population of the study

3.4 Sampling technique

3.5 Sample of the study

3.6 Research instrument

3.6.1 Validity of the instrument

3.6.2 Reliability of the instrument

3.7 Procedure for data collection

3.8 Data preparation

3.9 Procedure for data analysis

3.1 Research design

The research design for this study was survey inferential. This design was adopted
because as Cohen and Cohen (1975), have noted; it enables the researcher to gather data at a
particular time with the intention of describing the existing conditions against which existing
conditions can be compared. Therefore, the design will enable the researcher to identify the
exiting influence of rural-urban migration in the study area.

3.2 Area of the study

This study was conducted in Lagos State; Lagos is one of the most populous cities in
Nigeria as a whole. The city is the second quickest developing city in Africa and one of the most
populous in the world. In 2015, the population of Lagos city is about 16 million. Lagos is a port
that instigated on islands unglued by inlets, such as Lagos Island, bordering the southwest mouth
of Lagos Lagoon whilst protected from the Atlantic Ocean by the barrier islands and long sand
spits such as bar beach, which stretches up to 100 kilometers (62 miles) to the east and west of
the mouth.

The study area is situated in the southwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria. On the north and
east it is bounded by Ogun State. In the West, it shares borders with the Republic of Benin.
Behind its southern outskirt is the Atlantic Ocean. 22% of its 3,577 km2 are the tidal ponds and
brooks.

Prior the Portuguese name of Lagos had been adopted; the original name was Eko Lagos,
which mainly refers to the island. The first to settle in Eko were Aworis. Hunters and fishermen
Awori had originally come from Ile-Ife at the coast. The Eko name is either the Yoruba "Oko"
(farm cassava) or "Eko" (war camp). There are more than 650 years the Oba of Bini sent
warriors to Eko that were received a friendly manner by the Awori fishermen resident. Bini
Prince, Ado, who led the war party, asked to become their leader. From here, Eko belong Yoruba

The researcher decided to choose the study area because the area was noted for the high
level of the population due to the fact that people migrate from rural areas to populate the city of
Lagos.
3.3 Population of the study

The population of the study is a census of all that possess the characteristics of the
phenomena being studied. A population may be finite if all items that constitute it can be counted
or infinite in size if all item cannot be counted. The population under study consisted of 36,350
persons in Lagos state

3.4 Sampling technique

In order to obtain a representative sample for the study, the simple random sampling
technique was adopted. The purpose of this technique was to ensure that, the population under
the study was equally represented in the sample. This was done using simple balloting (hat and
draw) method, those who picked “yes” were automatically taken as part of the sample.

3.5 Sample of the study

A sample of 220 persons was drawn from 36,350 persons that was consisted the
population of study in the study area. The sample was made up of 120 males and 100 females
respectively.

3.6 Instrumentation

The research instrument used in this study was a questionnaire. The questionnaire was
folded into a section. The section of the questionnaires was meant to elicit information from
respondents.
3.6.1 Validity of the instrument

Validity of the instrument refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
wished-for to measure at the extent to which a true and accurate measure of it is possible.

To ensure the face of validity of the instrument, the questionnaire was presented to the supervisor
for scrutiny. Having affected the necessary corrections, experts in the unit of test and
measurement looked through the instrument to confirm its validity. The feedback from them
certified the instrument as content valid to measure the variables in the study.

3.6.2 Reliability of the instrument

Reliability refers to the degree of consistency that an instrument demonstrated in

measuring what it is designed to measure. To determine this, the reliability of the instrument was
established using test-retest method involving 30 people in the study area. The estimate ranged
from 0.77 to 0.98; the instrument was found to be satisfactorily reliable for use in this study.

3.7 Procedure for data collection

The researcher visited some areas in the study area. Having explained the intention of the
visit, the questionnaires were administered to the people respectively. Out of the 220
questionnaires administered to 220 questionnaires were all collected back representing 100% of
the questionnaires summed up for computations.

3.8 Data preparation

The research instrument which carries information on the demographic data, and also was
aimed at respondents responding personally to asked questions. The point the researcher
obtained from the items that measured the variable were added together for the analysis.

3.9 Procedure for data analysis

The method of data analysis used in the study was based on each hypothesis of the study.
Each hypothesis is restated in a null form and the variables in each identified an appropriate
statistical technique for testing it. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis one

There is no significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving

from rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.

Independent variable: People moving from rural regions to urban regions

Dependent variable: Job opportunities available

Test Statistics: Pearson product Moment Correlation Coefficient

Hypothesis two

There is no significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to

urban regions and job availability in the rural areas

Independent variable: Job satisfaction in migrating to urban regions

Dependent variable: Job opportunities available

Test Statistics: Pearson product Moment Correlation Coefficient

Hypothesis three

Rural development does not have any effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria

Independent variable: Rural development

Dependent variable: Rural urban migration

Test Statistics: Pearson product Moment Correlation Coefficient

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction
However, selected questions and answers from the administered questionnaire were
picked by the researcher for data analysis in order to be realistic and streamline.

The results of the data analysis carried out on the data gathered for the study are
presented in this chapter. The findings that emerged and the discussion of those findings are
presented also. The presentation was done hypothesis by hypothesis.

TABLE Classifications by Age

AGE (YEARS) NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %
18 – 20 15 17.12
21 – 31 19 20.30
31 – 40 30 22.38
41 – 50 14 15.09
51 – 60 10 12.10
61 – 70 12 13.01
Total 100 100%
Source field work, 2016

From the above table, out of 100 respondents, the highest percentage is which fall within

the age of 31 – 40 years this brings to the light the maturity of respondents. It shows that vibrant

set of persons are always in search of stable life by migrating to a comfort zone and also in

search of a better job.

TABLE : classification by sex

SEX NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %
Male 65 68.18
Female 35 31.81
Total 100 100%
Source field work, 2016
 Both male and female participants of the concern were served with questionnaire, the

breakdown and percentages are given in the above table. A greater percentage of respondents are

males while the remaining were females. It can be deduced here that male participants are more

than female respondents as regards the research seen they are normally referred to the

breadwinner of a family.

TABLE : Classification by Marital Status

STATUS NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %
Married 45 38.18
Single 55 61.81
Separated 0
Divorce 0
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

It can be noted from the above table that the majority of the respondent were not married,

this can be attributed that the single people venture into businesses, migrate to urban area and

work hard so to have money and get married.

TABLE : Classifications by Educational Level

QUALIFICATION NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %
Primary 18 18.2
Secondary 23 22.0
Technical 20 20.0
Tertiary 31 27.3
Post Graduate 8 12.5
No formal Education - -
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

From the above table as we observed the 27.3 of 100 respondents obtained NCE, ND,

HND and B.Sc. level in their educational background, while 22. % obtained SSCE certificate,

whereas 20.0% obtained knowledge on technical skills. Also 12.5% of the respondent’s posse’s
qualifications like Master and PhD. However, the First School Leaving Certificates holders are

employed as temporary staff which represents a percentage of 18.2% and 18 respectively.

It is observed that majority of the people that were migrated to urban area are sound in

education.

The fact that majority of the respondents are well read. It is suggested that they might be

expected to be responsible and intelligent people that understands the meaning of migration and

also could want to do everything humanly possible to make a better living.

What is your occupational experience?

RESPONSES: NO. OF RESPONDENTS: PERCENTAGE

1 -2 25 30
2-3 40 50
3 and Above 35 20
TOTAL 100 100
Source Fieldwork, 2016

From the table above shows that 25 or 30%respondents were 1 – 2 years’ experience, 40 or 50%
respondents were 2 – 3 years of experience while 20 or 35% were 3 and above years of
experience in their various occupations.

How long have u resided/lived in Lagos State (in years; if you are not a citizen)?
RESPONSES NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %
Less than 10 19 17.36
11-20 15 16.11
21-30 30 23.14
31-40 12 14.21
41-50 10 12.03
51-60 8 10.03
Above 60 6 8.12
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

From the above table 19 or 17.36 % of the respondents responded that they lived in Lagos for if
not 10 years, lesser than that, 15 or 16.11% of the respondents said they had lived in Lagos for
11-20 years, 30 or 23.14% lived for 21-30 years turning out to be the greater number of
respondents opined that only thing left for them is to become citizens, while 12 or 14.21 % of
respondent had lived in Lagos for 31-40 years, whereas 8 or 10.3 % had lived for 51-60 years in
Lagos collecting different titles including care taker-ship and 6 or 8.12% lived in Lagos for 60
years and beyond reaching the level of no return

Table what is the most significant job Opportunities in your area? (Please tick as many as
are applicable)

Job opportunities NO OF PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS %
Teaching (primary/Secondary School 8 7.50
Administrative Assistant 4 3.95
Restaurant 13 14.71
Banks 7 6.80
Sand quarry 10 9.84
Market 15 17.45
Post office 2 1.81
Police station 4 3.90
Secretary 8 7.50
Railway 2 1.45
Clerk 6 5.88
Hospital/Health center 9 8.12
Fishing 5 4.28
Logistics 4 3.95
Others 3 2.86
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

Majority of the respondent said they have market around their areas making it the primary source

of employment the area.

Table what are the different ways in which your present job as improved your standard of
living economically. (HINT: Scale of 0%- 100%. Where 100% is satisfactory)

Living Standard NO OF PERCENTAGE

RESPONDENTS %
Economic Success 10 8.00
Economic Security 12 10.02
Food Security 16 19.13
Basic Needs 20 23.80
Health Condition 17 15.84
Education and Qualification 14 12.45
Social Security 7 6.86
Job Security 4 3.90
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

Majority of the respondent claim that ways in which their present job improved the standard of

their living economically is by the provision of basic needs

Table what are what are the reasons why you moved from your rural area to Lagos State?
Response NO OF PERCENTAGE
RESPONDENTS %
Education 14 8.00
Better standard of living 30 10.02
Good job 25 19.13
Networking 18 23.80
Social Acceptance 15 12.45
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

Most of the respondents claim that because of better standard of living, they decided to move

from your rural area to Lagos State

Table: Has your hopes and expectation been met during the period of living in Lagos state

RESPONSES NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

Yes 56 54.36
No 44 45.63
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

If yes or no please briefly state your reasons.

Majority of respondents said yes that their expectations had been met during the period
 of staying in Lagos in that most of them had been able to get money and married, build
houses and live well, why others are still battling with success finding difficult to make
life worth living.

Table what is the Security situation of your region of origin (insurgence, armed groups,
and criminal groups?)
Response NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE
%
Insurgence 22 35
Armed groups 40 40
Criminal groups 38 25
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

In the above table 40% of respondent chose armed groups has security situation in their region of

origin

Table what are the job opportunities in your area of origin

Response NO OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE
%
Fishing 28 20
Sand quarry 35 30
Farming 37 50
Total 100 100%
Source Fieldwork, 2016

Majority of respondents said they were farmers before migrating to urban region of Lagos State

4.1 Hypothesis-by-hypothesis presentation of result

 In this section, each of the study hypotheses is re-stated to proof whether the hypothesis
is null or alternative. The result of data analysis carried out to test it is presented. Each
hypothesis was tested at .05 level of significance.

4.1.1 Hypothesis One

There is no significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving
from rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.
Independent variable involve in this hypothesis is people moving from rural regions to urban
regions. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analysis was employed to test this
hypothesis. The result of the analysis is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Pearson’s Correlational Coefficient Analysis of the relationship between the

increasing number of people moving from rural regions to urban regions and the job
opportunities available (N =220)

Variables x x2 xY r-value Critical-r

Y Y2

Job opportunities available 3262 6344

73135 0.51 0.138
People moving from rural
regions to urban regions 3092 5463

Significance at 0.05 level, df =198, critical-r = .138

The result in table 1 reveals that the calculated r-value 0f 0.51 is higher than the critical r-
value of 0.138 at 0.05 level of significance with 198 degrees of freedom. With this result the null
hypothesis was rejected. This result implies that people moving from rural regions to urban
regions has a significant relationship with job opportunities available.

Hypothesis Two
 There is no significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to
urban regions and job availability in the rural areas.
Independent variables involve in this hypothesis is Job satisfaction in migrating to urban
regions; while the dependent variable is Job opportunities available. Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient analysis was employed to test this hypothesis. The result of the analysis
is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Pearson’s Correlational Coefficient Analysis of the relationship between the level
of job satisfaction in migrating to urban regions and job availability in the rural areas (N
=220)

Variables x x2 xY r-value Critical-r

Y Y2

Job opportunities available 3176 6154

74647 0.59 0.138
Job satisfaction in migrating to urban
regions 3092 5463

Significance at 0.05 level, df =198, critical-r = .138

The result in table 2 reveals that the calculated r-value of 0.59 is higher than the critical r-
value of 0.138 at 0.05 level of significance with 198 degrees of freedom. With this result the null
hypothesis was rejected. This result therefore means that job satisfaction in migrating to urban
regions has a significant relationship with Job opportunities available.

Hypothesis Three
Rural development does not have any effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria.
 Independent variable involve in this hypothesis is Rural development; dependent variable
is Rural urban migration. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analysis was
employed to test this hypothesis. The result of the analysis is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Pearson’s Correlational Coefficient Analysis of if rural development have any

effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria (N =220)

Variables x x2 xY r-value Critical-r

Y Y2

Rural development 3376 6375

73926 0.47 0.138
Rural urban migration
3092 5463

Significance at 0.05 level, df =198, critical-r = .138

The result in table 3 reveals that the calculated r-value 0f 0.47 is higher than the critical r-
value of 0.138 at 0.05 level of significance with 198 degrees of freedom. With this result the null
hypothesis was rejected. This result therefore means that rural development have effect on rural
urban migration in Nigeria

4.2. Summary of findings

The most important findings of this study were:
However, it has shown that rural development has influence on rural urban migration.
Ledent (2008) concludes that the development of rural-urban migration rates and living standards
follows the following pattern "it first rises, reaches a maximum and then decreases to a value of
zero. After testing hypothesis on this, it was seen that rural development have effect on rural
urban migration in Nigeria with the calculated value 0.59 which is greater than critical r-value
0.138
Based on the results of the study the following were the summary of the study;
 1. There is a significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving from
rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.
2. There is a significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to
urban regions and job availability in the rural areas
3. Rural development do have effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria

4.3 Discussion of Findings

This section is primary concerned with the discussion of findings that emerged from the
results of the analysis.
The result of hypothesis one revealed that, there is a significant relationship between
the increasing number of people moving from rural regions to urban regions and the job
opportunities available.
The rural areas are poorer than urban areas, fewer jobs available in these areas. This is usually
the most important factor "push”. Individuals are "pushed" away from rural areas because push
factors are often characterized by the lack of job opportunities and "pull" factors are those that
make individuals want to come to a given place as urban regions incline to have things that rural
regions do not. They incline to have extra job opportunities (Baig, 2010).
Based on the second hypothesis, the result unveiled that there is a significant relationship
between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to urban regions and job availability in the rural
areas and this agree with Arns and Linney which discovered that improvement in employment
status led to feelings of higher self-efficacy, higher self-esteem and greater overall life
satisfaction that the most reason why people migrate to urban area, it is also very important for a
person to be happy or at least a certain level of satisfaction from their work (Baig, 2010).
On the third hypothesis, result exposed that rural development do have effect on rural
urban migration in Nigeria. This finding is in consonance with the opinion of Mobongunje,
(1980) who said that rural development is “basically a human process "and defines it as being
concerned with the improvement of living standards of low-income rural population living on a
standalone basis by transforming the socio- spatial structures of their productive activities."
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is a summary and conclusion of the entire research work.

The chapter is treated under the following sub-headings:

1.1 Summary of the Study

1.2 Conclusion
1.3 Recommendations

5.1 Summary of the Study

In summary the core subject matter of this study was to look at the job opportunities for
rural-urban migrants in Lagos, Nigeria. In the first chapter, the background of the study
examined rural-urban migration as it went further to depict that the movement in the direction of
traditional pre-colonial centers, Lagos, and the cities of the South-South region of eastern
Nigeria is due largely to the possibilities of employment, to glee in the "good life”, pious study,
trade and the apprentice and agriculture along the parts of the river basin., and then moved to
rural populations as that ushers in rural development and rural improvement. Chapter one
exposes also colonialism in Nigeria.
The statement of problem established the fact that even though Nigeria has rapid growth of
urbanization, Nigeria is predominantly a rural environment and also commend that the nature of
rural conditions to abundant vis-à-vis resources is a paradox. Threats to sustainable development
by transforming rural areas have been created over time by connecting State public policy and
the convolutions of state power via the political economy in determining and undermine control
the means of production and class interests.
The significance of the study showed that the study will help expose the level of the problem to
important stakeholders so that they can seize the opportunity and implement measures to develop
rural areas to reduce the rural-urban exodus.

In a view point it should prove that rural areas are a key sector in the economy of each
nation and their rapid development and modernization have drawn the attention of policy makers
and governments worldwide. Indeed, a large majority of the population lives there so; the
country's future depends largely on it.
Humans can encounter obstacles involved in migration and travel (Baig, 2010). Deserts
and mountains are particularly difficult for man to cross, while forests and cities are easy for
humans to cross (Baig, 2010). Over time, the often human settlements near these difficult
features built as a final judgment in which travelers could refuel and rest before endure travel
difficult (Frank, 2010).
The obstacles which may prevent or slow migrates to get to their destination there are
laws Example - environment and religion -Years, there were more obstacles for immigrants
because we do not have planes, trains, or automobiles, or other means of transport (Baig, 2010).

5.2 Conclusion
The spotlight of the study was an assessment of job opportunities for rural-urban
migrants (case study of Lagos, Nigeria).
The study through the hypotheses showed that job opportunity is related by some
variables, in other words, we now have the following hypotheses based on the result of the study
following conclusions:
1. There is a significant relationship between the increasing number of people moving from
rural regions to urban regions and the job opportunities available.
2. There is a significant relationship between the level of job satisfaction in migrating to
urban regions and job availability in the rural areas
3. Rural development has effect on rural urban migration in Nigeria
To end with, rural inhabitants of the region should not be overlooked in the development
agenda process and they should be motivated by participation in community development. That
government should rehabilitate roads in the area to allow agricultural products to the urban area;
the need to educate farmers on how to preserve the agricultural product is essential and should be
a top most priority. This will inject liberally yield on agricultural products and increase in
financial market expert or transaction.

5.3 Recommendations
However, the effect, the recommendation must be sent to the effect that could be introduced to
solve the problem identified, which should focus on.

1. First, the provision of mechanized method of agriculture through the establishment of

extension officers and government. This will increase agricultural production and income
generation, which will serve development, incentives should be given to rural residents
who serve as active development group reside in the village. It just as wipes out social
introduction which greater part uncovered that one cannot make it in the village.
2. The government should find industries in the fields and make available for investors to
invest in rural areas which will employ the people and reduce the pressure on urban
migration, improve the market standard.
3. Police station should be provided to facilitate the safety of life and property. If the
recommendation is implemented, it will be paid to reduce urban migration and promote
socio- development

References

Todaro, M. P. (2009) "A model of labor migration and urban unemployment in less-developed
countries." American Economic Review, 59: 138-148.

Nwokocha, E.E. (2007). Gender inequality and Development in Nigeria: a Review on Antithesis.
South-South Journal of Culture and Development. Forthcoming.
Massey, D. S., J. Arango, G. Hugo, A. Kouaouci, A. Pellegrino, and J. E. Taylor.(2003)
"Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal." Population and
Development Review, 19 (3): 431-466.

Okafor, E.E. (2005). Corruption and Its Socio-Economic Implications in Nigeria. Nigerian
Journal of Clinical and Counselling Psychology, Vol. 11(1): 1-19.

Djajic, S.(2008) "International Migration, Remittances and Welfare in a Dependent Economy."

Journal of Development Economics, 21: 229-234

Papademetriou, D. G.(1985) "Illusions and Reality in International Migration: Migration and

Development in post World War II Greece." International Migration, XXIII (2): 211-
223.

Adler, S. (1981), A Turkish Conundrum: Emigration, Politics and Development, 1961-1980.

ILO: Geneva.
Penninx, R.1982 "A Critical Review of Theory and Practice: The Case of Turkey." International
Migration Review, 16 (4): 781-818.

Heinemeijer, W. F., J. A. Van Amersfoort, W. Ettema, P. De Mas, and H. Van Der Wusten
(1977), Partir pour rester, une enquête sur les incidences de l'émigration ouvrière à la
campagne marocaine. NUFFIC: Den Haag.
Keely, C., and B. N. Tran.(2010) "Remittances from Labor Migration: Evaluations, Performance,
and Implications." International Migration Review, 23 (3): 500-525.
Beijer, G.(2007), "International and National Migratory Movements." International Migration,
VIII (3): 93-109.
Kindleberger, C. P. (2005), Europe's postwar growth: The role of labor supply. Oxford
University Press: New York.
Bertram, G.2009 "The MIRAB model twelve years on." Contemporary Pacific, 11 (1): 105- 138
Bertram, I. G.2008 "Sustainable Development in Pacific Micro-Economies." World
Development, 14 (7): 809-992.
Hayes, G.1991 "Migration, Metascience, and Development Policy in Island Polynesia." The
Contemporary Pacific, 3 (1): 1-58.
Mckee, D. L., and C. A. Tisdell.1988 "The Developmental Implications of Migration from and
between Small Island Nations." International Migration, 26 (4): 417-426.
Kapur, D. 2003 "Remittances: the new development mantra?" In Book Remittances: the new
development mantra? ed. Editor. City: Palais des Nations. Pp.

Giddens A. 2008. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration.

Cambridge: Polity Press.

Skeldon R. 2007. Migration and Development: A Global Perspective. Essex: Longman.

Massey D. S. et al. 2009. Theories of International Migration: A Review and

Appraisal. Population and Development Review 19(3):431–466.

Stark O. (2008) Economic‐Demographic Interactions in Agricultural Development: The Case of

Rural‐to‐Urban Migration. Rome: FAO.

Stark O. (2009. The Migration of Labor. Cambridge & Oxford: Blackwell.

Stark O. and Levhari D. 2002. On Migration and Risk in LDCs. Economic Development and
Cultural Change 31(1):191–196.

Lucas R. E. B. and Stark O. (2005), Motivations to Remit: Evidence from Botswana. Journal of
Political Economy 93:901–918.

Stark O. and Bloom D. E. (2008). The New Economics of Labor Migration. American Economic
Review 75:173–178.

Taylor E. 1984. Egyptian Migration and Peasant Wives. Merip Reports 124:3–10.
Taylor J. E. 1986. Differential Migration, Networks, Information and Risk” In Migration Theory,
Human Capital and Development. Ed. Stark O. E., editor. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press;
Pp. 147–171.
Taylor J. E. 1999. The New Economics of Labour Migration and the Role of Remittances in the
Migration Process. International Migration 37(1):63–88. [PubMed]

Taylor M. J., Moran‐Taylor M. J. and Ruiz D. R. 2006. Land, Ethnic, and Gender Change:
Transnational Migration and Its Effects on Guatemalan Lives and Landscapes. Geoforum
37(1):41–61.
Taylor J. E. and Wyatt T. J. 1996. The Shadow Value of Migrant Remittances, Income and
Inequality in a Household‐Farm Economy. Journal of Development Studies 32(6):899–
912.

Taylor J. E. et al. 1996a. International Migration and Community Development. Population

Index62(3):397–418.

USAID. Urban Profile; ‘Nigeria’ making cities work. [Online]

available:http//www.makingcitieswork.org/files/pdf/Africa/Nigeria

Iwayemi, A. (2000). Nigeria’s Oil Wealth: the Challenge of Sustainable Development in an

Economy Dependent on Non-Renewable Natural Resources. University of Ibadan
Postgraduate School 31st Interdisciplinary Research Discourse. Ibadan: University of
Ibadan.

Makinwa, Mabawonku, A.F. (2007). The impact of Rural-Urban Migration on the economy of
selected rural communities in western Nigeria. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Department of
Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan.

Udo, Banerjee B. (2004). Information flow, expectations and job search: Rural-to-Urban
migration process in India. Journal of Development Economics. Vol. 15 pp. 239–257.
Yamauchi, F. and Tanabe G. (2003). Non-market networks among migrants: evidence from
Bangkok, Thailand. International Food Policy Research Institute, Discussion Paper No
16.

Ledent J. (2008). Rural-urban migration, urbanization, and economic development, Economic

Development and
Cultural Change, Vol. 30 no 3, 507-538.

Onlinenigeria.com (2016) Migration And Urbanization

Aboyade, O. (2008). Integrated Economics: A study in Developing Economics. London:

Addison - Wesley Publishers. p. 62.

Adedeji, A. and Rowland, L. (1984): Management Problems of Rapid Urbanization in Nigeria.

Ile-lfe: University of Ife press. pp. 8 and 218.

Adefolalu, A. A. (2007). The Significance of Transportation in Rural Development:

Omolade, Adejuyigbe and Frederick M. Helleiner (eds): Environmental and Spatial Factors in
Rural Development in Nigeria. pp. 158-164.

Adejugbe, M. A. (2004). Industrialization, Urbanization and Development in Nigeria: An

Introduction in Industrialization, Urbanization and Development in Nigeria 1950-1999.
Concept Publications Limited. pp. 11, 15-16.

Adepoju, A. (1990). "State and Review of Migration in Africa". In Conference on Role of

Migration in African Development: Issues and Policies for the '90s, vol.1, commissioned
paper, Dakar Senegal, Union for African Population Studies. pp. 3-44.

Adewale, J. G. (2005). Socio - Economic Factors Associated with Urban-Rural Migration in

Nigeria: A case study of Oyo State, Nigeria. Department of Agricultural Economics and
Extension, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Ladoke Akintola University on Technology,
Ogbomoso, Nigeria. pp. 1, 14-15. JHE-17-1-013-016-2005-1203-Adewale-J-G.PDF.

Adegoke. (2011). An Appraisal of the Factors Influencing Rural-Urban Migration in Some

Selected Local Government Areas of Lagos State Nigeria.

Baig. (2010). Migration Push and Pull Factors/ Global Migration Patterns Version 2 .

Frank. (2010). Determinants of Migration:.

Hein. (2010). Migration and development: a theoretical perspective.

Castle, Miller Abah, N. (2010) Development Administration: A Multi–Disciplinary Approach.

Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publishers.
Gadd, Abonyi, N and Nnamani O. (2011) “Development and Food Crisis in Emerging Economy:
A critical Appraisal of Nigeria”. Nigerian Journal of Administrative Science Vol. 9 No. 1
Pgs. 245 – 278.
Afolayan, S. O. (2005). Community Mobilization for Rural Development in Bangladesh:
Lessons for Nigeria. Ilorin: Agricultural and Rural Management Training Institute,
ARMTI.
Schumacher, Aslam, Agyemang I and Abu S. R (2013) Rural-Urban Migration and Rural
Community Development: A case of Kpongu Community of Upper West Region of
Ghana. African Journal of History and Culture. Vol. 5(4), pp. 72-77
Aliy, A. (1999). Short and Medium Poverty Reduction Strategies in Nigeria. Abuja: Family
Economic Advancement Programme.
Aslm, M. (1981). Rural Development in India. Journal of Bangladesh Academy for Rural
Development, Comilla, X (1/2)
Ele, C. (2006) Evangelization through Rural Development. Nsukka: Great AP Publishers Ltd.
Enugu State (2009) Medium Term Implementation Plan–Enugu State Vision 2020–
(2010–2013). Enugu State Government Publication.
Ezeah, P. (2005) Rural Sociology and Rural Development with Focus on Nigeria. Enugu: John
Jacob Classic Publishers.
Laah, D.E., Abba, M., Ishaya, D.S. and Gana J.N (2013) The Mirage Of Rural Development In
Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences and Public Policy, Volume 5, Number 2, 2013
Nyagba, S. (2009) “Review of Nigeria’s Rural Development Policy for sustainable
Development” paper presented at Business Round Table at Abuja, 9 –11 July.

Ugwuanyi B. I and Chukwuemeka E. O (2013) Enhancing Rural Development in Nigeria:

Periscoping the Impediments and Exploring Imperative Measures. Kuwait Chapter of
Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review Vol. 2, No. 7

Cornwell, K. and Inder, B. (2004) Migration and Unemployment in South Africa: When
Motivation Surpasses the Theory. Australia; Monash University.

Todaro, M. P. (1969): "A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less
Developed Countries," American Economic Review, 69: 486-499.
Todaro, M., P., (1976), Internal Migration in Developing Countries, International Labour Office,
Geneva.

Riadh B. J. (1998) Rural-Urban Migration: on the Harris-Todaro Model. Maître de Conférences

à l’ université de Bretagne Sud C.E.I.E

Arellano, J. P. (1981): "Do More Jobs in the Modern Sector Increase Urban Unemployment?”
Journal of Development Economics, 8: 241-247.

Mohtadi, H. (1989): "Migration and Job Search in a Dualistic Economy: A Todaro-Stigler

Synthesis", Economics Letters, 29: 373-378.

Vishwanath, T. (1991): "Information Flow, Job Search and Migration", Journal of Development
Economics, 36: 313-335.

Fields, G. S. (1975): "Rural-Urban Migration, Urban Unemployment and Underemployment, and

Job-Search Activity in LDCs," Journal of Development Economics, 2 (2): 165-187.

Fields, G. S. (1989): "On-the-Job Search in a Labour Market Model: Ex ante Choices and Ex-
post Outcomes," Journal of Development Economics, 30: 159-178.

Amano, M. (1983): "On the Harris-Todaro Model with Intersectoral Migration of Labour,"
Economica : 311-323.

Barlett,W. (1983): "On the Dynamic Instability of Induced-Migration Unemployment in a Dual

Economy," Journal of Development Economics, 13, pp.85-96.

Funatsu, H. (1988): "A Note on the Stability of the Harris-Todaro Model with Capital Mobility,"
Economica, 55 (217): 119-121.

Neary,J. P. (1988): "Stability of the Mobile Capital Harris-Todaro Model : Some Further
Results," Economica, Vol. 48, pp. 123-127.

Collier, P. and D., Lal (1984): "Why Poor People get Rich Kenya: 1960-1979", World
Development, vol. 12, N°10:1007-1018.

Banerjee, B. (1981): "Rural-Urban Migration and Family Ties: an Analysis of Family

Considerations in Migration Behaviour in India", Oxford Bulletin of Economics and
Statistics, November: 321-355.

Ulack, R. (1986): "Ties to Origin, Remittances and Mobility: Evidence from Rural and Urban
Areas in the Philippine", The Journal of Developing Areas, 20, April: 339-356.

Stark, O. (1991): The Migration of Labor. Oxford and Cambridge, M.A.: Basil Blackwell.
 APPENDIX I:

Questionnaires and Interviews

I am a Master’s student researching on “ASSESMENT OF JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR

RURAL PEOPLE MIGRATING TO LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA.”

I will appreciate your effort and sincerity in providing me with the answers to the following
questions as might be applicable for you. This is mainly restricted for academic purposes ONLY
and any information provided shall be confidentially treated.

Questionnaires and Interviews

Please, kindly complete the followings by answering (filling or ticking) appropriately as
applicable to you. This is for educational/ scientific research purposes ONLY.

SECTION A: BIO-INFORMATION

What is?

1. Your Local Government Area of origin____________

2. Your State of origin: ______________

3. Your Age (in years): 18-20□ 21- 30□ 31-40□ 41- 50□ 51-60□ 61-70□

4. Gender ………

5. Marital status: Single □ married □ Separated □ divorced □ widow/widower □

6. Occupation:

7. Occupational experience (in years): ___

8. Number of Children (if you have kids): _______

9. Educational Status/Level of qualification: Primary □ Secondary □

Technical □ Tertiary (NCE, Bachelor) □ Post Graduate (Master, PhD) □

No formal Education □

10. How long have u resided/lived in Lagos State (in years; if you are not a citizen)?

Less than 10 □ 11-20 □ 21-30 □ 31- 40 □ 41-50 □ 51- 60 □ above 60 □

11. What are the most significant job Opportunity in your area? (Please tick as many as are
applicable)

Job opportunities Tick

Teaching (primary/Secondary School)
Administrative Assistant
Restaurant
Banks
Sand quarry
Market
Post office
Police station
Secretary
Railway
Clerk
Hospital/Health center
Fishing
Logistics
Others…………..specify

12. What are the different ways in which your present job as improved your standard of living
economically. (HINT: Scale of 0%- 100%. Where 100% is satisfactory)

Living Standard Scale- 100%

Economic Success

Economic Security

Food Security

Basic Needs

Health Condition

Education and Qualification

Social Security

Job Security

13. What are the reasons why you moved from your rural area to Lagos State?

(Tick more than one reason if applicable)

Education

Better standard of living

Good job

Networking

Social Acceptance

14. Has your hopes and expectation been met during the period of living in Lagos state?

YES NO
15. If Yes or No, Explain your reasons.

16. What is your average income per month/annum?

17. Do you have a kind of insurance or Pension scheme? (Social security, insurance, pension,
siblings, children)

18. What is the Security situation of your region of origin (insurgence, armed groups, and
criminal groups?)

19. Did you migrate to Lagos from a rural region to Lagos in the past five years?

20. Why did you migrate….……… Specify……….

21. What are the job opportunities in your area of origin?