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Analytical Modeling of High Damping Rubber Bearings

Article in Journal of Structural Engineering · August 1997

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(1997)123:8(1029)

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EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789 (DOI: 10.1002/eqe.120)

A mathematical hysteretic model for elastomeric

isolation bearings

J. S. Hwang1; ∗; † , J. D. Wu1 , T.-C. Pan2 and G. Yang2

1 Department of Construction Engineering; National Taiwan University of Science and Technology;
P.O. Box 90–130; Taipei; Taiwan.
2 Protective Technology Research Centre; School of Civil and Structural Engineering; Nanyang Technological

University; Nanyang Avenue; Singapore

SUMMARY
An analytical model for high damping elastomeric isolation bearings is presented in this paper. The
model is used to describe mathematically the damping force and restoring force of the rubber material
and bearing. Ten parameters to be identi:ed from cyclic loading tests are included in the model. The
sensitivity of the ten parameters in a<ecting the model is examined. These ten parameters are functions
of a number of in>uence factors on the elastomer such as the rubber compound, Mullins e<ect, scragging
e<ect, frequency, temperature and axial load. In this study, however, only the Mullins e<ect, scragging
e<ect, frequency and temperature are investigated. Both material tests and shaking table tests were
performed to validate the proposed model. Based on the comparison between the experimental and
the analytical results, it is found that the proposed analytical model is capable of predicting the shear
force–displacement hysteresis very accurately for both rubber material and bearing under cyclic loading
reversals. The seismic response time histories of the bearing can also be captured, using the proposed
analytical model, with a practically acceptable precision. Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: seismic isolation; isolation bearing; analytical modelling; shaking table test; material test

1. INTRODUCTION

The excellent performances of the University of Southern California Hospital during the 1994
Northridge earthquake and the Japan Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications Building
during the 1995 Kobe earthquake have demonstrated the e<ectiveness of seismic isolation
for the earthquake protection of engineering structures. The number of applications of base
isolation technology to the seismic protection of important structures has rapidly increased

∗ Correspondence to: J. S. Hwang, Department of Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science
and Technology, P.O. Box 90–130, Taipei, Taiwan.
† E-mail: JSH@mail.ntust.edu.tw

Contract=grant sponsor: National Science Council of Taiwan; contract=grant number: NSC-89-2625-Z011-005.

Received 15 November 2000

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 27 June 2001
772 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

after the two recent major quakes. Various types of isolation bearings have been adopted in
the construction of isolated structures. Among them, the high damping elastomeric bearings,
lead rubber bearings and friction pendulum systems have been extensively applied. Regarding
the analytical modelling of the shear force–displacement hysteresis curve of these isolation
bearings, the lead–rubber bearings and the friction pendulum systems can be well represented
by a bi-linear hysteresis loop. However, there has been relatively few simple or sophisticated
analytical model of high damping elastomeric isolation bearings, which can be incorporated
into design speci:cations or commercially available computation programs for time history
analysis of isolated structures. In most design codes, an equivalent linear model composed of
an e<ective shear modulus (sti<ness) and an equivalent damping ratio is usually assumed for
the application of equivalent lateral force procedure [1–4]. The time history analysis may be
used for the :nal check of the design.
Resulting from the extensive research conducted in the past two decades, it has been well
recognized that the hysteresis behaviour of high damping elastomeric isolation bearings may
strongly depend on the compounding, vulcanization, excitation frequency, ambient temperature,
experienced shear strain level and axial load. These in>uence factors have resulted in the
complexity of the shear force–displacement relationship of high damping elastomeric bearings
that exhibit a highly non-linear, viscoelastic, viscoplastic and thixotropic constitutive properties
[5]. As a consequence, there exist very few sophisticated plasticity-based analytical models
suitable for time history analysis of isolated structures with high damping elastomeric bearings.
In recent years, a few mathematical models of high damping elastomeric isolation bearings
have been proposed. Pan and Yang [6] proposed a model in which the restoring force and the
damping force of a bearing were, respectively, represented by two equations with a total of 11
parameters. The parameters were to be determined from bearing material tests. The equation
of restoring force was used to describe the skeleton curve of the shear force–displacement
loop, while the equation of damping force was adopted to represent the loop area. However,
Pan and Yang’s model [6] is unable to describe the Mullins e<ect [7–10] and the scragging
e<ect [11; 12] on the bearings. Similar to Pan and Yang’s model, Kikuchi and Aiken [13]
proposed a mathematical model to describe the restoring force and the damping force of the
bearings. The model is able to predict the strain hardening and cyclic softening of the bearing.
Another model proposed by Hwang and Ku [14] has adopted the fractional derivative Kelvin
model to predict the seismic time history responses of bearings. In their proposed model, the
relative velocity term of the equation of motion is replaced by the fractional derivative of
the relative displacement. However, this model was used only to predict the seismic response
time histories of high damping elastomeric bearings. The phase lag between the shear force
and displacement time histories could not be well described by the model. Therefore, the
hysteresis could not be accurately predicted.
In this paper, the mathematical model of Pan and Yang is modi:ed. The number of pa-
rameters used by Pan and Yang are reduced, and the model is extended to possess the
capability of describing the Mullins e<ect and the scragging e<ect of high damping rub-
ber bearings. Cyclic loading tests of high damping rubber material were performed to val-
idate the capability of the proposed model. The e<ects of Mullins, scragging, frequency
and temperature on the elastomer are included in the material tests. In addition, shaking
table tests of a ridge block isolated by four high damping elastomeric bearings were also
performed to validate the capability of the model to predict the seismic responses of the
bearings.

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 773

2. PROPOSED MATHEMATICAL MODEL

In the mathematical model proposed by Pan and Yang [6], the shear force experienced by
the bearing is attributed to the sum of the restoring force and the damping force. The model
is written in the form of
F(x(t); ẋ(t)) = F1 (x(t); ẋ(t)) + F2 (x(t); ẋ(t))
(1)
= K(x(t); ẋ(t))x(t) + C(x(t); ẋ(t))ẋ(t)
in which F(x(t); ẋ(t)) is the shear force transmitted by the bearing which is composed of the
restoring force F1 (x(t); ẋ(t)) and the damping force F2 (x(t); ẋ(t)); K(x(t); ẋ(t)) the sti<ness
of the bearing; and C(x(t); ẋ(t)) the damping coeQcient. Both the sti<ness and damping
coeQcient are functions of the relative displacement and relative velocity of the bearing. The
sti<ness skeleton and the damping coeQcient are, respectively, expressed in the following
mathematical forms:

b1 + b2 x2 (t) + b3 x4 (t) b7
K(x(t); ẋ(t)) = + (2)
b4 + b5 x (t) + b6 x (t) cosh (b8 ẋ(t))
2 4 2

b9 + b10 x2 (t)
C(x(t); ẋ(t)) =
(3)
b11 + ẋ2 (t)

The 11 parameters b1 –b11 are constants to be determined from the cyclic loading tests of any
particular elastomeric bearing to be used in the construction of a base-isolated structure.
Inspecting Equations (2) and (3), one :nds that both the sti<ness skeleton and damping
coeQcient are independent of the loading history. The model is, therefore, not capable of
predicting the cyclic softening behaviour that may be attributed to the Mullins and scragging
e<ects. In addition, the second term of Equation (2) is an even function of x(t) and can be
simpli:ed to a function with only three parameters rather than six parameters. The model is
then modi:ed and rewritten as
F1 (x(t); ẋ(t)) = K(x(t); ẋ(t))x(t)

t 
2 4 a4 ea9 0 F(x(t); ẋ(t))dx(t) (4)
= a1 + a2 x (t) + a3 x (t) + 2
x(t)
cosh (a5 ẋ(t))
and
F2 (x(t); ẋ(t)) = C(x(t); ẋ(t))ẋ(t)
a6 + a7 x2 (t)
t
(5)
=
(1 + ea10 0 F(x(t); ẋ(t))dx(t) )ẋ(t)
a28 + ẋ2 (t)
Comparing Equations (2) and (3), respectively, with Equations (4) and (5), one sees that the
:rst term of Equation (2) involving parameters b1 –b6 is replaced by a simpler form with only
three parameters a1 –a3 . Regarding the cyclic softening of the hysteresis loop attributed to the
t
Mullins and scragging e<ects, a4 and a9 together with 0 F(x(t); ẋ(t)) dx(t) are used to describe
t
the degradation of sti<ness, and the combination of a10 and 0 F(x(t); ẋ(t)) dx(t) is employed

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789
774 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

t
to describe the decrease of loop area. The term 0 F(x(t); ẋ(t)) dx(t) is the energy dissipated
by the elastomer material or bearing during cyclic loading reversals. The 10 parameters of
Equations (4) and (5) can be identi:ed by the best :t to the cyclic loading test results
of a particular rubber compound. The best :t to the test results can be done using available
commercial computer programs. However, since the identi:cation is performed in a 10 variable
space, many local minima may exist in the identi:cation process. However, it is not the
aim of this study to establish the relationship of these 10 parameters to the aforementioned
in>uence factors, but to demonstrate the potential of the proposed model in predicting the
force–displacement hysteresis and the seismic response of high damping rubber bearings.

3. MODEL ILLUSTRATION AND VALIDATION BY MATERIAL TESTS

For model illustration and validation, analytical simulation is carried out for the test specimen
designed according to the ASTM D2231 speci:cations [15]. The test set-up is shown in
Figure 1 in which the temperature chamber is used to control the ambient temperature of the
rubber material. The test specimen is composed of two rubber layers with a dimension of
4:5 cm × 4:5 cm × 1:5 cm.
The proposed model given in Equations (4) and (5) is illustrated by one cycle of hysteresis
shown in Figures 2(a) and 2(b). From the :gure, it can be seen that Equation (4) describes
the skeleton curve (sti<ness) of the hysteresis curve, while Equation (5) represents the area
of the loop. The hysteresis loop is thus obtained by the superposition of Equations (4) and
(5). The :gure also shows that the model is capable of representing the strain hardening of

Figure 1. Set-up of material test.

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 775

Figure 2. Hysteresis curve represented by Equation (1) : (a) low shear

strain level, (b) high shear strain level.

the hysteresis curve at a higher shear strain, assuming a total rubber thickness is 1:5 cm as
conforming to the speci:cations of ASTM D2231.
In order to examine the model sensitivity to the variation of the parameters, a numerical
example is deduced from the following set of assumed parameters:

a1 = 1738:772; a2 = − 100:664; a3 = 14:354; a4 = 1543:973; a5 = 0:2464;

a6 = 1051:754; a7 = 64:577; a8 = 4:188; a9 = − 0:0000416 and a10 = − 0:000881:

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789
776 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 3. (a) – (j) Sensitivity of parameter variation on hysteresis loop.

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789
 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 777

Figure 3. Continued.

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778 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 3. Continued.

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 779

Figure 3. Continued.

The sensitivity of the hysteresis loop to the parameter variation is shown in Figure 3. From
Figures 3(a) to 3(c), it can be seen that the sti<ness skeleton of the hysteresis loop is largely
dependent on a1 while the sti<ness at a larger shear strain can be slightly adjusted by a2 and
a3 . According to Figures 3(d) and 3(e), the strain hardening (or softening) behaviour of the
rubber occurring at a higher shear strain may be described primarily by a4 and a5 . Based on
Figures 3(f) and 3(h), the loop area is largely dependent on a6 while the minor adjustment
of the loop area may be made by a8 . The loop area at a higher shear strain can be further
adjusted by a7 as shown in Figure 3(g). Figures 3(i) and 3(j) illustrate that the parameters a9
and a10 are used to adjust, respectively, the sti<ness skeleton and area of the hysteresis loop
a<ected by cyclic softening. However, it is important to note that these 10 parameters do not
independently describe any particular rubber behaviour. The complexity of rubber behaviour
such as its dependency on the e<ects of Mullins, scragging, temperature and frequency should
be described as a whole by the combination of the 10 parameters.
For validation of the proposed model, a series of material tests were conducted using the test
specimens manufactured according to the ASTM D2231 speci:cations. The test programme
was designed to include the combined Mullins and scragging e<ects (or cyclic softening),
temperature e<ect and frequency e<ect. For the cyclic softening e<ect and the strain hardening
behaviour, two types of tests were performed. In the :rst type of test, a pre-200 per cent and
a post-200 per cent tests were conducted. In the pre-200 per cent test, an ASTM D2231
specimen in the virgin state (which has never been strained) was imposed a sinusoidal cyclic
shear strain time history. The amplitude of the strain time history varied from 25 to 200 per
cent with a step increment of 25 per cent. The excitation frequency was set to 0:5 Hz, and
the ambient temperature was 25◦ C. Following the pre-200 per cent test, the post-200 per cent
test was done for the same specimen by repeating the pre-200 per cent test procedures. In the
second type of cyclic softening test, three cycles of shear strains with the strain amplitude
of 200 per cent and an excitation frequency of 0:5 Hz were exerted to the specimen at
the ambient temperature of 25◦ C. The comparison between the experimental results and the
predicted results are summarized in Figures 4 and 5. The parameters used for the analytical

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789
780 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 4. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops with Mullins and scrag-
ging e<ects (a) pre-200 per cent test; (b) post-200 per cent test (frequency = 0:5 Hz, ambient
temperature = 25◦ C, maximum shear strain = 200 per cent).

prediction are identi:ed and given in Table I. From the good agreement between the measured
and calculated hysteresis loops shown in the :gures, it is proved that the proposed model is
capable of predicting both the cyclic softening and the strain hardening behaviours of the
rubber material.
In the study of frequency e<ect, two additional tests were conducted. In the tests, the
maximum sinusoidal shear strain was set to 200 per cent, the ambient temperature was 25◦ C,

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 781

Figure 5. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops with cyclic softening
(frequency = 0:5 Hz, ambient temperature = 25◦ C, maximum shear strain = 200 per cent).

Table I. Identi:ed parameters from pre-200 per cent and post-200 per cent tests at
ambient temperature of 25◦ C.
Test name Pre-200% Post-200%
◦
Ambient temperature 25 C 25◦ C
Frequency 0:5 Hz 0:5 Hz
a1 1583.6091 1704.3652
a2 −78:1870 −137:1095
a3 15.5325 22.0410
a4 1668.2189 1047.3427
a5 0.1983 0.2081
a6 524.39145 1111.1305
a7 65.9870 159.3100
a8 3.1131 7.3912
a9 −0:00002668 −0:0000388
a10 −0:00001033 −0:0001408

and two excitation frequencies of 0.1 and 0:25 Hz were selected. The predicted results are
compared with the experimental results in Figure 6. The parameters used for the analytical
prediction are summarized in Table II. From Figures 6(a) and 6(b), it is seen that the measured
and the calculated hysteresis loops have an excellent agreement. Therefore, the proposed model
is validated for its capability of predicting the rubber behaviour under di<erent excitation
frequencies.

Copyright ? 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn. 2002; 31:771–789
782 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 6. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops under di<erent excitation fre-
quencies (ambient temperature = 25◦ C, maximum shear strain = 200 per cent): (a) 0:1 Hz; (b) 0:25 Hz.

In the study of ambient temperature e<ect, the ambient temperature of 15◦ C was selected
for the additional pre-200 per cent and post-200 per cent tests. The temperature chamber
shown in the test set-up was adjusted to the desired temperature, and the test specimen was
stored in the chamber for 6 h under the desired temperature. The excitation frequency was set
to 0:5 Hz. The temperature rise of the specimen during the cyclic shearing was not measured
and therefore ignored in this study. The analytical results are obtained using the parameters
shown in Table III. The good agreement between the analytical and the experimental results

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 783

Table II. Identi:ed parameters from cyclic loading tests with di<erent frequencies.
Ambient temperature 25◦ C 25◦ C
Frequency 0:25 Hz 0:1 Hz
a1 1577.702 1509.6648
a2 −98:1952 −94:6882
a3 17.10282 15.703
a4 1081.1868 730.9324
a5 0.3765 1.0604
a6 946.73 959.87783
a7 151.8655 130.1016
a8 3.8344 2.0306
a9 −0:00004702 −0:00008286
a10 −0:000121711 −0:0001885

Table III. Identi:ed parameters from pre-200 per cent and post-200 per cent tests at
ambient temperature of 15◦ C.
Test name Pre-200% Post-200%
◦
Ambient temperature 15 C 15◦ C
Frequency 0:5 Hz 0:5 Hz
a1 1945.8880 1963.4798
a2 −131:2877 −163:6552
a3 23.1433 24.1891
a4 1786.8395 1245.0611
a5 0.1835 0.1968
a6 952.6484 963.4797
a7 86.3016 59.6571
a8 3.1305 3.8739
a9 −0:00001900 −0:00002180
a10 −0:00000836 −0:00000888

shown in Figures 4 and 7 depicts that the proposed model is capable of predicting the rubber
behaviour under various ambient temperatures.

4. MODEL VALIDATION BY SHAKING TABLE TEST

Following the model validation by the material tests, shaking table tests were conducted
as shown in Figure 8, in which four square rubber bearings were used to support a rigid
steel block. The total weight of the steel block was approximately equal to 91 kN. The plan
dimension of the bearings is 102 mm × 102 mm. The rubber bearing is composed of six layers
of 5 mm rubber and four steel shim plates of 1 mm. A sinusoidal test was performed with an
excitation frequency of 2:5 Hz, and the maximum peak ground acceleration was set to 0:55g.

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784 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 7. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops (ambient

temperature = 15◦ C, maximum shear strain = 200 per cent, frequency = 0:5 Hz)
(a) pre-200 per cent test; (b) post 200 per cent test.

The predicted and experimental hysteresis loops are compared in Figure 9, from which the
following set of parameters are identi:ed:

a1 = 151490:62; a2 = − 27368761:2; a3 = 11822447:3; a4 = 186709:2; a5 = 1:49;

a6 = 4060:25; a7 = 1792883:1; a8 = 1:288; a9 = − 0:00041 and a10 = − 0:00051:

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 785

Figure 8. Shaking table test set-up.

In addition to the sinusoidal test, the 200 per cent N–S component of the 1940 El Centro
earthquake was used to excite the test model. The acceleration and displacement time histories
were measured at the steel block and shown in Figure 10. To predict the seismic responses
of the test model, the parameters identi:ed from the sinusoidal test are used for the analysis.
However, it should be noted that during the sinusoidal test, the frequency of the bearing re-
sponse is the same as the sinusoidal excitation frequency of 2.5 Hz. This frequency is di<erent
from the response frequency of the test model under the 200 per cent El Centro earthquake.
Assuming the test model as a single degree of freedom system, the seismic responses of the
test model are calculated and compared with the measured responses in Figure 10. From the
:gure, it is seen that the model can be used to predict the seismic responses of the bearings
with an accuracy that is acceptable for practical engineering applications. In addition to
the comparison with the time histories, the measured hysteresis loops are also compared with
the calculated hysteresis loops as shown in Figure 11. From the :gure, it can be seen that
the experimental hysteresis is well captured by the analysis result.
From the shaking table test validation, it can be concluded that if there exists enough cyclic
loading test data for a particular type of high damping elastomeric isolation bearing under
various environmental circumstances, the set of parameters of the proposed model can then
be established. Thus, the seismic responses of an isolated structure with this particular type
of bearings could be predicted with a practically acceptable accuracy.

5. CONCLUSIONS

An analytical hysteresis model of elastomeric isolation bearings has been proposed in this
study. The model has simple mathematical expressions for the sti<ness skeleton and damping

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786 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 9. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops of one bearing
under shaking table sinusoidal test (ambient temperature = 25◦ C, frequency = 2:5 Hz,
PGA = 0:55g) (a) measured response; (b) predicted response.

coeQcient. With extensive correlation between the experimental results and the predicted re-
sponses, the model has been proved to be capable of accurately predicting the behaviour of
rubber material as well as bearings subject to dynamic shear loadings. The model can be used
to describe the complicated hysteresis behaviour of both rubber materials and bearings, which
are subject to strain hardening, combined Mullins and scragging e<ects, excitation frequency
e<ect and ambient temperature e<ect. Based on the study, it is concluded that the proposed

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 ELASTOMERIC ISOLATION BEARINGS 787

Figure 10. Comparison between measured and predicted response time histories of isolated rigid block
subject to 200 per cent 1940 El Centro earthquake: (a) acceleration response; (b) displacement response.

model is capable of predicting not only the seismic responses of an isolated structure but also
the force–displacement behaviour of the elastomeric isolation bearings. However, it should be
noted that, for an elastomeric isolation bearing with speci:c ingredients, further studies are re-
quired before the establishment of a generalized relationship between the parameters of the pro-
posed model and the various factors in>uencing the characteristics of the elastomeric bearing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan under Grant No. NSC-89-2625-
Z011-005. The support is greatly acknowledged.

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788 J. S. HWANG ET AL.

Figure 11. Comparison between measured and predicted hysteresis loops of one bearing subject to 200
per cent 1940 El Centro earthquake: (a) measured hysteresis loops; (b) predicted hysteresis response.

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