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Hebrews and Suffering
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Denver Seminary
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Arts in Biblical Studies
by
Bryan R. Dyer
May 2009
APPROVED BY:
~.
I
&W<P,_/
(~
hI\- ~--sr-
To Anna, my wife.
111
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter
ONE SUFFERING IN JEWISH AND GREEK THOUGHT 7

Suffering in the OT 8
Educative/Disciplinary Suffering in the OT 10
Suffering for Being Set Apart By God in the OT 17
Suffering in Hellenism 20
Suffering in Intertestamental Literature 24
Conclusion 29
TWO BACKGROUND TO THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS 31

Background of Author, Audience and Setting 31
Issues Involving the Text of Hebrews 41
Conclusion 50
THREE THE SUFFERING OF CHRIST IN HEBREWS 51

Hebrews 2:5-18 52
Hebrews 4:14-5:10 62
Hebrews 12:1-3 71
Hebrews 13:11-14 73
Conclusion 75
FOUR THE SUFFERING OF BELIEVERS IN HEBREWS 78

Not a Theodicy 78
Suffering as a Part of the Christian Experience 80
Suffering as a Result of Obedience 80
Suffering as a Result of Following Christ.. 84
Suffering as Divine Discipline 86
Conclusion ,. 92
IV
Chapter
FIVE FEMINIST CRITICISM OF SUFFERING IN HEBREWS 93

A Feminist Critique of Suffering in Hebrews 94
Concern One: No Suffering Should be Understood as Redemptive 98
The Unique Nature of Jesus' Suffering as a
Process of Perfection 101
Concern Two: Jesus as a Model of Suffering Encourages Believers
to Seek Suffering 102
Jesus as a Model of Endurance in Suffering; Not
Remaining in Suffering 102
Jesus as a Model of Endurance Since He Experienced
Similar Suffering 104
Concern Three: Jesus Sent to Suffer Equals Divine Abuse 105
Does Hebrews Glorify Suffering? 108
Conclusion 110
CONCLUSION 112
BIBLIOGRAPHy 115
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My interest in the epistle to the Hebrews began while on a semester abroad at Oak Hill
College in Southgate, London. I was given the opportunity to study this epistle at the seminary
level under the supervision of Dr. David Peterson. His work on Hebrews and Perfection serves
as a launching point for another examination of an important theme in the epistle. I am indebted
to his work. I title this study Hebrews and Suffering as reminder to this fact.
I am also indebted to the faculty at Denver Seminary for their input and time during the
early stages of this study. I want to acknowledge Dr. Craig Blomberg specifically for his help in
every stage of this paper's development. He directed me in my research and helped strengthen the
argument of this thesis. Also, Dr. Bruce Demarest provided wonderful comments and
encouragement which added to the depth of this paper's argument. It was a privilege to work
under these great biblical scholars.
I would also like to acknowledge my friends and family who served as encouragement
during the process of writing and revision. My parents-Rich and Mary Dyer-encouraged me
early on in my studies and modeled hard work and the value of education. The young adult group
at Eastern Hills Community Church in Aurora, CO put up with me during the writing process.
They had to endure numerous sermons on suffering from the epistle to the Hebrews as the topic
consumed my spiritual life. Finally, my wife, Anna, for her constant encouragement and love.
For two years, she patiently supported me as this paper took over much of my time. Anna helped
with the editing and structure of this thesis. Furthermore, she served as the motivation to not just
finish, but to finish well.
VI
INTRODUCTION
The epistle to the Hebrews is best seen as written to a community of believers who
struggled with abandoning their faith. Most likely, the author of the epistle was addressing a
community currently or potentially facing persecution. The book encourages its readers to
persevere in their faith so that they will not "grow weary and lose heart" (12:3). In order to do
this, the epistle focuses a great deal of attention on the issue of suffering. The author reminds
them of times of personal prosperity during suffering (10:32-34) and of examples of faith in
suffering from Old Testament figures (11 :35-40), and encourages them that growth results from
it (12:7). More significantly, the author draws attention to the suffering of Christ. Jesus was
made perfect "through what he suffered" (2: 10) and learned obedience from what he suffered
(5:8). As a means of encouragement, and being rich in Christological and theological meaning,
suffering is a prominent theme in the epistle to the Hebrews.
This thesis will study the theme of suffering in Hebrews in order to assess its contribution
to an interpretation of the epistle, clarify its meaning, and apply its findings to the Christian life.
It will argue that the suffering of Christ does not refer just to the passion events, but rather to his
life of faithful obedience to God. This suffering was the means by which Christ was perfected
and learned obedience. Furthermore, Christ's endurance in the face of suffering provides a model
for the Christian to follow.
A common interpretation of Jesus' suffering in Hebrews is that it refers solely to his death
on the cross. William Lane's commentary presents this understanding when he writes on 5:8 ("he
learned obedience from what he suffered")!, "The term t~V UTIlX.KO~V, 'obedience,' has a very
specific meaning; it is obedience to the call to suffer death in accordance with the revealed will
I All Scripture passages are cited from the Today's New International Version translation.
1
of God. Jesus freely accepted the suffering of death because Scripture, and through it God,
appointed him to this sacrifice for the sake of his office.,,2 Along with Christ's death, many
scholars place Jesus' suffering in Hebrews 5:7-10 with his prayers and cries in Gethsemane. 3
This view extends his "suffering" from just the crucifixion, but still keeps it within the passion
events.
Some scholars, however, allow Jesus' suffering in Hebrews to mean more than the events
leading up to his death. More recently, Luke Timothy Johnson's 2006 commentary on the book
of Hebrews contains a multi-page excursus on the issue of suffering. In it, he reasons that "if
Hebrews thinks of Jesus as 'learning from the things he suffered,' then it must have more in mind
than the physical suffering of Jesus' passion.,,4 His conclusion is that Christ's obedient faith is
itself a type of suffering. Furthermore, "since for Hebrews Jesus is the pioneer as well as the
perfecter of such obedient faith (12:2), he has shown the path toward maturity also for all those
'sons being led to glory.",5
Most scholars identify the existence of persecution facing the epistle's original readers,
but few emphasize the prominence of the theme of suffering within the book. Some, however,
have sought to bring this emphasis out. In his commentary on Hebrews, Craig Koester outlines
the epistle in light of the theme of suffering. While leaving room for introductions, concluding
remarks, and "transitional digressions," Koester emphases three main sections: "Jesus receives
glory through faithful suffering-a way that others are called to follow" (2: 10-5: 10); "Jesus'
2 William Lane, Hebrews 1-8 (Dallas, TX: Word, 1991), 12l.

3 Edgar McKnight and Christopher Church, Hebrews-James (Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2004), 122.
4 Luke Timothy Johnson, Hebrews: A Commentary (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 149.
5 Ibid., 152.
2
suffering is the sacrifice that enables other to approach God" (7: 1-1 0:25); and "People of God
persevere by faith through suffering to glory" (11: 1-12:24).6
Other recent works point to the prominent theme of suffering in Hebrews. In an article for
the Australian Biblical Review, Norman Young emphasizes the author's pastoral concern for his
audience to "step out boldly for Christ.,,7 To do this, he writes, the author makes many
theological assertions about Jesus' suffering to his audience as well as simply encouraging them
by way of a reminder of what Christ endured. In "The Road to Perfection," Jeanne Stevenson-
Moessner dwells on the concept of Christ's suffering as a model for Christians to follow and
ponders how far Christians (especially women) should take suffering. What is justified suffering,
she asks, or does it even exist?8
These writings, and many others, have been influenced by the insightful work Hebrews
and Perfection by David Peterson. In it, Peterson argues that Jesus' "life of obedience, his
sacrificial death and heavenly exaltation are the means by which he was perfected.,,9 Put simply,
Christ's perfection was a process. In tum, believers are "perfected" by the very same "actions
and accomplishments" that perfected Christ. Furthermore, "the perfecting of Christ 'through
suffering' provides a pattern for Christian discipleship." 10
In many ways, Peterson's work lays a framework for this present study. Peterson argues
that this teaching on the perfecting of Christ and of his believers is more central to Hebrews than
scholars have allowed. The idea that suffering plays a prominent role in the book of Hebrews
flows from that same argument. Given this hypothesis, it is crucial to understand what is meant
by "suffering" and what its purposes are in the epistle. This study hopes that by giving proper
6 Craig R. Koester, Hebrews (New York: Doubleday, 2001),83-86.

7 Norman H. Young, "Suffering: A Key to the Epistle to the Hebrews," Australian Biblical Review 51 (2003): 59.
8 Jeanne Stevenson-Moessner, "The Road to Perfection," Interpretation 57 (2003): 280-90.
9 David Peterson, Hebrews and Perfection (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 186.
10 Ibid., 187.
3
emphasis to the theme of suffering, the argument ofthe book of Hebrews will become clearer.
We will see how suffering played a major role in the life and work of Christ and how it impacted
the lives of believers as well.
The study will divide itself into five major chapters. The first chapter will trace how
suffering was understood in the Jewish, Greco-Roman and Intertestamentalliterature. The
second chapter will present the epistle of Hebrews by exploring its argument and structure as
well as topics of authorship and Sitz im Leben, highlighting those areas where they impinge on
the topic of suffering. The third chapter will explore the theme of suffering in Hebrews in
reference to Jesus Christ, paying particular attention to the exegesis of2:5-18; 4:14-5:10; 12:1-3
and 13: 11-14. Chapter four will expand the implications of chapter three by performing a similar
analysis of suffering of believers in Hebrews. Finally, the fifth chapter will incorporate the work
of numerous feminist theologians to further refine our understanding of suffering and strengthen
our interpretation.
To prepare for its meaning in Hebrews, the first chapter of this study will develop the
theme of suffering in its Old Testament, Greco-Roman and Intertestamental usage. This chapter
will explore how suffering was understood in the OT through word studies and overarching
themes. A complete overview of that material would be too vast, so this study will need to focus
on relevant books or passages. James Sanders studies how suffering is seen as "divine discipline"
in the OT, highlighting its use in the book of Jeremiah. ll Interestingly, Lala Kalyan Kumar Dey
argues for a similar understanding in Philo and other extra-biblical writings. Suffering and
temptation, Dey argues, are understood in this tradition as the paideia which leads to
11 James A. Sanders, Suffering as Divine Discipline in the Old Testament and Post-Biblical Judaism (Rochester,
NY: Colgate Rochester Divinity School, 1955).
4
12
perfection. In other words, suffering was seen as educational toward the betterment of the
sufferer. This study will investigate these traditions, and potentially others, to identify their
influence on the author of Hebrews.
Chapter two will contain a proper introduction to the book of Hebrews and explore those
topics which impinge on the theme of suffering. The background of authorship, audience and
setting will provide insight into the purpose and message of the epistle. This chapter will explore
how persecution and oppression were harsh realities in the lives of believers and how the author
of Hebrews sought to encourage his audience. Furthermore, this chapter will look at issues
regarding the text itself. Understanding the epistle's geme, structure, rhetoric and argument will
provide rich background for our study as a whole.
The third chapter will survey relevant passages in the epistle to the Hebrews which show
how the author presents the suffering and death of Jesus. It will explore how the author
understood suffering to impact Christ personally as well as vocationally-as in how it was
significant for his work as high priest and sacrifice. We will also look at how Jesus is presented
as a model of endurance in suffering for the Christian believer. Four passages will be highlighted
in this chapter: 2:5-18; 4:14-5:10; 12:1-3 and 13:11-14. Along with an understanding of the
purpose and result of Jesus' suffering, this chapter will argue that the author of Hebrews presents
this suffering to entail more than just Christ's death.
Chapter four will explore the theme of suffering in Hebrews as it relates to Christians,
with particular attention to chapters 11 and 12. It will propose that the author of Hebrews
presents suffering as a reality of the Christian experience. This is argued by showing that
suffering is sometimes connected with obedience, a result of following Christ, and evidence that
12 Lala Kalyan Kumar Dey, The Intermediary World and Patterns ofPerfection in Philo and Hebrews (Missoula,
MT: Scholars Press, 1975),222.
5
one belongs to the Father. Hebrews 12:5~11 deals directly with the reality of suffering in the
lives of believers and will be integral to our study. In this passage, the author encourages his
audience to understand their hardship as discipline from God.
Finally, the fifth chapter will challenge and strengthen the evaluation of suffering in
Hebrews with the help of feminist criticism. Feminist theologians have rightly challenged how
Christianity has traditionally interpreted suffering. The goal of this chapter will be to avoid
dangerous misapplications of the text which might be oppressive to women or thought of as
sanctioning abuse. Chapter five will both incorporate feminist concern and defend the text in
light of feminist criticism. It will highlight the ways in which feminist theologians protect against
an abuse of an interpretation of suffering as well as challenge some aspects of feminist theology,
such as the rejection of the atonement.
This thesis will study the theme of suffering in Hebrews to argue for its prominence and
significant contribution for understanding the epistle. Through an evaluation of background
material and proper exegesis, this study hopes to clarify how the author understood the suffering
of Christ to include his daily obedience and final sacrifice. Similarly, this study will explore how
the author presents suffering as a reality in the lives of believers and how he reveals it as a sign
of God's presence and honor rather than of shame. Finally, this study hopes to be a strong
addition to both Hebrews scholarship and feminist theology.
6
CHAPTER ONE:
SUFFERING IN JEWISH AND GREEK THOUGHT
The epistle to the Hebrews, like many New Testament writings, has a background which
is deep in both Jewish and Greco-Roman culture. It was written in the Greek language and
incorporates Greek imagery (such as the athletic contest in 12:1-3). Hebrews is also rich in
Jewish religious thought and imagery. Jesus is compared to Moses (chap. 3), Melchizedek (chap.
7) and Jewish priests and sacrifices (chap. 9). With this backdrop to the epistle, it becomes
necessary to investigate both the Jewish and Greco-Roman influence in order to best understand
Hebrews.
Suffering has been an important theme in both cultures and religious systems. It is an
important issue in any worldview: "What a religion has to say about suffering reveals, in many
ways more than anything else, what it believes the nature and purpose of existence to be." 13
Thus, it is important that we trace how each culture tackled the issue of suffering in order to gain
a grasp on the lines of interpretation which serve as a backdrop to the composition of Hebrews.
This chapter will look at how the Old Testament, Greek literature, and Intertestamental
literature dealt with the theme of suffering. It is the purpose of this chapter to do three things: (l)
in rather brief space, present the major interpretations of suffering in each area; (2) prove that
there exists a strong challenge to the orthodox Jewish view that suffering is always retributive;
and (3) highlight a view of suffering which is educative or disciplinary as well as that which is
vicarious and a result of being separated by God.
13 John Bowker, Problems ofSuffering in the Religions ofthe World (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1970),2.
7
Suffering in the Old Testament
The problem of how to interpret suffering yielded numerous solutions in Old Testament
times, much like it does today. Early in the twentieth century, H. Wheeler Robinson presented
six interpretations of suffering in the OT which are as "broad and deep and varied as life itself. ,,14
According to Robinson, all ofthese principles are partial within themselves and combined are
"inadequate to bear the full burden ofthe mystery. ,,15 The principles are retributive, disciplinary,
probationary and evidential, revelational, sacrificial, and eschatological. The retributive
solution, which specifies that suffering is punishment for a nation or individual's sin, was the
most comprehensive and widespread in ancient Judaism. The disciplinary interpretation saw
suffering as a method of growth or education as with a parent to a child. The third principle is
that suffering can be probationary and evidential which reveals the faithfulness ofthe sufferer.
The revelational principle "enables the prophetic consciousness to enter into a deeper knowledge
of God and of His relation to man.,,16 The sacrificial interpretation acknowledges some suffering
as a vicarious offering for others. Finally, the eschatological principle sees suffering as a sign of
better things to come: "the intensity of national suffering is held to measure the nearness of the
deliverance from it. ,,17
Just over a decade later, J. A. Sanders presented eight solutions to the problem of
suffering in the OT. He cites Robinson's six principles and includes five in his own list
(retributive, disciplinary, probational, revelational, and eschatological). To these he adds three:
illusory (or transitory), mysterious (only God has Wisdom), and meaningless. 18 His treatment of
this list is so brief that it is difficult to make out the nuances of each category. He does quickly
14 H. Wheeler Robinson, Suffering Human and Divine (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1939),34.
IS Ibid., 48.
16 Ibid., 42.
17 Ibid., 46.
18 Sanders, Suffering as Divine Discipline, 1.
8
describe the mysterious (sufferings are inexplicable and their solution rests with God alone) and
meaningless solutions (the heretical assertion that sufferings have no meaning-found in the
books of Ecclesiastes and Job ).\9 As identifiable from the title of his work, Sanders draws out the
disciplinary solution as the "most meaningful, aside from the eschatological, in Judaism and
Christianity. ,,20
More recently, N. Clayton Croy narrowed these solutions down to two categories:
punitive (the result of sin) and non-punitive suffering. Moreover, he focuses his study on
suffering as disciplinary in order to investigate the background of Hebrews 12: 1-13. As he points
out, disciplinary suffering can be either punitive or non-punitive, and most of the time is
potentially formative?\ Croy rejects the notion that punitive suffering was the only interpretation
in ancient Judaism. While it may not have been the orthodox view, "non-punitive interpretations
of suffering were by no means rare.,,22 However, the nuances of how suffering was understood in
the OT seem to be lost if polarized into the categories of punitive and non-punitive. As Cynthia
Westfall puts it: "The literature would be better represented on a continuum, or more categories
could be added. Remedial discipline does not belong in the same camp as the destruction of
Sodom and Gomorrah, and the casualties of spiritual/ethical warfare, in which one suffers for
doing the right thing, are distinct from training. ,,23 That being said, it will be of significance to
note when suffering does not seem to have a punitive aspect to it as we investigate the
interpretations of suffering which were influential to the author of Hebrews.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 N. Clayton Croy, Endurance in Suffering: Hebrews 12: 1-13 in Its Rhetorical, Religious, and Philosophical
Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998),223.
22 Ibid., 130.
23 Cynthia Westfall, review of Endurance In Suffering: Hebrews 12: 1-13 in its Rhetorical Religious, and
Philosophical Context, by N. C. Croy, Journalfor the Study ofthe New Testament, 76 (1999): 121-22.
9
Beyond the categories presented above, it will serve the interests of this paper to
highlight another interpretation of suffering found in the OT: suffering as a result of service and
faithfulness to God. This view is often found to be true in the lives of the prophets or other men
and women as they follow the will of the Father. The OT has numerous examples of the
suffering of individuals "that results from YHWH's setting them apart and commissioning [them]
for divine service. ,,24 This view will influence significantly how we interpret passages in
Hebrews which refer to the sufferings of Christ (particularly 5:8) and of believers. First,
however, we will look at suffering as it was understood in the OT literature, paying special
attention to where suffering is seen as educative or disciplinary as well as non-punitive.
Educative/Disciplinary Suffering in the Old Testament
Suffering in the OT is viewed in numerous ways; the most consistent is the understanding
that it is the result of sin in a person's or nation's life. It seems clear that this was the assumed
understanding behind the OT's interpretation of suffering. However, it is by no means the only
view of suffering. The intention in this section is to establish a theme of suffering which could
possibly be understood as moving away from the traditional, punitive view. Also useful for this
study is an evaluation of the presence of educative/disciplinary suffering in the OT. It is this line
of interpretation which the author of Hebrews adopts into his own writing. The following section
will, therefore, trace both of these themes in the OT literature in order to sketch their influence
on the composition of the epistle to the Hebrews.
The OT commonly presented suffering as a result of sin in an individual's or nation's life.
This retributive view connects cursing from God to sin, and blessing to obedience. Before
entering the promised land, God declares this principle to Israel. Deuteronomy 30: 15-18 makes
this point clear:
24 Horst Dietrich Preuss, Old Testament Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 143.
10
See, I set before you today life and prosperity, death and destruction. For I
command you today to love the LORD your God, to walk in obedience to him,
and to keep his commands, decrees and laws; then you will live and increase, and
the LORD your God will bless you in the land you are entering to possess. But if
your heart turns away and you are not obedient, and if you are drawn away to bow
down to other gods and worship them, I declare to you this day that you will
certainly be destroyed. You will not live long in the land you are crossing the
Jordan to enter and possess.
Divine retribution became the orthodox understanding of the existence of suffering for the life of
Israel. Explaining Israel's exile to Assyria, 2 Kings 17:7 states that "all this took place because
the Israelites had sinned against the LORD their God." This principle also applied to the
suffering the lives of individuals (Gen. 20:6-7). The theme is repeated in the wisdom (Psalm 38;
Provo 2:20-22) and prophetic (Ez. 18; Amos 4:6-13) literature. The theme is taken up by the
Chronicler, as well: Saul's death is attributed to his unfaithfulness (l Chron. 10:13); Uzziah
acquires leprosy due to improper offering in the Temple (2 Chron. 26:16); and Josiah's death is
due to his failure to listen to God's words (2 Chron. 35:20-24).25
The Jewish scriptures commonly present a view of suffering which is not caused by the
presence of sin. While the opposite is the most common understanding in the aT, there remains a
line of interpretation which supplements this retributive view. This conflict of interpretations is
best seen in the book of Job. At the very beginning of the book it is made clear that the affliction
about to come upon Job is not the result of sin: "This man [Job] was blameless and upright; he
feared God and shunned evil" (Job 1:1). As the result of sufferings brought upon Job, the
majority of the book contains accounts of his friends and him debating their cause. Job's three
friends respond by appealing to the retributive view of suffering:
When your children sinned against him,

he gave them over to the penalty of their sin.
But if you will seek God earnestly
and plead with the Almighty,
25 David M. Howard Jr., An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books (Chicago: Moody Press, 1993),263.
11
if you are pure and upright,
even now he will rouse himself on your behalf
and restore you to your prosperous state (8:4-6).
Job's friends articulate what was the common understanding of suffering in ancient Judaism.
"The view of the friends was indeed venerable orthodoxy. ,,26 They encourage Job to figure out
what his sin is and to repent of it. However, Job knows himselfto be innocent (as does the reader
from the opening paragraph). "I will never admit that you are right," he tells his friends, "till I
die, I will not deny my integrity" (27:5). Finally, God enters into the debate with a series of
rhetorical questions which emphasize the mysteries of nature and remove Job from the center of
the picture. The divine speeches do not provide any answers to the problem of innocent
27
suffering. However, never in the series of exchanges does Job admit any wrongdoing or does
God contradict Job's claims at innocence. Rather, God vindicates Job and refutes his friends by
saying to Eliphaz, "I am angry with you and your two friends, because you have not spoken of
me what is right, as my servant Job has" (42:7). "The book is thus a powerful refutation of the
traditional view" of suffering?8
The book of Job does not pick either a punitive or non-punitive interpretation of
suffering. It does not claim that suffering is never the result of sin, but it does contest that it is
always the case. "The sheer existence of the book confirms that, at least at the time of its
composition, the punitive view held sway. Perhaps Job should be viewed as one ofthe first
hammer swings at the monolith of punitive suffering. If so, this in itself is a significant
achievement. ,,29
26 Marvin H. Pope, Job (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, 1973), lxxvii.
27 James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998),99.
28 Croy, Endurance in Suffering, 96.
29 Ibid.
12
The book of Ecclesiastes is another strong challenge to a strictly punitive view. It rejects
the notion that blessings come to the righteous and suffering to the wicked: "All share a common
destiny-the righteous and the wicked, the good and the bad, the clean and the unclean, those
who offer sacrifices and those who do not" (9:2a). Ecclesiastes, like the book of Job, seeks to
make sense of innocent suffering. "In this meaningless life of mine I have seen both ofthese: the
righteous perishing in their righteousness and the wicked living long in their wickedness" (7: 15).
It could be argued that the author of Ecclesiastes moves even further away from the
retributive/punitive view of suffering than Job. James L. Crenshaw writes:
Qoheleth [Ecclesiastes] could muster no confidence in God's disposition to

reward virtue and punish vice. In his view, Job's exceptional experience of
innocent suffering had become the rule, and the death angel made no distinctions
among creatures. Naturally, Qoheleth thus struck at the heart of the tradition in
which he had been nurtured. 3o
The book of Ecclesiastes strongly argues against a punitive view of suffering without presenting
any alternative view. Klaus Koch writes, "Qoheleth and Job show us that the concept ofactions
with built-in consequences was shaken to the foundation. At the same time, this concept was not
radically transformed by being replaced by some other basic construct.,,3!
A non-punitive view of suffering is not limited to the books of Job and Ecclesiastes.
While not as blatant as in these two books, suffering not as a result of sin is found elsewhere in
the OT. Psalm 66: 10-12 presents an example of suffering leading to blessing:
For you, God, tested us;

you refined us like silver.
You brought us into prison
and laid burdens on our backs.
You let people ride over our heads;
we went through fire and water,
but you brought us to a place of abundance.
30Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 117-18.

31Klaus Koch, "Is There A Doctrine of Retribution in the Old Testament?" in Theodicy in the Old Testament, ed.
James L. Crenshaw (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983),82.
13
This psalm shows suffering to be formative or probationary, but "not a hint of confession or guilt
is to be found in it. ,d2 Other examples of non-punitive suffering include those men and women
who suffer not because of their sin but because they are chosen by God. This category of
suffering will be explored in greater detail.
There is also a strong presence of the disciplinary view of suffering in the OT. The key
terms used in the Hebrew Bible are J9' and the related noun ~O~~. Their range of meanings
include to discipline, correct, admonish as well as correction, chastisement, and discipline. 33 The
verb appears 43 times in the MT and the noun 51 times. More than a third of its appearances are
34
in Proverbs (39 nouns, 5 verbs) with the remaining scattered throughout the Hebrew Bible.
Commonly, these terms refer to human correction or discipline (like a father to a son). Several
passages extend it to present Yahweh using corrective or educational discipline. Sometimes
something is learned through the suffering of others (Ezek. 5:15; 23:48; Zeph. 3:7).35
This disciplinary interpretation of suffering is most common in the Wisdom literature.
The Psalms present disciplinary suffering as something precious:
Before I was afflicted I went astray,

but now I obey your word ...
It was good for me to be afflicted
so that I might learn your decrees ...
I know, Lord, that your laws are righteous,
and that in faithfulness you have afflicted me (119:67, 71, 75).
It is clear that the suffering brought upon the psalmist was interpreted as a result of sin ("I went
astray"), but the actual suffering is seen as formative and educative. A similar idea is presented

33 Robin Wakely, ",~,," in New International Dictionary ofOld Testament Theology and Exegesis, vol. 2, ed.
Willem A. VanGemeren (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997),479.
34 R. D. Branson, "Jq,," in Theological Dictionary ofthe Old Testament, vol. 6, eds. G. Johannes Botterweck and
Helmer Ringgren (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 128.
35 Ibid., 134.
14
in Psalm 94: 12: "Blessed are those you discipline [~J";J'n], Lord, those you teach from your law."
Proverbs 3:11-12 also reveals discipline as something to be embraced:
My son, do not despise the Lord's discipline ['Jo~~],

and do not resent his rebuke,
because the Lord disciplines those he loves,
as a father the son he delights in.
Croy emphasizes this verse in Proverbs since the author of Hebrews appropriates it in 12:5-6. He
draws three conclusions from Proverbs 3: 11-12. First, the nuance of discipline is punitive or
corrective. Second, the image by which divine discipline is conceived is the father/son
relationship. Third, the divine motive behind discipline is love. 36 Another point may be made
concerning this passage: the discipline falls upon the son the father delights in (opposed to those
he does not). "Suffering, from this perspective, results not from a moral inferiority but from a
kind of superiority. ,,37 There seems to be implied in this proverb a notion that discipline/suffering
is connected to being chosen by God.
Being a book in which the topic of suffering plays such a significant role, Job also
portrays the disciplinary interpretation of suffering. In 5: 17, Eliphaz incorporates divine
discipline into his retributive view of suffering: "Blessed are those whom God corrects; do not
despise the discipline ['Jo~~] of the Almighty." However, it is Elihu who takes this doctrine of
divine discipline and elaborates.3 8 In 33: 14-20, he declares that God speaks to humans in two
ways: by warnings in dreams or "they may be chastened on a bed of pain" (33:19). In chapter 36,
Elihu goes on to state that when God afflicts someone, he is trying to reveal something to them.
God "makes them listen to correction ['Jo~~]" (v. 10) and gives them an opportunity to repent.
Verse 15 probably gives the best example of divine discipline in Job: "But those who suffer he

37 Leora Batnitzky, "On the Suffering of God's Chosen: Christian Views in Jewish Terms," in Christianity in Jewish
Terms, ed. Tikva Frymer-Kensky et al. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 205.
38 This section is indebted to Sanders' treatment ofthe text, Suffering as Divine Discipline, 93.
15
delivers in their suffering; he speaks to them in their affliction." By the end of the book Job may
not get a solid answer as to why the innocent suffer, but he does realize that through his suffering
he has been formed and has grown. After God speaks to him, Job realizes that he had been
changed through suffering as he tells God, "My ears had heard of you but now my eyes have
seen you" (42:5).
As mentioned earlier, a powerful metaphor for the disciplinary view is that God's
discipline reflects that of a father to his son. Deuteronomy 8:5 states, "Know then in your heart
that as a man disciplines his son, so the Lord your God disciplines you." The discipline of a child
by his or her parent was a common practice in the Jewish home as was commanded in Scripture.
The book of Proverbs repeatedly calls for appropriate discipline of children:
Those who spare the rod hate their children, but those who love them are careful
to discipline them (13:24).
Folly is bound up in the heart of a child, but the rod of discipline will drive it far
away (22: 15).
Do not withhold discipline from children; if you punish them with the rod, they
will not die. Punish them with the rod and save them from death (23:13-14).
A rod and a reprimand impart wisdom, but children left to themselves disgrace
their mother (29: 15).
Discipline your children, and they will give you peace; they will bring you the
delights you desire (29: 17).
Temper Longman III comments that such passages allow for corporal punishment, but do not
insist upon it. "Certainly, in light of the teaching of the rest of the book about gentleness,
moderation, and so forth, we would expect that when corporal discipline is administered, it is
done in moderation and for the betterment of the child, not as an act of retribution or for the
parents to let off steam. ,,39 The Lord's discipline should be understood in the same way: for the
betterment of his children.
Tremper Longman III, "Family in the Wisdom Literature," in Family in the Bible, ed. Richard S. Hess and M.
39
Daniel Carroll R. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 88.
16
Divine discipline distinguishes itself from other interpretations of suffering in that it is
understood as "motivated by God's love and designed for the sufferer's benefit. ,,40 Not all
suffering is interpreted as divine discipline; "it is only when the punishment is interpreted as an
opportunity to repent, and is seen as evidence of God's goodness and love that it is called divine
discipline.,,41 In most cases, the disciplinary view would fall into Croy's punitive category: God
disciplines in order to move the afflicted back onto the right path. However, as the interpretation
developed, the disciplinary view carried an educative aspect and moved away from a purely
punitive understanding.
Suffering For Being Set Apart By God in the Old Testament.
Another thread of interpretation concerning suffering in the OT seems to move beyond
the categories of punitive and non-punitive. This interpretation understood that an individual
might suffer simply because they have been set apart by God. Numerous examples exist in the
OT, including Moses (Exod. 32:30-33), Elijah (1 Kings 19) and Micaiah ben Imlah (1 Kings
22).42 Amos 3:2 says, "You only have I chosen of all the families of the earth; therefore I will
punish you for all your sins." While this passage preserves a retributive viewpoint, it also tightly
connects the idea of punishment/suffering with being chosen.
This interpretation is best seen in the lives of the prophets. It should be noted, however,
that the prophetic books seem to support the orthodox retributive view of suffering. The prophets
warn of coming destruction which is God's response to the people's evil. In many ways the
prophetic literature adheres to a retributive view. However, the sufferings of the individual
prophet serve as an exception to the retributive understanding of suffering. "The prophet himself
40 Charles Talbert, Learning Through Suffering: The Educational Value ofSuffering in the New Testament and in Its
Milieu (CoHegeviIle, MN: Liturgical Press, 1991), 16.
41 Sanders, Suffering as Divine Discipline, 117.
42 Preuss, Old Testament Theology, 143.
17
certainly did not consider his suffering to be God's punishment for sins. Rather, suffering was the
prophet's 'occupational hazard,' to be endured in the line of duty. ,,43 While some prophets
suffered because of the sins of a nation or people, there existed a sense that one suffered by
remaining faithful and obedient to God. In his book, The Prophets, Abraham Heschel writes, "To
be a prophet is both a distinction and an affliction. The mission he performs is distasteful to him
and repugnant to others; no reward is promised him and no reward could temper its bitterness. ,,44
Sometimes an aspect of a prophet's suffering served as a sign to the whole people.
Jeremiah, for instance, was not allowed to marry nor have kids (16: 1-13). "Jeremiah was to
experience what the men and women of his audience were soon to experience; theirs would be
the grief of loss and lamentation for the deaths of mothers, husbands, fathers, and children. ,,45
His life of suffering served as a sign of his message. 46 Hosea's marriage to a prostitute served as
a warning sign, for "that marriage was just as unnatural as God's continuing loyalty to an
unfaithful people (Hosea 1:2, 14:1f£).,,47 Hosea accepts this form of suffering in hopes that its
symbolism will turn the hearts of God's people.
The prophet Jeremiah serves a prime example of the suffering that came by being called
by God. By human standards, Jeremiah was a failure. He preached for forty years and never
convinced the people that he was God's prophet. He was ridiculed, abused and threatened by his
own people. 48 He cried out to God about his own unjust treatment by unjust people (11: 18-12:6).
"He has done nothing except obey God, yet he is maligned and persecuted. He sees himself as
43 Sam K Williams, Jesus' Death as Saving Event (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1975), 92.
44 Abraham 1. Heschel, The Prophets (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 17-18.
45 R. E. Clements, Jeremiah. (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988), 101.
46 D. A. Carson, How Long, Oh Lord? (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1990), 88.
47 Williams, Jesus' Death as Saving Event, 92.
48 F.B. Huey, Jeremiah, Lamentations (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1993),24.
18
innocent and naIve, as 'a gentle lamb led to the slaughter' (11: 19). ,,49 His life was so difficult that
Jeremiah cries out:
Cursed be the day I was born! May the day my mother bore me not be
blessed! For he did not kill me in the womb, with my mother as my grave, her
womb enlarged forever. Why did I ever come out of the womb to see trouble and
sorrow and to end my days in shame? (20:14,17,18).
His life was incredibly lonely: "I sat alone because your hand was on me" (15: 17). Jeremiah's
persecution and reproach led him to consider abandoning his call: "But if! say, 'I will not
mention his word or speak anymore in his name,' his word is in my heart like a fire, a fire shut up
in my bones. I am weary of holding it in; indeed, I cannot" (20:9).
To a world which understood suffering in retributive terms, "the portrayal of Jeremiah's
prophetic experience, especially his suffering, calls into question and then shatters" this
understanding. 50 In many ways, his life of suffering, service and obedience becomes a model of
faithful living. Gerhard von Rad reflects upon Jeremiah's suffering:
As one who suffers in solidarity with God and those deprived ofjustice, Jeremiah
gives voice to an alternative understanding of suffering. Suffering is not a
shameful consequence of wrongdoing or evidence of divine injustice. On the
contrary, in the 'body' of Jeremiah suffering becomes a witness of faithful service
51
to GOd.
He also notes that while other prophets were solely proclaimers of God's word, Jeremiah both
proclaimed with his mouth and by his life of obedience. 52
Branching off from the aT's presentation of suffering connected to being set apart by
God is the notion of vicarious suffering. This refers to the concept of one righteous person (or
persons) interceding for sins of others. Vicarious suffering in the aT is "inextricably linked with
49 Louis Stulman, "Jeremiah as a Polyphonic Response to Suffering," in Inspired Speech: Prophecy in the Ancient
Near East, eds. John Kaltner and Louis Stulman (New York: T&T Clark, 2004), 308.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid., 311.
52 Gerhard Von Rad, "The Confessions of Jeremiah," in Theodicy in the Old Testament, ed. James L. Crenshaw
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983), 98.
19
Isaiah 53.,,53 This is the fourth song of the Suffering Servant, in which it is said that he "took up
our pain and bore our suffering" (v. 4). He suffers not only as a result of the people's sins, but
also in place of them. "He suffers for them, and because of that, they do not need to experience
the results of their sin.,,54 In this way, prophetic suffering acquires a new sense. 55 The concept of
a righteous person suffering for another, although not nonexistent, was unprecedented in OT
literature. 56 The words of Isaiah 53 "reverse the retributive view of suffering, suggesting that it is
we who are not suffering who have sinned, not the suffering servant.,,5?
In his treatment of the fourth Servant Song, Croy places it in his punitive category. This
is because the "critical characteristic is present: sin is pre-supposed.,,58 He also points out that the
innocence of the Servant is not the main motif (the connection to the sin ofothers is). With
Croy's comments in mind, we can say that the vicarious suffering in Isaiah 53 does not follow
the traditional interpretation that suffering is always due to one's sin. It may not do away with the
orthodox view, but it certainly presents a new understanding of suffering. Claus Westermann
writes that Isaiah 53 presents "the new thing of which they (the ancient world) had never dreamt
and which shattered an almost primeval iron law. ,,59
Suffering in Hellenism
Much like Judaism, Hellenistic culture and literature do not present anyone simple view
of suffering. From ancient texts to that of the first century, Greek thought and religion present
interpretations spanning from retributive to formative to disciplinary. Hellenistic thought does
53 Hermann Spieckermann, "The Conception and Prehistory of the Idea of Vicarious Suffering in the Old
Testament," in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 in Jewish and Christian Sources, eds. Bernd Janowski and Peter
Stuhlmacher (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 1.
54 John N. Oswalt, The Book ofIsaiah: Chapters 40-66 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 385.
55 Spieckermann, "Conception and Prehistory," 13.
56 Erhard S. Gerstenberger and Wolfgang Schrage, Suffering, trans. John E. Steely (Nashville: Abingdon, 1980),95.
57 Batnitzky, "On the Suffering of God's Chosen," 204.
59 Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40-66: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1969), 263.
20
place different emphasis on certain interpretations. We will now look, although briefly, at how
the Greco-Roman world viewed suffering as a backdrop to the composition of the epistle to the
Hebrews.
The Greek language commonly used the word THxaxw to refer to "suffering." The word
6o
appears forty-two times in the New Testament; four times in the epistle to the Hebrews. This
word was used from the writings of Homer onward and meant "to experience something," both
positively and negatively.6! In time, however, it became "the term at hand when the Greek or
Hellenistic world wants to express or discuss the problem of suffering. ,,62 I1ci:axw is found only
twenty-one times in the LXX and was very rare in Intertestamentalliterature. 63
One solution to the problem of suffering in Greek thought resembles that of the Jewish
orthodox position: suffering occurs because of one's sin or transgressions. In The Odyssey,
Homer tells of Zeus' complaint concerning mortals: "Look you now, how ready mortals are to
blame the gods. It is from us, they say, that evils come, but they even ofthemselves, through
their own blind folly, have sorrows beyond that which is ordained" (1.32-34). Some suffering,
the god Zeus says, are caused by the mortals' own sins. However, the quote also signifies that
some suffering does occur because of the actions ofthe gods. "Great success as well as
catastrophe evidently depends on powers beyond the human. ,,64
In popular Greek thought was the concept that suffering comes from the gods if one
offends them. "They [the gods] will punish without hesitation anyone who offends them. In
particular, they often disapprove of arrogant or boastful behavior. Punishment for such
60 John R. Kohlenberger, Greek-English Concordance ofthe New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997), 598.
61 Burkhard Gartner, "IIaoxw," in New Testament Theology ed. Colin Brown (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978),
719.
62 Wilhelm Michaelis, "IIaox w," in Theological Dictionary ofthe New Testament, vol. 5, eds. Gerhard Kittle and
Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967),904.
63 Ibid., 907-11.
64 Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, trans. John Raffan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985),264.
21
transgressions may be slow in coming, but it usually arrives eventually, at least in myth. ,,65
Conversely, blessing was seen as a result of appeasing the gods-commonly through sacrifice
and prayer.
There also existed a strong line of interpretation that suffering brought about wisdom or
understanding. In this view, suffering "can and should increase experience and give a better
insight into things.,,66 From the fifth-century B.C. on, this concept of "learning through
suffering" was widespread and frequently summed up in Greek by the juxtaposition of two
words: ETIlx80v ... E~a8ov ("I suffered ... I leamed,,).67 The first instance of this pairing is found
in the writing of the Greek historian Herodotus. It was found on the mouth of Croesus as he
advises the King of Persia: rex bE ~Ol TIlx8~~cmx EOvra &~cXplra ~a8~~ara yEyOVE ("My
experience, being unfavorable, have become lessons for me,,).68
This theme is impressively stated by Greek tragedy. In Agamemnon, Aeschylus writes
that Zeus "sets mortals in the right path of understanding ... has established as a fixed rule that
learning (~cX8o<;;) comes by suffering (ncX8H)" (177-78). Later he writes, "Justice inclines her
scales so that wisdom comes at the price of suffering (na8ofJoLV ~aeELV)" (250). Sophocles in
Oedipus at C%nus has Oedipus say, "For suffering and time, my long companion, and a third
thing, my nobility, have taught me to be content" (7-9).
Plato tweaked these views in his Republic as he challenged the notion that suffering, or
any kind of evil, could come from God. By nature, God is good and nothing evil could come
from him. Here, Plato is challenging a punitive view of suffering. He says that one must not say
that God brought about evil or suffering, but allows an exception:
65 Ruby Blondell, introduction to Sophocles: The Theban Plays (Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing, 2002), 26.
66 Michaelis, "IIaoxw," 906.
68 Ibid.
22
We must either forbid them to say that these woes are the work of God, or they
must devise some such interpretation as we now require, and must declare that
what God did was righteous and good, and they were benefited by their
chastisement ... He should say that for needing chastisement the wicked were
miserable and that in paying the penalty they were benefited by God, that we must
allow (380A-B).
Plato "severely restricts" a punitive view of suffering, allowing suffering to be ascribed to God
only if it is beneficial to the sufferer. 69
Not all solutions to the problem of suffering in Greek thought attributed suffering to sin.
In the case of Oedipus, Sophocles points to his innocence in Oedipus at Colonus: "For know this
much, my deeds were suffered more than perpetrated .,. I who acted in return for what I
suffered, so that even ifI'd done it consciously, I'd not be evil even then" (267-68). Sophocles
does not seem to render Oedipus completely without sin, but makes clear that his suffering far
outweighs any sin he might have done. Croy cites the works of Theognis who was troubled by
the seeming disparity of suffering in the world:
How,O son of Kronos, does your mind bear for criminals to have the same fate as
the just person? Yet (the wicked) have carefree wealth, and those who keep their
heart from base deeds nevertheless receive poverty, the mother of helplessness,
despite their love ofjustice ... (Eleg. 377-78,383-85).70
Suffering is not tied to one's sins but to the reality of mortal life.
Greek thought seemed to question a retributive view of suffering more than it affirmed it.
Whether seen as coming from the gods or not, suffering was experienced by both the wicked and
righteous. Whereas Jewish thought put emphasis on disciplinary suffering to correct the
sufferer(s), Greek thought saw wisdom and education as the desired result. These two emphases
began to merge as Jewish and Hellenistic culture interacted with each other, as we will see in the
Intertestamentalliterature.
69 Ibid.
70 Ibid., 138.
23
Suffering in Intertestamental Literature
Retributive suffering continued to be the most common view in the Intertestamental
writing. However, there exist threads of interpretation which question this view within the
various writings. Charles Talbert cites several examples to show a growing understanding of
suffering as disciplinary within the Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. Judith 8:27 says: "The Lord
scourges those who draw near to him, in order to admonish them." Sirach 18: 13 reads: "The Lord
rebukes and trains and teaches them, and turns them back, as a shepherd his flock." 2 Baruch
13: 10 says: "They were punished that they might be forgiven." Also, the Wisdom of Solomon, in
7:14, says that friendship with God results from education through suffering. Talbert concludes
that the "goal of such hardships/afflictions/sufferings is the correction/refinement/
purification/growth of the one who suffers.,,71
Talbert cites numerous passages in Psalms of Solomon to emphasize this point. In 10:1-
2, it says:
Happy is the one whom the Lord remembers with rebuking and protects from the
evil way with a whip that he may be cleansed from sin that it may not increase.
The one who prepares his back for the whips shall be purified, for the Lord is
good to those who endure discipline.
In 13: 10: "For the Lord will spare his devout and he will wipe away their mistakes with
discipline." A petition to God in 16: 11 cries, "If! sin, discipline me that I may return." Finally, in
18:4 we read: "Your discipline for us is as for a firstborn son, an only child, to divert the
perceptive person from unintentional sin."n
A closer look at the Maccabean literature reveals a shift in emphasis on the purposes of
suffering. As with the literature cited above, much of 2 and 3 Maccabees understands suffering
71 Talbert, Learning Through Suffering, 12.

72 Ibid., 13.
24
in a very punitive sense. In other words, suffering is always deserved. 73 That being said, there is
a strong presence of the disciplinary reality in suffering. Two texts from 2 Maccabees make this
clear:
2 Maccabees 6: 12 Now I urge those who read this book not to be depressed by such
calamities, but to recognize that these punishments were designed not to
destroy but to discipline our people.
2 Maccabees 6: 16 Therefore he never withdraws his mercy from us. Although he disciplines
us with calamities, he does not forsake his own people.
These passages interpret the devastation of Antiochus IV profaning Jerusalem which included
the forced participation in pagan rituals and the execution of those who continued Jewish
practices (such as circumcision and keeping the Sabbath).74 We have already learned in 5:17 that
it was the sins of the people which brought about this suffering: "Antiochus was elated in spirit,
and did not perceive that the Lord was angered for a little while because of the sins of those who
lived in the city, and that this was the reason he was disregarding the holy place." While the
cause of these atrocities was the people's sin, the interpretation of them is kept within the context
of God's sovereignty and reveals a purpose of the discipline of the Jewish people.
4 Maccabees takes a dramatic tum on the view of suffering. While suffering in 2
Maccabees was the result of one's sin, "no one suffers in 4 Maccabees for his or her own sins, as
the object of God's wrath.,,75 This document puts high value on obedience to God and law, even
to the point of death. Suffering becomes a means of endurance and conditioning. One martyr, at
the point of death says, "We, most abominable tyrant, are suffering because of our godly training
and virtue" (10: 10). Another declares, "A glorious favor you bestow on us, tyrant, though all
unwilling, enabling us as you are to manifest our constancy toward the Law by yet more noble
suffering" (11: 12). Then, in 11 :20: "While being tortured he said, '0 contest befitting holiness, in

74 Ibid., 101.
75 Ibid., 106.
25
which so many of us brothers have been summoned to an arena of sufferings for religion, and in
which we have not been defeated!'" Talbert writes, "Here is a Jewish text that understands
suffering not as a correction of misdirection but rather as conditioning that results in increased
strength, enabling the victor's prize. ,,76
Like Isaiah 53, there is a strong presence of vicarious suffering within 4 Maccabees.
Discussing the martyrs in chapter 1, the author writes: "For all people, even their torturers,
marveled at their courage and endurance, and they became the cause of the downfall of tyranny
over their nation. By their endurance they conquered the tyrant, and thus their native land was
I
purified through them (emphasis mine)." After being tortured, Eleazar cries out t~ God before he
I
finally dies: "You know, 0 God, that though I might have saved myself, I am dy~ng in burning
I
torments for the sake of the law. Be merciful to your people, and let our punis~ent suffice for
them. Make my blood their purification, and take my life in exchange for theirs" (6:27-29).
Finally, toward the end of the book, the author reflects on the martyrs:
These, then, who have been consecrated for the sake of God, are honored, not
only with this honor, but also by the fact that because of them our enemies did not
rule over our nation, the tyrant was punished, and the homeland purified-they
having become, as it were, a ransom for the sin of our nation. And through the
blood of those devout ones and their death as an expiation, divine Providence
preserved Israel that previously had been afflicted (17:20-22).
Unlike 2 Maccabees, the suffering in 4 Maccabees should be seen as non-punitive. "Rather,
suffering is seen primarily as formative, 'for the sake of piety,' but also vicarious, 'for the sake of
the nation.",n
The Jewish historian Josephus frequently dealt with the subject of suffering in his
writing. Often, Josephus followed a retributive view. In Antiquities, he presents Moses telling the
Egyptian king not to "lay an obstruction in the way of the divine commands, and so occasion his

26
own suffering such punishments as it was probable anyone that counterworked the divine
commands should undergo" (2: 291).78 The king does not do as Moses says and the divinely sent
plagues serve as retribution for his sin. Similarly, Josephus understands Israel's suffering at the
hands ofthe Romans as due to their own sin. In Book 5, he accuses Israel of sin (theft, adultery,
etc) and cries out: "And, after all this, do you expect Him who you have so impiously abused to
be your supporter?" (5: 403).
At the same time, Josephus understands suffering to have a disciplinary and educative
aspect. As Israel complains to Moses in the desert, Josephus understands these hardships to have
a possible formative effect: "Seeing it is probable that God tries their virtue, and exercises their
patience by these adversities" (3:15). Similarly, Josephus connects suffering with obedience to
the Law. In War 2: 196 he writes: "Hereupon the whole multitude cried out, that they were ready
to suffer for their law."
The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo's writing presents a mixture of interpretations
on suffering. The retributive view is discussed in some detail in his work De Praemiis et Poenis
("On Rewards and Punishments"). In it, he writes, "I will now proceed in regular order to
mention the rewards which have been proposed for virtuous men, and the punishments
threatened to the wicked" (3).79 In sections 126-62, Philo lists, in great detail, the "curses
appointed against those who transgress the commandments and the laws." Such curses include:
poverty (127); locusts (128-29); drought (130-32); war and starvation (132-36); slavery and
78 All Josephus quotations taken from William Whiston, trans., The Works ofJosephus: Complete and Unabridged
(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987).
79 All Philo quotations taken from C. D. Yonge, trans., The Works ofPhilo: Complete and Unabridged (Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson, 1993).
27
oppression (137-42); fear (148); and attacks by wild beasts (149).80 Such suffering is seen as a
direct result of one's sin-reinforcing the retributive view.
There is one passage in De Praemiis et Poenis which seems to challenge the retributive
view in its strictest sense. In 119, Philo writes that Moses promised that "perfect freedom from
disease in every respect, both privately and generally, shall be allotted to those persons who
labour in the service of virtue and who make the sacred laws the guides of all their speeches and
actions in life." Yet, Philo qualifies this statement by writing: "And if there should any infirmity
affect them it will not be for the sake of injuring them, but with a view to remind a mortal that he
is mortal, so as to eradicate overbearing pride and improve his disposition." Croy comments:
"Philo acknowledges that virtuous followers of the law may still suffer illness. Such persons are
taught humility by their suffering. But guilt cannot be inferred here in view of the description of
these persons in the context. ,,81
Philo reflects on suffering in his work De Cherubim (especially 77-82). In it, he writes
that God's special attribute is that he creates while "the special property of the created being is to
suffer era mxaXELv)" (77-78). While all mortals will suffer, they do have choice as to how they
will respond. Philo uses examples to show this point: the act of being shaven (79) and of being
beaten (80-81). He concludes:
Let us rather admit that feeling which suffers in return, since it is inevitable that
that which is mortal shall suffer; so that we may not, like effeminate persons,
broken in spirit, dissolute, and falling to pieces before our time, be weak through
the utter prostration and relaxation of the powers of the soul, but rather that, being
invigorated in the nerves and tone of our minds, we may be able to bear cheerfully
and easily the rush of such calamities as may be impending over us (82).
Suffering here is presented as an opportunity for growth in endurance and strength.

81 Ibid., Ill.
28
Another important text is De Congressu in which Philo writes that "if excessive
relaxation begets the greatest of all evils, impiety, its contrary, affliction, in accordance with the
law produces the perfect good, much praised correction" (160). In this work, suffering is used by
God for disciplinary purposes-that the sufferer may be corrected. Later Philo writes, "[T]here is
a certain description of affliction which is profitable, so that its very most humiliating form, even
slavery, is accounted a great good" (175). In conclusion, he declares, "I do not blame every kind
of affliction, but I very greatly admire that which is the work ofjustice and of the law" (179).
Philo here seems to be concluding that some affliction comes from virtue and righteousness.
"This kind of affliction is probative and formative, not punitive. ,,82
Philo does not seem to stick to one simple view of suffering. On one hand, he is quick to
declare that calamity and affliction will befall those who transgress the law. This can be seen as
divine judgment and retributive. On the other hand, he also affirms that suffering can be a
positive thing. It can build endurance, strength and virtue.
Conclusion
Jewish and Greek understandings of suffering were complex because the issue of
suffering is complex. As we have seen, both lines of interpretation struggled to make sense of the
suffering seen in real life. The most common view was that suffering was equally connected to
sin in one's life. However, as this interpretation was compared to reality, serious challenges and
alternative views rose up. The book of Job marked an important blow to this retributive view in
Jewish thought as Plato's Republic did in Greek. By the time ofthe composition of the epistle to
the Hebrews, the retributive view was no longer the sole understanding of suffering.
Other views on suffering had made an impact on Jewish and Greek culture. One
important interpretation was that suffering was educative or disciplinary. Jewish thought moved
82 Ibid., 114.
29
toward an understanding that God used suffering to discipline those he loved. Often still
connected to the individual's or nation's sin, suffering was a means to benefit the sufferer and
direct him or her to the right path. Greek thought stressed that wisdom comes through suffering
while not always attributing the suffering to the divine. The juxtaposition and alliteration of the
two Greek words ETr£x8ov and E~cx8ov served as an axiom to connect learning to suffering. Also
significant is the line in Jewish thought that suffering is a given when one is doing the work of
God. As we saw in the lives of the prophets and even the Suffering Servant, being obedient to
God meant that one would face a certain amount of suffering.
As we now approach the epistle to the Hebrews, this background will provide a
framework in which to understand suffering. Challenging the view that suffering comes only as a
result of one's sin is important as we look at the suffering of Christ (who was sinless). Suffering
as educative/disciplinary can be seen in both the suffering of Christ and ofthe believer. The
same is true of suffering as a result of being set apart by God and living in obedience. How the
author of Hebrews understood suffering was not formed in a vacuum and, as we have seen, a
long line of interpretation enlightened his view.
30
CHAPTER TWO:
BACKGROUND TO THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS
Having addressed the issue of how suffering was understood in Jewish and Hellenistic
culture leading up to the composition of Hebrews, we now focus our attention on the epistle
itself. This chapter seeks to better understand the text of the epistle as well as the circumstances
of its composition. This is done to paint a clearer picture of how the text should be understood
and interpreted. First, attention will be given to issues of the letter's authorship and audience.
This will include a look at the circumstances of its original audience and how that influenced the
author's composition. Second, issues regarding the text itself will be examined. This section will
seek to understand the genre, structure, linguistics and rhetoric of the epistle.
Through this chapter, attention will be drawn to areas that directly influence how we
should understand the theme of suffering in Hebrews. The circumstances of the audience, for
example, will be shown to be saturated with persecution and oppression. Knowing this
background will help us understand why the author presents suffering in the way he does. By
highlighting these areas, we will move beyond how these background issues impact
interpretation generally to a more specific influence on the subject of this paper.
Background of Author, Audience and Setting
Little evidence exists within the text of Hebrews concerning its author and intended
audience. The epistle makes no clear declarations regarding these issues. The text does suggest
certain elements and can be combined with external evidence to make some educated guesses as
to who wrote and received the epistle. The evidence reveals an author addressing a community in
crisis. They have suffered since their conversion and now face increasing persecution. While
31
they have endured in the past in the face of suffering, they now are tempted to abandon the faith
and the community.
While numerous suggestions exist, we simply do not know who wrote the epistle to the
Hebrews. A popular proposal has been that Paul was the author and that this epistle was an
addition to the Pauline corpus. The earliest text of Hebrews that we have, p46 (early third
century), places the epistle right after Paul's letter to the Romans. This reflects the stance of the
Eastern church which includes Hebrews among Paul's letters. 83 The Western church did not
embrace this idea fully until the fourth century being heavily influenced by Jerome and
Augustine. 84 It was not until the Reformation that this position (as many others) was again
seriously challenged. Calvin argued for Clement of Rome or Luke as the author. Luther
suggested Apollos.85 More recent proposals have included Priscilla, Barnabas, Philip, and
Silvanus. The fact remains that the epistle itself makes no declaration of authorship and external
evidence provides no conclusive answer. We must embrace the declaration ofOrigen from the
early third century, "But as to who actually wrote the epistle [to the Hebrews], God knows the
truth ofthe matter. ,,86
What does the epistle make clear about its author and how does it impact how one
understands and interprets the book? The text itself implies several details about its author. For
instance, a masculine singular reference in 11 :32 (6LTlYOUflEVOV) discloses the author's gender. 2:3
makes clear that he was a second-generation believer and that "this salvation, which was first
announced by the Lord, was confirmed to us by those who heard him." The author was also
83 D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2005), 600.
84 F. F. Bruce, The Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 17.
85 Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 602. For a recent defense of Apollos authorship, see
Johnson, Hebrews, 43. Cf. also Ben Witherington III, Letters and Homilies for Jewish Christians (Downers Grove:
1VP Academic, 2007), 22-24.
86 Bruce, Epistle to the Hebrews, 15, who cites Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 6.25.11-14.
32
knowledgeable about the OT. He often quotes, cites, echoes and alludes to OT scriptures. When
quoting the OT, the author of Hebrews regularly uses the Septuagint. 87 He was familiar with both
Jewish and Hellenistic thought. While he often talks about Jewish ritual (animal sacrifice, proper
worship, OT heroes), the author also uses Hellenistic imagery (the athletic contest, the stadium).
Furthermore, his writing reveals a man who was highly educated. Many commentators rank the
Greek text of Hebrews among the finest in the New Testament. 88 Therefore, the author of
Hebrews is best understood as a Hellenistic Jew who knew the writings and interpretation of the
OT as well as Greek rhetoric and education. The epistle presents an interchange of Greek and
Jewish thought.
Like the identity of the author, there are no clear references in the epistle to the date of its
composition or location of its intended audience. Concerning the destination of the epistle,
locations including Jerusalem, Colossae, Samaria, Ephesus, and many others have been
proposed. 89 While any option can be nothing more than an educated guess, there is valid
evidence in support of Rome as the location of the intended audience. First, Clement of Rome
demonstrated extensive use of Hebrews in his letter to the Corinthians in the late first century.
Therefore, the earliest evidence of Hebrews being used locates it in Rome. 9o Second, in 13:24,
the author sends the greeting, "Those from Italy greet you." The only parallel provided in the NT
is in Acts 18:2 in which "Italy" denotes "Rome.'t91 While this can be taken to mean the letter
came from Rome, it also fits the understanding that those from Rome who are away at the
present time send their greeting to the recipients who currently reside there. Third, in 13:7, 17,
and 24, the author refers to the leadership of the community as ~YOUflEVOL, "leaders." This
87 Ibid., 26.
88 Johnson, Hebrews, 8; George H. Guthrie, Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998),26.
89 For a discussion of the validity of these options see Bruce, Epistle to the Hebrews, 10-14.
90 Guthrie, Hebrews, 21.
91 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, liii.
33
92
designation is found in early Christian sources to be associated with the communities in Rome.
Finally, the reference in 10:32-34 that the recipients "joyfully accepted the confiscation of your
property" fits the description of those subject to Claudius' expulsion of Christians from Rome in
49 AD. 93
If 10:32-34 is a reference to the Edict of Claudius, then we have a clue as to when
Hebrews was composed. When the author writes that the hearer "remember those earlier days," it
implies that some time had passed since the Edict. Hebrews, therefore, could not have been
written much earlier than the mid to late-50s. Craig Koester draws attention to 13:7 and its
mention of the deaths of the community's leaders in such general terms that it is implied that a
whole generation of leaders has passed away. This, Koester concludes, means that Hebrews
could not have been written before the 60s AD. 94
Another important text is 12:4 in which the author writes, "In your struggle against sin,
you have not yet resisted to the point of shedding your blood." This implies that while the
recipients have faced persecution, no one has yet been martyred. 95 It is widely known that
Christians in Rome faced harsh persecution from Nero beginning in 64 AD with many dying for
their faith. If Hebrews was written to a community in Rome, then it must have been composed
before Christians began to be martyred under Nero. A likely date would be around 64 AD as the
persecution was intensifying. A strong case can be made that the epistle could not have been
written after 70 AD, the year the temple was destroyed. If the writer had written the epistle after
70 AD, his argument that the physical realities are mere shadows of the true reality would have
certainly included the temple's destruction. The lack of any reference to this event seems to
92 Ibid.
93 For more information on the Edict of Claudius including issues of dating and the identity of those banished from
Rome, see Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxiii-lxvi.
94 Koester, Hebrews, 50.
95 Craig Blomberg, From Pentecost to Patmos (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2006), 413.
34
secure a pre-70 AD date. 96 Thus, the epistle was written between two periods of persecution as
the audience's suffering was becoming increasingly severe, probably around 62-64 AD.
It is also impossible to give a definitive answer to the ethnic identity of the original
recipients of the epistle. Early manuscripts of the epistle carried the title "To the Hebrews" and
assumed an audience of Jewish Christians. With this conclusion, the problem addressed in the
epistle is typically understood as the threat of Jewish Christians returning to Judaism. The
content of the epistle seems to support this understanding since it derives so much from OT
scripture and imagery. With the discovery of the Qumran documents, this interpretation was
renewed in the mid-twentieth century. Several points of contact came into focus between the
circumstances addressed in Hebrews and that of the Essenes. These include the references to
Me1chizedek, extensive interest in biblical exegesis, and the conjunction ofthe priestly and
kingly aspects ofthe Messiah. 97 Yigael Yadin went as far as to claim that the original recipients
98
of Hebrews were converts from the Essene sect who were holding on to previously held beliefs.
Another line of interpretation has pushed for an audience of predominantly Gentile
believers. As we saw when we discussed the author's identity, there are numerous allusions to
Hellenistic thought and philosophy. Ifthis is the case, then the major problem addressed in the
epistle was not a return to Judaism but an abandonment of a commitment to Christ as the stakes
became difficult. 99 David deSilva argues that the author's use of the OT in Hebrews would have
been clearly understood by Gentile converts and that it "does not necessitate or even suggest an
96 Andrew H. Trotter Jr., Interpreting the Epistle to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1997),35.
97 Donald Guthrie, The Letter to the Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 40-4 I.
98 Yigael Yadin, "The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Epistle to the Hebrews," in Aspects ofthe Dead Sea Scrolls: Scripta
Hierosolymitana vol. 4, eds. Chaim Rabin & Yigael Yadin (Jerusalem: Magness Press, 1965), 38.
99 Koester, Hebrews, 46-47; Koester presents the strengths and weaknesses of both positions and concludes that we
will never know with certainty the ethnic identity of the people addressed in Hebrews.
35
audience made up primarily of Jewish Christians."loo Therefore, there can be no definitive
declaration ofthe audience's ethnic identity. The internal evidence supports a Jewish readership,
but it is possible that many Gentile believers existed in the community who would have followed
the author's epistle. The weight of the evidence seems to point to a congregation with a mixed
background. 101
The text of the epistle points to several other aspects of the original readers' lives.
Hebrews 2:3 speaks to the community's conversion in response to the preaching from "those who
heard him [Jesus]." The author includes himself in the community and continues to show an
intimate knowledge of their past. 102 He writes that their conversion was followed by divine
"signs, wonders and various miracles, and by the gifts of the Holy Spirit" (2:4). Those original
leaders who preached the gospel to them have since passed on (13:7) and the members of the
community should themselves be teachers but are abandoning their maturity in the faith
(5:12).103
The rich and complex Greek of the text implies, although does not prove, that the
intended audience was educated and "capable of attending meaningfully to such language and
syntax." 104 Hebrews also implies that some within the group had wealth and/or social status.
Some had (at one point) property which was confiscated (10:34). Some were now able to provide
hospitality (13:2). The author needed to warn some to "keep your lives free from the love of
100 David deSilva, Perseverance in Gratitude: A Socia-Rhetorical Commentary on the Epistle 'To The Hebrews'
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), 4.
101 Trotter, Interpreting the Epistle to the Hebrews, 30. Cf. also Lane, Hebrews 1-8, who argues for an audience ofa
Hellenistic Jewish background.
102 See Lane, Hebrews 1-8, Iv.
103 Ibid., Ivi-lvii. Lane emphasizes the irony attached to 5: 12-14: "With biting irony the writer calls the audience to
acknowledge their maturity, which has both ethical and theological ramifications for responsible life as Christians in
urban society."
104 deSilva, Perseverance in Gratitude, 8.
36
money" (13:5). Most likely, the community carne from various social circles and education
levels.
In his commentary, William Lane argues that the phrase "not acquainted with the
teaching about righteousness" in 5:13 suggests a threat of renewed humiliation and suffering
which had shaped the behavior of the community. If this is a correct reading, he writes, then "it
can be said that the social history of the audience can be read in terms of its response to
humiliation and public abuse.,,105 David deSilva writes of the inherent persecution faced by
believers abandoning their previous ideology by their family and neighbors (whether Jewish or
Hellenistic). He writes:
Gentile Christians would be subject to the "discipline" of their Greco-Roman

neighbors on account of their flagrant violation of the values of piety, gratitude,
and civic unity; Jewish Christians would corne under pressure from their non-
Christian Jewish family and associates. The goal of all non-Christians was the
same-to correct the dangerous and vicious errors of their former colleagues by
any means necessary. 106
New converts to Christianity would have faced immediate hardship and persecution. Their
suffering would have started right away within their close relational circles. As a result of their
conversion, new believers would have lost social status and privilege.
Craig Koester describes three phases in the history of the community addressed in
Hebrews: "Proclamation and Conversion," "Persecution and Solidarity," and "Friction and
Malaise."lo7 The first phase includes the initial conversion and reception of the gospel. It is in the
second phase that persecution began. By simply proclaiming their Christianity, this community
suffered at the hands oftheir society. Koester writes that the persecution from non-Christians had
a twofold purpose: to pressure Christians to relinquish their beliefs and to "marginalize those that
105 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, Ivii.

107 Koester, Hebrews, 64-72.
37
persisted in their faith and to dissuade others from joining their group. "108 While in this phase,
the community solidified and endured. However. continued persecution and public abuse shifted
the community into another phase. Koester's third phase includes the temptation to "shrink back"
(10:39) in light of the ongoing abuse. It is in this phase, he argues, that the author of Hebrews
addressed his community.
The epistle attempts to encourage those who faced persecution for their conversion as
well as those intimidated to confess Christ due to repercussions. In his book, Going Outside the
Camp, Richard Johnson argues that the author of Hebrews "promoted conditions conducive to
the entry of outsiders into the community ofbelievers."lo9 The author did this in large part,
according to Johnson, through an extensive critique of the Levitical system. To move from one
worldview or community into another was not well accepted in the first century. To do so "is
much more than an intellectual decision or a theological conviction; self-identification as a
member of that different community is required, with the new member accepting the
community's history, culture, and traditions as his or her own." 110
With continued suffering and the apparent temptation to return to their previous lives, the
author reminds his readers of their prior joy and endurance in 10:32-35:
Remember those earlier days after you had received the light, when you endured
in a great conflict full of suffering. Sometimes you were publicly exposed to
insult and persecution; at other times you stood side by side with those who were
so treated. You suffered along with those in prison and joyfully accepted the
confiscation of your property, because you knew that you yourselves had better
and lasting possessions. So do not throwaway your confidence; it will be richly
rewarded.
108 Ibid., 70.

109 Richard W. Johnson, Going Outside the Camp: The Sociological Function ofthe Levitical Critique in the Epistle
to the Hebrews (New York: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001), 153.

110 Ibid., 152.
38
This passage demonstrates strong suffering within the community early in its history. Beyond a
loss of status and privilege, the author writes of imprisonment and confiscation. This passage
emphasizes the public aspect of their humiliation. The term "publicly exposed" (8ElX:rpl(oIlEVOl)
evokes the imagery of being dragged upon a stage for ridicule and shame. III At the same time,
the author points to a strong camaraderie among the believers. They "stood side by side" with
those publicly ridiculed and "suffered along with those in prison." This all happened in the
past I 12 and the author encourages them to remember that faithfulness and not throw it all away.
The author "appeals to the audience to subject their present experience of hardship and alienation
to a fresh examination in light of their past stance of unwavering commitment to Christ." 113
If Rome was indeed the location of the original audience, then Hebrews 10:32-34
provides some detail on the early history of the community. The sufferings described in this
passage connect well to those of Jewish Christians expelled by Claudius from Rome in 49 AD.
Priscilla and Aquila were among those expelled "because Claudius had ordered all Jews to leave
Rome" (Acts 18:2). What is known about the Edict of Claudius comes from Suetonius, who
published Lives afCaesars in 120 AD. He writes: "There were riots in the Jewish quarter at the
instigation of Chrestus. As a result, Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome." 114 "Chrestus" was a
common name among Roman slaves, but not a common Jewish name. Suetonius cites this name
thinking that person was responsible for the riots among the Jews. More likely, however,
"Chrestus" was confused for ChriSt. 1l5 This is strong evidence of a Jewish Christian presence in
Rome around 49 AD.
111 Cf. deSilva, Perseverance in Gratitude, 13.

112 Notice the aorist tense verbs: UTIEl1ELlXrE ("endured"), OUVETIlXe~OlXrE ("suffered with"), TIpooE6E~lXOeE ("accepted").
113 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, Ixiv.
114 Life ofthe Deified Claudius 25:4 cited in William L. Lane, "Hebrews: A Sermon in Search of a Setting"
Southwestern Journal ofTheology 28 (1985): 17.

115 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxiv-Ixv notes Suetonius' reputation for not checking sources and early evidence that non-
Christians commonly interchanged "Christians" and "Chrestians" in manuscripts.
39
When Jewish Christians were expelled from Rome, they faced severe persecution.
"Insult, public abuse, and especially the loss of property were normal under the conditions of an
edict of expulsion." I 16 In short, the Jewish Christians in Rome were subjected to public
humiliation and shame. The loss of material wealth and property translated into a loss of honor
and status. I I? Even when they were allowed back into Rome, they would have "found themselves
in a lower economic status with no means of recovery as long as they remained associated with a
suspect group." 118
However, the group which had endured such harsh persecution now faces a new crisis.
Whether a continual presence of suffering had slowly chipped away at their spirit or new
persecution had surfaced or intensified, the author of Hebrews addresses an audience in danger
of falling away. The author encourages them not to "drift away" (2:1) or become lazy (6:12).
Some have already stopped meeting with the community (10:25) while others have "trampled the
Son of God underfoot" (10:29). Scholars have offered a variety of reasons for this change, but
persecution or its threat seems to be an obvious element. The author emphasizes the suffering of
Christ (2:9, 18; 5:8; 13:12) and Jewish heroes (chap. 11) who endured torture, stoning, and
flogging. He also points to his audience's situation and tells them that they had not yet suffered
"to the point of shedding blood" (12:4).
To summarize, as the author of Hebrews composed his work, he addressed an audience
who had suffered for their faith in Christ. They lived in a Hellenistic Jewish society and received
abuse from whatever background they came from. The community had seen oppression by
Claudius in 49 AD and was now seeing intensified persecution from Nero-or at least
anticipated it on the horizon. They were facing persecution on a personal and cultural level and,
116 Ibid., lxvi.

118 Ibid., 16.
40
while they had endured in the past, they were now tempted to tum away from the Christian
community. The author, who included himself in this community, knew their background and
strongly encouraged them to continue in their faith. In order to do this, he must address not only
theological issues, but also his audience's deep personal and cultural struggle. He must address
their suffering and offer them hope in the midst of despair.
Issues Involving the Text of Hebrews
We now direct our attention to the composition of the epistle to the Hebrews. In this
section we will investigate issues of genre, structure, linguistics and rhetoric. Through a close
look at these topics, we hope to arrive at a better understanding of how the epistle was written
and what its purpose involved. Moreover, we hope to identify important themes and better
interpret the text.
Up to this point we have been referring to Hebrews as an epistle. However, in many ways
Hebrews distinguishes itself from an epistle. Put simply, an epistle is a letterY9 Within the genre
of the epistle exist several subgenres: exhortation, diatribe, letter ofintroduction or
recommendation, apologetic, etc. 120 Unlike most Greco-Roman or NT epistles, Hebrews lacks
several consistent elements of a letter. For instance, it does not introduce its author or audience.
This is typically done right at the beginning along with some sort of salutation. In the opening
lines of Hebrews, the author does not offer any prayer or greeting but rather a statement
introducing the subject of the epistle. This initial statement immediately engages the audience. It
begins not like a letter but like a sermon. 121
119 William W. Klein, Craig 1. Blomberg and Robert 1. Hubbard Jr., Introduction to Biblical Interpretation
(Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, rev. 2004), 426.
120 Ibid., 430-31.
121 Lane, "Hebrews: A Sermon in Search ofa Setting," 13.
41
The author of Hebrews refers to his letter as a "word of exhortation" (0 'Aoyoc, TTlC,
TIapaKA~aEwc,) in 13 :22. The only other place in the NT where this term is used is Acts 13 which
refers to a homily or edifying discourse. 122 In Acts 13: 15, the leaders of the synagogue in
Pisidian Antioch extend an invitation to Paul and Barnabas to share a "word of exhortation"
('Aoyoc, TIapaK'A~aEwc,). Paul responds with a homily (vv. 16-41). The term "word of exhortation"
appears to be an expression for a sermon in Jewish-Hellenistic and early Christian culture. 123
Moreover, this term in Hebrews 13:22 points to an oral sermon or homily. In fact, in
many ways the epistle to the Hebrews has a distinctive oral character to it. 124 It is, as Ben
Witherington puts it, "an oxymoron, an oral document." 125 First, the author uses the first person
plural throughout the letter (we, us, our). In this way, the author identifies with his audience and
includes himself in their community. Second, the author chooses the terminology of "speaking"
and "hearing" rather than "writing" or "reading." In 6:9, he writes, "Even though we speak like
this, dear friends ... " In 9:5, "[W]e cannot discuss these things in detail now." Lane writes, "He
[the author] conceives his work as speech. By referring to speaking and listening, he is able to
establish a sense of presence with his audience.,,126 Most likely, the epistle to the Hebrews was a
sermon put into written form. It is very likely that it was said before it was read. Yet, as Johnson
127
points out, it may well have been composed for oral delivery and written out first.
This genre of an oral sermon or homily provides a few glimpses into how one should
interpret the letter. First, there exists a tension between the oral preaching and the written
122 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxx.

123 Ibid. For a defense of Hebrews as a letter and not a sermon, see Paul Ellingworth, The Epistle to the Hebrews
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 59-62.
124 Cf. Johnson, Hebrews, 10.
125 Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 20.
126 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxxv.
127 Johnson, Hebrews, 10.
42
discourse. 128 Although forced to put his homily into written form, the author still uses several
oral clues and connections. Second, the genre of Hebrews gives us insight into the purpose of the
letter. It was written by a leader of a community who knew and loved his congregation. It is
pastoral to its core with a deep concern for how the audience responds. Third, the form of a
sermon addresses genuine and practical concerns. The author was not writing a treatise on
theological concepts, but rather applying theology to actual circumstances. For example, the
genre seems to indicate "that the numerous warnings against apostasy throughout the letter (2: 1-
4; 3:7-4:11; 6:4-12; 10:19-39; 12:14-29) are not merely hypothetical." 129 The author had a
genuine concern that some people in his community might tum from the faith and go back to
their old way of life.
Understanding that Hebrews was written as a sermon to be read aloud complicates how
one understands its structure. Since the author intended for his audience to hear his sermon, he
includes numerous oral clues and rhetorical tools. He often introduces a theme and does not fully
develop it until later on. The author also uses key terms and connects his letter when they are
present in the text. "Some of the difficulty in analyzing the structure of Hebrews is due not to the
lack of structural indices, but to their overabundance." 130
A famous proposal for an outline of Hebrews came from Albert Vanhoye. 131 In his
outline, Vanhoye identifies five literary devices which are used to open and close the sections of
the epistle. Those devices are: (l) the announcement of the subject; (2) transitional hook words;
(3) change of genre; (4) characteristic terms; and (5) inclusio. 132 Using these devices, Vanhoye
128 Lane, Hebrews i-8, Ixxv.

129 Craig L. Blomberg, "The Diversity of Literary Genres in the New Testament," in interpreting the New
Testament, eds. David Alan Black and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2001), 284.
130 Harold W. Attridge, The Epistle to the Hebrews (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 16.
131 Albert Vanhoye, Structure and Message ofthe Epistle to the Hebrews (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1989).
132 Ibid., 20.
43
divides Hebrews into five main sections within the framework of an introduction and conclusion.
These five sections are: (1) the name superior to angels (1 :5-2: 18); (2) high priest worthy of faith
and merciful (3:1-5:10); (3) the central exposition on sacrifice (5:11-10:39); (4) faith and
endurance (11: 1-12: 13); and (5) the straight paths (12: 14-13: 19).133 These five sections are
concentrically arranged with several subsections. The midpoint of this concentric structure is
8: 1-9:28, which the author himself describes as "the point of what we are saying" (8: 1).
Vanhoye's outline remains influential but also has its critics. Koester argues that much of
the imagery in Hebrews moves in a more linear fashion than Vanhoye's structure would allow. 134
The themes and images are intertwined and do not adhere to a strict concentric structure.
Attridge writes that "there are also significant points at which even the analysis of the
architecture is forced and artificial, particularly in the central expository section." 135 The outline
by Vanhoye, however, remains influential and has laid the groundwork for future attempts to
understand the structure of Hebrews. 136
An important advancement in the study of the structure of Hebrews is George Guthrie's
use of discourse analysis (or "text-linguistic analysis,,).137 Guthrie defines discourse analysis as
"a process of investigation by which one examines the form and function of all the parts and
levels of a written discourse, with the aim of better understanding both the parts and the whole of
that discourse." 138 It assumes that an author has a theme in which they wish to communicate
133 Ibid., 40a-b.

135 Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews, 16.
136 Many scholars adapt Vanhoye's structure and literary devices into their own. Cf. Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews,
16; Ellingworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 58; Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxxxvii.
137 George H. Guthrie, The Structure ofHebrews: A Text-Linguistic Analysis (Leiden: EJ. Brill, 1994). Cf. also
Guthrie, Hebrews, 27-30. For a good summary of Guthrie's position, cf. Lane, Hebrews, lxxx-.1xxxiv & xc-xcviii.
For an explanation of discourse analysis including methodology, see George H. Guthrie, "Discourse Analysis," in
Interpreting the New Testament, eds. David Alan Black and David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman & Holmes,
2001),253-71.
138 Guthrie, "Discourse Analysis," 255.
44
through the written text. This theme is given "expression and development by linguistic choices
(diction, grammar, style), which lend meaning and structure to paragraph-units." 139
Regarding the structure of Hebrews, George Guthrie pays special attention to transitions.
He identifies nine transitional techniques used in Hebrews and groups them into two categories:
constituent and intermediary. Constituent transitions are those that connect two major sections of
discourse within those sections. They will either appear in the introduction or conclusion of a
given section. Intermediary transitions appear in a unit of text between two major sections of
discourse. By placing emphasis on these transitions, Guthrie aids in the quest to form a structure
to Hebrews. 140
More significant is the emphasis on the distinct functions of exposition and exhortation in
Guthrie's analysis of Hebrews' structure. According to Guthrie, the author of Hebrews does not
develop a neat outline from point A to point Z, but switches back and forth between exposition
(in which the author expounds the person and work of Christ) and exhortation (in which he seeks
to motivate the congregation to a positive response ).141 The two work together, although in
different manners, to accomplish the author's purpose in Hebrews. While each unit of text in
Guthrie's outline is considered either expositional or hortatory, there are two places where they
overlap. In 4:11-16 and 10:19-25, both literary devices are found within the same section of text.
According to Guthrie, the expositional material addresses the person and work of Christ
and does so with a logically developing argument. 142 Following the introduction (1: 1-4), the
author presents his material in two main movements (each with subsections): the first showing
the relationship of the Son to the angels (1:5-2:18) and the second showing the position of the
139 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, lxxxi.

140 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, xc-xcvi.
141 Guthrie, Hebrews, 27.
142 Ibid., 28.
45
Son, our high priest, in relation to the earthly sacrificial system. These two main sections are
broken into two smaller movements connected by an intermediary transition. The movements in
the expository sections are both logical and spatial developments in the writer's sermon. 143
However, unlike the expositional sections which move logically from section to section, the
exhortations return to the same motifs: falling away, sin, promise, faith, obedience, entering in,
endurance, etc. The exhortatory sections repeat these themes to emphasize both the positive
possibilities and the potential dangers ofthe hearer's next step. 144
At first it may seem that the exhortations interrupt the logical flow of the expositional
discourse. While we are drawn to a logical flow, the epistle to the Hebrews is more concerned
with the audience grasping the hortatory elements. Donald A. Hagner writes that "Hebrews exists
for the sake of the exhortations.,,145 Guthrie comes to this conclusion as well and elaborates:
Therefore, the expositional material serves the hortatory purpose of the whole
work. The exposition on Christ's position in relation to the angels and his position
as superior high priest does more than theologically inform; it offers powerful
motivation for active obedience and endurance in the race toward the lasting
city. 146
The way in which exposition and exhortation sections are distinguished from, yet interact with,
each other is an important insight as one seeks to articulate Hebrews' structure and purpose.
A more recent study of the epistle to the Hebrews using discourse analysis highlights the
places in which the exposition and exhortation sections (according to Guthrie's outline) overlap.
Cynthia Long Westfall divides the epistle into three sections based upon two thematic discourse
peaks in 4: 11-16 and 10: 19_25. 147 These peaks are formed by triads of hortatory subjunctives.
143 Ibid., 29.

144 Ibid., 30.
\45 Donald A. Hagner, Encountering the Book ofHebrews (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2002), 26.
146 Guthrie, Structure ofHebrews, 143-45.
147 Cynthia Long Westfall, A Discourse Analysis ofthe Letter to the Hebrews: The Relationship between Form and
Meaning (London and New York: T&T Clark, 2005).
46
Westfall divides the epistle into three sections: Jesus as an apostle/messenger (l: 1-4: 16); Jesus as
high priest (4: 11-1 0:25); and the partnership of the readers with Jesus (10: 19_13:25).148 She
points out that the expositional sections are signaled by y&p and support the hortatory
subjunctives. The subjunctives are signaled by inferential conjunctions such as ouv. Whatever
prominence is given to an expositional clause, it "is significantly lower than the hortatory
subjunctive that it is associated with." 149
Westfall places a large emphasis on the epistle's hortatory subjunctives. She writes that
the message or thesis of Hebrews is "carried by the formulaic occurrence of the hortatory
subjunctive (plus the first person plural command in 2:1).,,150 The repetition within the
subjunctives falls into three themes: "let's hold on to the confession," "let's go forward
spiritually," and "let's draw near to God." The hortatory subjunctives not only repeat these
themes, but are used to transition from one unit to the next. The author often uses them as a
conclusion to one unit while introducing the next. Thus, "the hortatory subjunctive units look
forwards and backward." 151
However one divides up the text of Hebrews, it has become clear that linguistic analysis
is insightful in both determining the structure and interpreting the message of the epistle. Of
particular importance is the emphasis on the role of expositional and hortatory sections. As we
attempt to understand how the author understood and interpreted Christ's suffering, it will be
significant to note that such sections typically fall into expositional units (2:9-18; 5:8; 9:26).
From what discourse analysis has revealed, we can understand those sections to be supporting
the author's hortatory units. In other places where suffering is mentioned in hortatory sections
148 Ibid., 297.

149 Ibid., 298.
150 Ibid. She locates the subjunctives in 4:1, II, 14, 16; 6:1; 10:22,23,24; 12:1,28; 13:12, 15.
15! Ibid., 299.
47
(11 :1-40; 12:1-3; 13:12), we can seek to understand how the author seeks to motivate his
audience.
Finally. let us consider the structure set forward by Craig Koester, not only because it is
unique but because of its connection to the theme of suffering. Koester presents what he
considers an alternative to the approaches presented above. His commentary uses "classical
rhetorical patterns to identify the general structure of Hebrews." 152 Koester draws several main
elements of rhetorical speech and applies them to the epistle. First is the exordium, or
introduction, which prepares the listeners to pay attention to the speaker. This is found in 1: 1-2:4.
Second, the proposition is found in 2:5-9 and defines the issue to be addressed. This is followed
by a series of arguments supporting the speaker's proposition. According to Koester, these
arguments are followed by transitional digression of warning and encouragement. The headings
in Koester's outline are: Jesus received glory through faithful suffering-a way that others are
called to follow (2:10-5:10; digression-5:11-6:20); Jesus' suffering is the sacrifice that enables
others to approach God (7:1-10:25; digression-l 0:26-39); and God's people persevere through
suffering to glory by faith (11: 1-12:24; digression-12:25-27). These arguments are followed by
a peroration in 12:28-13:21 which brings the speech to a close. Finally, an epistolary postscript
(13 :22-25) follows the final benediction and includes many elements of a conclusion in
traditional Christian letters.
There are certain elements of Koester's outline that are intriguing. Koester rightly places
emphasis on the epistle's sermon/speech elements and its strong rhetorical style. He correctly
identifies the author's use of persuasion to get his point across. Koester argues that the epistle is
both deliberative (encouraging people's future actions) and epideictic (reinforcing people's
152 Koester, Hebrews, 84-86.
48
present values), depending upon who is hearing it. 153 Koester's emphasis on suffering in his three
main arguments properly understands its role in the epistle's composition. Jesus' suffering both
serves as a model for believers and as a sacrifice enabling others to approach God. Suffering
plays an important role in the lives of believers also. Just as Jesus persevered through suffering,
they too must endure despite persecution.
While these elements are appreciated, Koester's outline is difficult to support. His use of
rhetorical patterns is not convincing. Ben Witherington points out that Koester's suggestion that
2:5-9 is the proposition of the whole discourse "simply does not work." 154 It is too much ofa
stretch to claim 2:5-9 as a thesis statement which the subsequent arguments support.
Witherington also denies Koester's claim that Hebrews contains deliberative persuasion. He
argues that "there is no evidence in Hebrews that the author assumes that any of his audience has
already defected," nor that the author is asking anyone to change direction. ISS Instead, Hebrews
encourages its audience in their current faith and to continue their walk. Koester's emphasis on
suffering certainly highlights its significance in the epistle, but it is difficult to divide Hebrews
according to these categories.
As we have seen, other outlines have better included the issues of exposition/exhortation
as well as literary and rhetorical markers. It was said that the structure of Hebrews is complicated
by its numerous markers and indices. However, Cynthia Westfall's division into three chunks
(l: 1-4: 16; 4: 11-1 0:25; 10: 19-13 :25) based upon prominent indices (hortatory subjunctives,
conjunctions y&p and Kat, etc.) best builds upon prior work on Hebrews' structure and best
represents the text.
153 Ibid., 82.

154 Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 46. Witherington does, however, create a simpler outline of Hebrews
including some of Koester's rhetorical elements.
155 Ibid., 53n.87.
49
Conclusion
The epistle to the Hebrews can be understood as a sermon addressed to a community in
conflict. This Christian community faced oppression at their conversion and is currently living in
the midst of intensifying persecution. There is a temptation to return to their former way of life-
whether Jewish or Hellenistic-and fall away from the faith. The author, who includes himself in
this community and writes with a pastoral care, encourages them to press on and not give up. His
letter has the markings of a sermon and its composition has a sense of his presence among them.
The author uses sections of exposition and exhortation to encourage his readers to move forward
despite their conflicts and seek God.
It is clear that suffering plays an important role in the way this epistle was written. A look
at the circumstances of the original recipients makes clear their own suffering and increased
persecution. They faced oppression in previous years (l 0:32-35) and had endured like Christ
endured. Now with new and more severe threats, they are beginning to fade. It is this backdrop
of a suffering community in which the author writes his sermon. The letter takes the form of a
spoken sermon and appeals to deep needs and temptations this suffering has brought upon the
community. The author speaks to these needs and uses examples of Christ's suffering as well as
the community's own previous suffering and endurance to support his commands.
50
CHAPTER THREE
THE SUFFERING OF CHRIST IN HEBREWS
We now move to the matter of how Jesus' sufferings are to be understood in the epistle to
the Hebrews. The subject will be approached in two ways. First, what do the sufferings of Christ
include? Specifically, when referencing Christ's suffering, is the author referring only to his
death or does he have more in mind? Second, what role or purpose do Jesus' sufferings play in
the epistle? This aspect will focus on how suffering furthers the author's argument and theology.
In his examination of the suffering of Jesus Christ in the book of Hebrews, Charles
Talbert concludes that two main purposes are present. 156 First, Jesus' suffering has a personal
purpose. By this, Talbert means that Christ's suffering comprised the way in which he moved to
glory. Through suffering, Jesus learned obedience (5:8) and was made perfect (2:10). Second,
Christ's suffering had a vocational purpose. Through sufferings, Jesus was prepared for his role
as high priest (2: 17-18) and became the source of perfection and eternal salvation for believers.
To these two purposes, Talbert adds another element of Christ's suffering in Hebrews. He writes
that "By his endurance amidst his suffering, Jesus also became a model for Christians to
follow.,,157
In the following assessment of the four main sections in Hebrews dealing with Christ's
suffering (2:5-18; 4:14-5:10; 12:1-3; and 13:11-14), we will focus on what these sufferings
entailed as well as their purpose. When considering the role of Christ's suffering in the author's
argument and theology, we will test Talbert's categories with a more detailed analysis of the text.
Attention will be given to how the author presents suffering with a personal and/or vocational
156 Talbert, Learning Through Suffering, 58-73.

157 Ibid., 66-69.
51
role. Where appropriate, we will examine how Christ is understood as a model for believers in
the face of suffering.
Hebrews 2:5-18
Hebrews 2:5-18 marks a shift from the focus of the Son's exalted position in 1:5-2:4 to
his earthly position. 2:5-9 serves as a transition by quoting Psalm 8:4-6 and introducing the
concept of Jesus' humanity. 158 The quotation involves elements concerning Christ's incarnation
("made a little lower than the angels") and exaltation ("crowned him with glory and honor").
Thus it serves as a transition from a discussion of exaltation to an emphasis on Christ's
incarnation and humanity.
Whether the author understood and interpreted Psalm 8:4-6 Christologically or
anthropologically impacts how we understand this passage. Many scholars support a
Christological interpretation of this passage. 159 In this sense, the use ofthe psalm presupposes its
anthropological backdrop but understands its fulfillment in the incarnation and exaltation of
Jesus Christ. 16o Therefore, the author of Hebrews interprets &v8pwTIo~ and uio~ &v8pwTIOU from
the psalm as a direct reference to Christ. Those who understand this quotation as retaining its
161
original anthropological sense observe a contrast between humankind and Jesus. According to
this view, the author is making clear that, what humans were unable to accomplish due to their
sin, Jesus accomplished through his incarnation and suffering death. Numerous scholars argue
158 Guthrie, Hebrews, 96; 100.

159 Cf. esp. George Guthrie and Russell D. Quinn, "A Discourse Analysis of the Use of Psalm 8:4-6 in Hebrews 2:5-
9," JETS 49 (2006): 235-46. Cf. Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews, 72; Bruce, Hebrews 1-8, 72-74; Ellingworth,
Epistle to the Hebrews, 150-51; Guthrie, Hebrews, 96; Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 141.
160 Guthrie and Quinn, "A Discourse Analysis," 246.
161 Cf. esp. Craig L. Blomberg, "'But We See Jesus': The Relationship Between the Son of Man in Hebrews 2.6 and
2.9 and the Implications for English Translations," in A Cloud of Witnesses: The Theology ofHebrews in its Ancient
Contexts, eds. Richard Bauckham et al (New York: T&T Clark, 2008),88-99. Cf. also Grand R. Osborne, "The
Christ of Hebrews and Other Religions," JETS 46 (2003): 259; Thomas Smothers, "A Superior Model: Hebrews I: 1-
4:13," RevExp 82 (1985): 339; and Young, "Suffering," 47-59.
52
that both lines of interpretation are present in Hebrews 2:5_9. 162 Such scholars do not wish to
choose one interpretation over the other and so maintain both at the same time.
A "both-and" position may be the best way to understand this passage. When the author
of Hebrews quotes Psalm 8 in 2:6-8, it was probably first understood by its audience in the
original anthropological sense. However, 2:9 makes clear that Jesus is the fulfillment of what the
human race could not do. The author connects two phrases from the psalm directly to Christ:
"made a little lower than the angels" and "crowned with glory and honor." It is possible that the
author intended the audience to reevaluate the psalm in light of his exegesis in 2:9. Understood
this way, Jesus is seen as the one who did what human beings were not able to do themselves.
Jesus is presented as an example or model for how humans should be. However one interprets
this passage, Craig Blomberg is correct that a modern translation should leave room for both
lines of interpretation. 163
Verse 9 is significant for two reasons. First, it is the first time that the name of Jesus is
mentioned in the epistle. Hebrews 2:5-8 builds to the statement that "we see Jesus" (PAETTOflEV
'ITJoouv). It is interesting that the author does not attach any title to the name. In other places in
the epistle, the author does combine Jesus' name with a title: "the Son of God" in 4: 14; "Jesus
Christ" in 10:10,13:8 and 21; and "our Lord Jesus" in 13:20. 164 Here in 2:9, however, the author
simply writes that we see Jesus. Attridge points out that when Hebrews refers to the suffering
162 Cf. deSilva, Perseverance in Gratitude, 108-112; Koester, Hebrews, 220-23; Lane, Hebrews 1-8,47; Johnson,
Hebrews, 90.
163 Blomberg, "But We See Jesus," 98: "What is needed in modem language translations is some kind of rendering
that does not immediately or naturally suggest a Messianic interpretation in verses 6-8 and that is gender-inclusive to
ensure that readers recognize that men and women alike were created in God's image and given the charge to
exercise responsible stewardship over the earth, but which can then also be applied to Jesus when the reader comes
to verse 9 and grasps the dynamic of our author's flow of thought: Now we see Jesus doing right what humanity did
wrong. Yet the translation should leave the door open for the Christological interpretation just in case that approach
should prove right."
53
humanity of the savior, it tends to use the name 'Ioou~ by itself. 165 It is used in 10:19 in reference
to the blood of Jesus and in 13:12 to Jesus suffering outside the city gate. 12:2 is an interesting
parallel use of'Ioou~. Like 2:9 where the author says that "we see" (~AETIOIlEV) Jesus, 12:2
encourages the audience to "fix our eyes" (a<jlopwvTE~) on Jesus. Also, 12:2 connects Christ's
suffering humanity ("endured the cross") to his exaltation ("sat down at the right hand of the
throne of God").
Secondly, Hebrews 2:9 is significant because it is the first time that the suffering of
Christ is mentioned. Serving as a transition to 2: 10-18 in which the theme will be developed,
verse 9 explains that Jesus is crowned with glory and honor because he suffered death (61-eX 'to
mx8Tllla TOU 8avu'tou 66~1J Kat 'tl1lT! EOTE<jlavwIlEvoV). While the construction of the Greek has led
some commentators to understand the crowning with glory and honor as preceding Jesus'
166
suffering of death, this interpretation does not fit well into the context of Hebrews. 12:2
presents a similar pattern of Christ's humiliation followed by his exaltation. It is also possible to
connect the phrase 61-eX TO TIu8Tllla 'tou 8avu'tou to the statement that Jesus was made a little lower
than the angels. According to this understanding, Jesus' suffering death was the manner in which
he was made lower than the angels. While the Greek can support either option, the context of
Hebrews seems to support understanding this phrase as providing the reason Jesus was crowned
with glory and honor.
The purpose clause at the end of verse 9 (OTIW~ XUpl-'tl 8EOU {JTIEp TIaVTO~ YEUOTlTaI-
8avu'tOu) declares that Jesus tasted death for everyone. This clause transitions nicely to 2: 10-18
which further establishes Jesus suffering on behalf of humans. It is difficult to understand how
165 Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews, 66 n. 49. Although it is too simplistic to say that when the author uses this term
without a title he is always referring to only Jesus' humanity. Cf. Ellingworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 153.
166 For further discussion, see F. F. Bruce, Hebrews 1-8, 75-76.
54
the phrase xap~ n BEOU ("grace of God") modifies the phrase {JTIEp mxvtot; YEUOT]tCl~ BClVatOU ("he
might taste death for everyone"). The textual variant xwp1.t; BEOU ("apart from God") is weakly
attested in early manuscripts but is the harder reading. 167 If xap~n BEOU is the better attested
reading; how can it be understood to modify the phrase that follows it? First, it places God as an
active agent in the work and death of Christ. It did not happen outside of the control of God, but
"by the grace of God" Jesus tasted death for everyone. This is supported by 2:10 which further
establishes God's role in, and not absence from, the work of Christ on earth. Second, many
scholars emphasize that Xap ~t; has an array of nuances. One popular nuance is that of a gift.
Understood this way, the XapLt; of God is the gift of Jesus' sacrifice (further developed in 9:1-
10:18).168
In the first passage of Hebrews dealing with Christ's suffering, all three aspects of
Talbert's proposal are present. The personal purpose of suffering is made clear when the author
reflects on Christ's exaltation after his suffering (2:9). The use of 6~a plus the accusative (to
1TaBT]~Cl) in 2:9 stresses that the suffering of death was the ground of Christ's exaltation. 169 It is
because ofthe death he suffered that he was crowned with glory and honor. The vocational
purpose of suffering is clarified when the author writes that Jesus tasted death for everyone. The
word YEUOT]tClL ("taste") does not mean that Jesus only sampled death. Rather, it is a "creative and
metaphorical way of saying he experienced death and did so for others." 170 This passage is
pointing to Christ's high priest role, which will be introduced in the next section and fleshed out
in chapters 7-10. Finally, the role of Christ's suffering as a model for Christians to follow is
emphasized as the author encourages his audience to "see" Jesus and the path he had to follow.
167 Cf. Ellingworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 155-56 for an argument supporting the variant xwpL:; 8EOU.
168 James W. Thompson, Hebrews (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2008), 71. Also Johnson, Hebrews, 92-93.
169 Peterson, Hebrews and Perfection, 68.
170 Witherington, Letters and Homilies, 144.
55
James Thompson writes, "Like ancient orators, the author knows the persuasive power of
examples. He invites the suffering community to 'see' the eartWy Jesus as the ultimate example
of faithfulness in his suffering that led to death.,,171 The author emphasizes that Jesus' exaltation
was preceded by suffering and encourages his audience to endure their present suffering.
Hebrews 2:10-18 begins and ends with a reference to suffering. 2:10 states that God
made Jesus, the pioneer of their salvation, (iLlX mx8rU.La1"wv 1"EAElWmXl ("perfect through
suffering"). Verse 18 continues a discussion concerning Christ's relationship with his human
brothers and sisters by stating that he TIETIov8EV cX,\J1"OC;; TIELpa08Ek ("himself suffered when he was
tempted"). The first and last verse "bracket the passage by addressing the same point from
slightly different angles: verse 10 speaks of the fittingness of the Son's suffering from the side of
God's purpose in bringing many children to his presence; verse 18 speaks from the side of human
experience of the capacity of the Son to be a faithful and merciful priest because he was tested
and suffered like other humans." 172 Within these bookends is a discussion of Christ's relationship
with human beings. Whereas the opening chapter of Hebrews stresses Christ's exaltation, 2: 10-
18 focuses on his incarnation. Verses 11-15 establish the reality of the incarnation and verses 16-
17 provide the reason for it: so Jesus could serve as a faithful high priest.
Verse 10 begins the section with a bold statement: For it was fitting to God ("ETIpETIEV
y&p aU1"Q) that Christ should be made perfect through suffering. While Greco-Roman literature
frequently cited what was "fitting" for the gods, the connection to suffering in 2: 10 would have
been completely unacceptable. 173 The author uses the term again in 7:26 to say that "it is fitting"
that we have a high priest like Christ. Matthew 3:15 presents Jesus saying that "it is fitting" that
171 Thompson, Hebrews. 7l.

173 Thompson, Hebrews, 72.
56
he be baptized. The NT does not connect TIpETIW to the divine anywhere else, 174 but will
commonly use OEl to express what is necessary.
The phrase further develops XapL tL 8EOU in 2:9 and attempts to understand how the
suffering of Jesus fits into God's plan. Declaring suffering as "fitting" to God is still a difficult
concept to embrace. Attridge, for example, attempts to downplay the connection: "Propriety here
is not a consequence of God's nature, but of human needs and the salvific action that meets
them. "175 What is clear is that Jesus' suffering was not at odds with the character of God and that
it was useful in "bringing many sons and daughters to glory." It stresses how the author
conceived this salvific action in a wider context. 176
IIa811flatwv in 2: lOis connected to TIa811fla in the verse before it, but the two are not
necessarily talking about the same thing. Although many scholars assume TIa811fl(hwv refers to
Jesus' death (as mx811fla tau 8avatou did in 2:9),177 there is good reason to think that the term has
a broader meaning in 2: 1O. First, the pluralTIa811flatWV points to something more that just one
event (to which the singular TIa811fla refers). Sufferings, in 2:10, points to "the whole web of
suffering through which Jesus passed through in his lifetime."l78 Second, whereas i5ux plus the
accusative in verse 9 stressed that suffering was the ground of Christ's exaltation, David Peterson
points out that the genitive with the preposition in 2: 10 stresses that suffering was something
through which Christ had to pass. 179 Lastly, the broader context of Hebrews presents a broader
meaning of suffering than simply Christ's passion; 2: 18 connects Jesus' suffering to temptation
and 5:8 says that Jesus learned obedience from what he suffered. If Jesus was to have "learned
174 It is used in 1 Cor. 11: 13, Eph. 5:3, 1 Tim. 2: 10 and Titus 2: 1 in reference to humans.
176 Alan C. Mitchell, 'The Use OfTIpETIElV and Rhetorical Propriety in Hebrews 2:10," CBQ 54 (1992), 682.
177 Cf Ellingworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 161; Guthrie, Hebrews, 107.
57
obedience from what he suffered," then it would seem that the author refers to more than the
final moments of the passion events. Johnson argues that the author "must have more in mind
than the physical sufferings of Jesus' passion" ifhe understands Jesus as "learning from the
things he suffered." 180
Significant to this passage is an understanding of what the author of Hebrews meant
when he wrote that Jesus was made perfect through what he suffered. The concept of the
perfection of Christ in Hebrews has been the matter of much scholarly work and debate. Three
main passages connect the verb 'tEA-ElOW (to perfect or make perfect) to Jesus Christ: 2:10, 5:8-10,
and 7:28. As we have just seen, 2:10 declares that in bringing many sons and daughters to glory,
God made Christ perfect through the things he suffered. Hebrews 5:9 states that once Jesus was
made perfect (again connected to suffering in 5:8), he became the source of eternal salvation for
all who obey him and was designated to be high priest. Finally, 7:28 compares Jesus, who has
been made perfect forever, to the priests before him who could not permanently accomplish their
tasks.
Since the epistle itself states that Christ "did not sin" (4: 15), 'tEA-ElOW applied to Jesus
"cannot mean that He progressed from sinfulness to sinlessness.''\S\ In his work Hebrews and
Perfection, David Peterson argues against such an understanding. Instead, Peterson sees a
"vocational" understanding of the perfecting of Christ. I82 Peterson adopts a rendering of "to
qualify" or "to make completely adequate" for'tEA-ElWmU in 2: 10. 183 The author of Hebrews
establishes here that Christ was qualified for his role as high priest by his incarnational
experience. Peterson writes: "That perfecting involved a whole sequence of events: his proving
180 Ibid., 149.

181 Anthony A. Hoekema, "The Perfection of Christ in Hebrews," Calvin Theological Journal 9 (1974): 31.
182 Peterson, Hebrews and Perfection, 73
183 Ibid.
58
in suffering, his redemptive death to fulfill the divine requirements for the perfect expiation of
sins and his exaltation to glory and honour.'d84
A similar conclusion is drawn from the use of perfection in 5:8-10. Drawing upon the
entire section of 4:14-5:10, Peterson advances his vocational reading oftEAElouv. The emphasis
in this section, however, is Christ's personal preparation "to offer his once-for-all sacrifice and to
be a merciful and faithful high priest." 185 Concerning 7:28 in which Hebrews concludes a section
comparing Jesus to Melchizedek by saying that he has been made "perfect forever," Peterson
continues his vocational rendering. The perspective here is that Christ has already fulfilled or
qualified for his position and will continue to work on behalf of believers.
Thus, according to Peterson, the perfecting of Christ refers to his being qualified to be
high priest and the source of eternal salvation. 186 He emphasizes the concept of development and
proving as part of Christ's perfection, but to interpret perfecting in just those terms "is to put
emphasis where our writer does not put it.,,187 The means by which Jesus was perfected includes
his life of obedience, his sacrificial death and his heavenly exaltation. 188 Finally, Peterson
stresses that the perfecting of Christ "through suffering" provides a pattern for discipleship. 189
More recently, Kevin McCruden argues for a different understanding of the perfection
language in reference to Christ in Hebrews. Through an examination of Greek non-literary
papyri, McCruden demonstrates a popular use of tEAElOUV for official, definitive attestation. 190
Similar language in Hebrews, he argues, points more to the character of Christ than to something
184 Ibid.
185 Ibid., 103.
186 Ibid.
187 Ibid.
188 Ibid., 186.

189 Ibid., 187.
190 Kevin B. McCruden, Solidarity Perfected: Beneficent Christology in the Epistle to the Hebrews (Berlin: Walter
de Gruyter, 2008), 31.
59
191
which he has done. Thus, according to McCruden, the perfection language supports the
broader theological themes of divine beneficence and philanthropia-Iove for the faithful. 192
McCruden presents his argument well and shows how these broader theological themes
permeate the epistle. It is his premise that the perfection language in Hebrews is a means of
definitive attestation which is hard to fully support. First, all of his Greek non-papyri (except
one) used perfection language in reference to a debt or legal matter and not a person. McCruden's
remark that when one contextualizes the language it reveals a deeper sense of official
attestation 193 does not resolve this issue since there is no evidence of a context similar to
Hebrews in which this sense is present. Second, there is no way to know whether the author uses
this admittedly less attested usage of perfection language rather than more classical Greek
sources-as presented by Peterson. 194
Anthony Hoekema, writing before Peterson and McCruden, concludes that God made
Jesus perfect through suffering so that he might (l) bring the perfect sacrifice; (2) be completely
like us in all respects except sin, so that he could continue to intercede for us; and (3) be a
sympathetic high priest who understands us fully. 195 In each aspect, suffering is a key element:
(1) Jesus' suffered by living a life of obedience so as to be a sacrifice free from sin (2:9); (2) He
suffered in that he took on the form of a man and was tempted in every way we are (2: 18); and
(3) He is a sympathetic high priest because he suffered like we do (2:17-18). Suffering is
absolutely necessary for Jesus to be made perfect. For whatever reason, the author of Hebrews
makes clear that it is fitting that perfection come through suffering.
191 Ibid., 67-68.

192 Ibid., 139.
193 Ibid., 37.
194 Peterson, Hebrews and Perfection, 21-48.

195 Hoekema, "Perfection of Christ in Hebrews," 33.
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Hebrews 2:17-18 continues this theme of Jesus' suffering qualifying him for his role as
high priest. In verse 17, the author writes that in order to become a merciful and faithful high
priest and make atonement for sin, Jesus had to become like his brothers and sisters in every
way. 196 Verse 18 further describes how Jesus became like his brothers and sisters: "Because he
himself suffered when he was tempted, he is able to help those who are being tempted."
Suffering is both a way in which Jesus was made like his siblings and thus a qualified high priest
as well as a way in which he can better act as high priest. It both qualifies and equips him for his
priesthood.
While Hebrews 2:5-9 contains all three elements of Talbert's proposition on the meaning
of Christ's suffering, 2: 10-18 focuses on the vocational aspect. 2: 10 makes clear that God made
Christ perfect through what he suffered in order to bring many sons and daughters to glory.
2:14-15 elaborates on Christ's work saying that by his death he "might break the power of him
who holds the power of death" and "free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their
fear of death." It is clear that Jesus' suffering had a positive impact on believers. Furthermore,
Jesus' suffering when he was tempted makes him able to help those who are being tempted
(2:18). Combine this with Peterson's argument for a vocational understanding of Christ's
perfection (by means of suffering) and the point is well established. The personal aspect of
Christ's suffering may be existent in that his sufferings led to his perfection. However, given our
understanding that perfection here refers to Christ being made completely adequate for his role
as high priest, it is ultimately vocational.
The concept of Christ as a model for believers to follow is also presented in 2: 10-18. The
author's stress on the fact that Jesus was "like his brothers and sisters in every way" (v. 17) sets
196 For a study on the use of the concept of brother to describe Jesus' priestly role, see Patrick Gray, "Brotherly Love
and the High Priest Christology of Hebrews," Journal ofBiblical Literature 122 (2003): 335-51.
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Christ up as an exemplar of how to live. His suffering prepared him to care for those he served as
well as set an example for them to follow. The author presents Jesus as the "pioneer" (&PXTlYOC;)
of salvation. This is a word rich in nuance and any translation can capture only some of its
aspects. 197 The most common uses, however, were for a leader and a founder. The translation
"pioneer" plays on both of these aspects. 198 It is significant for our study that the term
communicates Christ as leader. Jesus is a leader in that he is bringing many sons and daughters
to glory. Jesus, who has been perfected by the things he suffered, has gone ahead and has left a
path in which to follow. "The idea here, then, is that the one who causes and leads must himself
be perfected before those who follow him can be. Thus it is 'fitting.",199
Finally, in 2: 10 specifically, the sufferings of Christ move beyond just his passion and
death. That Jesus' death is included in his suffering is clear in 2:9 (TO TIa8Tlf.LcX ToD 8avcXTou). The
plural TIa8Tlf.LcXTC.llV in 2: 10 begins to broaden our definition while the connection of suffering
(TIETIOv8EV) to temptation (TIEpao8Elc;) in 2:18 does so specifically. This definition will become
still broader in the following section (4: 14-5: 10), to which we now turn.
Hebrews 4:14-5:10
This passage is significant in that it introduces the topic to which the author will focus for
the majority of his epistle. Referenced in 2:17 and 3:1, the theme of Jesus as high priest will now
be addressed more comprehensively through 10:25. 4:14-16 serves as a transition from the
exhortation of 3: 1-4: 16 and introduces the exposition on the high priesthood of Christ. 200 In 5: 1-
4, the author gives a description of "every high priest" (5:1) providing two main requirements for
their position: being able to sympathize with those they represent (vv. 1-3) and being divinely

200 Guthrie, Hebrews, 173. He caIls 4: 14-16 an "overlapping transition" since it concludes the section before it and
introduces the section that follows. Thus, it is structurally a part of both sections.
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appointed (v. 4).201 5:5-10 proceeds to show how Christ fulfills those requirements: he was
chosen by God (vv. 5-6) and shared in our condition (vv. 7-10). This passage shares many of the
themes introduced in 2:10-18: Jesus' priesthood (2:17), Jesus as complete through suffering
(2:10; 5:8-10), Jesus sharing in human flesh (aap~; 2:14; 5:7), and Jesus being tested ('!TElpa~w) so
that he can help others (2: 18; 4: 15_16).202
4:14-16 introduces this section with two exhortations: "Let us hold firmly to the faith we
profess" (v. 14) and "Let us then approach God's throne with grace and confidence" (v. 16). The
support for these exhortations is that Jesus is a sympathetic high priest. Verse 14 declares Jesus
to be a "great high priest" who has ascended into heaven. Although Jesus as "Son" has been
mentioned before, this is the first time the author has called him by the title "Son of God." The
title will be repeated again by the author in 6:6, 7:3 and 10:29.4:14 by itself presents a high
Christological view of Jesus. Verse 15 further shows Christ's great priesthood by contrasting it to
an inadequate high priest ("who is unable to empathize with our weaknesses"). The high
Christology is further developed in reference to Jesus' humanity and temptation with the
emphasis that he was without sin. This gives us "confidence" to approach God (v. 16). These
opening verses already present Christ as a qualified and great high priest. The author will now
step back and describe the requirements for the role (5: 1-4) and further develop how Christ is
qualified (5:5-10).
5: 1-4 makes clear that a high priest must be able to empathize with those he represents
and be called by God. Verse 3 shows a limitation for every high priest of the past: they had to
offer sacrifices for their own sins. Jesus, the great high priest, was without sin (4: 15) and his
superior qualifications begin to come out. This looks ahead to 7:27 when the author will make
201 Johnson, Hebrews, 137 sees twelve requirements in 5:1-4 under those two main categories.
63
the point clear: "Unlike other high priests, he does not need to offer sacrifices day after day, first
for his own sins, and then for the sins of the people. He sacrificed for their sin once for all when
he offered himself."
In 5:5-10, the author responds to the two qualifications for "every high priest" in reverse
order: verses 5-6 use quotations from Psalms 2 and 110 (l09) to make clear Jesus' divine calling
as a priest, and verses 7-10 communicate his ability to empathize with those he serves. The
author quotes Psalm 2:7, which was the first Scripture quoted in Hebrews 1:5. Psalm 110 was
quoted in the opening chapter as well, but here he quotes verse 4 rather than verse 1. It has been
pointed out that Psalm 2:7 reiterates Jesus as "Son," which predominates in 1:5-4:14, while the
next quotation emphasizes the focus of "priest" in the following section (4: 15_10:22).203 By
quoting these two psalms side-by-side, the author links the concepts of Sonship and priesthood
together in referring to Christ. 204
Hebrews 5:7 is a verse that has been the subject of numerous interpretations and debates.
What exactly does it mean that Jesus "offered up prayers and petitions"? What was he praying
for? In what sense was he "heard,,?205 The context for this verse is the author's attempt to
establish Jesus as a high priest who is sympathetic to those he represents.'Ev nile; ~IlEp(XLe; 't'f)e;
oexpKoe; exUTOU refers to the time when Jesus was on earth (literally "in the days of his flesh"). It
was during this time that Jesus "offered up prayers and petitions." This is a parallel expression to
5:3 where the priests "offer" (the verb npoo<pEpW in both cases) sacrifices for their sins. The
203 Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews, 145; Lane, Hebrews 1-8, 118.
204 Guthrie, Hebrews, 189. Cf. Attridge, Epistle to the Hebrews, 145-47; Lane, Hebrews 1-8, 118.
205 For an overview of the various proposed answers to these questions, see H. W. Attridge, "'Heard Because of His
Reverence' (Heb 5:7)," JBL 98 (1979): 90-93; Neil R. Lightfoot, "The Saving of the Savior: Hebrews 5:7ff,"
Restoration Quarterly 16 (1973): 166-73; and James Swetnam, "The Crux at Hebrews 5,7-8," Biblica 81 (2000):
347-61.
64
connection communicates that Jesus offered prayers and petitions on his own behalf. 206 What
exactly Jesus prayed for has yielded numerous suggestions. William Lane argues that Jesus'
prayers were a sacrificial offering; the totality of his high priestly service. 207 James Swetnam
connects K(l:lTTEp WV ui.Gs (from 5:8) to verse 7 and understands Jesus' prayer as a plea to not be
spared at the last minute through divine intervention (as Isaac was) but to finish what he was
208
called to do. A better understanding of Jesus' prayer is that it was a prayer to be saved from
death. The author writes that Jesus prayed to "the one who could save him from death." This is
more than just a title for God; it provides some insight into what the prayer consisted of.
Understood this way, the parallel to the gospel accounts of Jesus' prayer that God "take this cup"
in Gethsemane becomes obvious. However, there is no indication that the author of Hebrews was
familiar with the Gospels so at best he is drawing upon an early Gethsemane tradition.2°9
The major problem with such an interpretation is that Jesus was not saved from death.
So, in what sense can the author say that his prayer was heard? F. F. Bruce points out that
"fervent cries and tears" may have been influenced by the language of Psalm 22. An early
Christological interpretation of the psalm, Bruce notes, understood God listening to the one
crying out as a reference to the resurrection of Christ. 2 I 0 Whether or not the author had this
interpretation in mind, it does communicate an idea which seems clear: Jesus was saved from the

207 Lane, Hebrews 1-8, 119. He understands the title "the one who was able to save him from death" as defining
God's character and not the content of Jesus' prayer (120).
208 Swetnam, "The Crux at Hebrews 5,7-8," 356.
209 For an alternative take on the Gethsemane tradition, see Craig Blaising, "Gethsemane: A Prayer of Faith," JETS
22 (1979): 333-43, which builds an argument that the cup which Jesus asked to be removed is not one of human
suffering but of God's wrath. Thus, Jesus' prayer at Gethsemane is not that he be spared from physical death but that
God's wrath would not remain on him after he had drunk from it. If this is indeed the case, Blaising argues, then
Jesus' prayer "reveals the consistent impeccable nature of Christ and his unchanging resolution to do the Father's
will" (342).
210 Bruce, Epistle to the Hebrews, 129.
65
power of death by his resurrection. In 2: 14, the author said that by his death Jesus broke the
power of the "one who holds the power of death."
This interpretation is significant because it accomplishes what the author had set out to
do: show that Jesus is sympathetic to those he represents. In 5:7, Jesus is presented as one who
suffered and struggled. He can identify with those who are tempted to abandon the faith in order
to be spared from persecution. Jesus underwent the same pressure-but remained faithful. God's
response to his faithfulness was his resurrection and exaltation. The pattern of suffering followed
by exaltation is repeated.
Jesus' commitment to submitting to the will of God is connected to the phrase aTIO TT1<;
EUAO:~ElO:<; which directly follows KO:l ElOO:Kouo8ElC; ("and he was heard"). EUAO:~ElO:C; could
literally mean "fear," with "was heard" signifying that Jesus was heard and delivered from the
fear of death?11Elsewhere in Hebrews, EUA&~ElO: means "reverence" or "piety" (11 :7; 12:28),212
while "fear" is communicated with Ql6~oc; (2:15). If EUAO:~ElO:<; is understood this way, aTIO would
be taken as causal and the phrase would mean that God heard Jesus "because of his
reverence/piety." By choosing EuA&~ElO: instead ofQl6~oc;, the author communicates a very
different concept. "In a way that Ql6~o<; is not able, EUA&~ElO: conveys the idea of healthy caution
together with that of reverent attentiveness to the divine will.,,213
Hebrews 5:8 is possibly the most significant reference to the suffering of Christ in the
epistle. The author writes that although Jesus was Son (KO:lTIEp WV uL6c;), he learned obedience
from what he suffered CE~o:8EV aQl' 6lv ETIo:8EV T~V {J1TO:KO~V). That people learn by suffering was
a common idea in a Hellenistic society, and the author uses a popular wordplay: ~o:8ElV-TIo:8ElV
21l For more on either approach to (rITa Tfj<;; EUAapda<;; see Johnson, Hebrews, 146; Koester, Hebrews, 288-89.
213 Patrick Gray, Godly Fear: The Epistle to Hebrews and Greco-Roman Critiques a/Superstition (Leiden and
Boston: Brill, 2004), 205.
66
("to learn is to suffer"). Using a common idea enhances the argument rhetorically.214 Yet, while
the idea was commonly understood, it may have been provocative to apply the idiom to Christ.
The contrast KalTIEp WV ULoc; is appropriate since much of the discourse up until this point has
been about the Son's exalted status? 15 Thus, our author is saying that even though Jesus is the
Son of God, the principle which applies to humans generally also applies to him in his humanity.
Again he is asserting that Jesus is a high priest who experienced what humans experience and is
sympathetic.
As with the phrase 6la TIlX8T]fHhwv TEAElWOlXl in 2: 10, EfLlX8EV o:<p' WV ETIlX8EV T~V
UTIlXKO~V does not mean that Jesus moved from sinfulness to sinlessness (or, from disobedience to
obedience). Again, 4: 15 is very clear that Jesus faced temptation "yet he did not sin." SO,5:8 is
not interpreting the suffering of Jesus in light of the Jewish notion of retributive suffering (as a
correction for misdirection). Rather, Jesus' suffering is a result of his obedience acted out as a
developing human. Or, as F. F. Bruce writes, "the sufferings which Jesus endured were the
necessary price of his obedience-more than that, they were part and parcel of his obedience, the
very means by which he fulfilled the will ofGod.,,216
In an excursus on "Suffering and the Obedience of Faith" in his commentary on Hebrews,
Luke Timothy Johnson identifies "obedient faith" as a form of suffering. 217 He begins by
affirming that the author of Hebrews must have had more in mind than the physical sufferings of
Jesus' passion due to the element of learning. "It may well be, then, that the author of Hebrews is
thinking of a learning that took place over the course of Jesus' human existence, and a learning
2\4 Koester, Hebrews. 299.

217 Johnson, Hebrews, 149-52.
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that involved the very process of obedient faith.,,218 Johnson explains that one aspect of suffering
is the pain that comes from growth or development; such as an athlete growing muscles in
training. Spiritual growth, he reasons, may be no different. Johnson argues for an understanding
of faith which involves but goes beyond proper belief, hope for the future, and perseverance.
Faith, according to Johnson, is a "deeply responsive hearing of God's voice [will] as it comes to
humans in the circumstances of their worldly existence.,,219 It is saying "yes" to God's voice even
when being led outside of one's preference or comfort. Such faith involves being stretched and
challenged on a daily basis since God's call is new every day. Such obedient faith is a form of
suffering. "Like us, Jesus had to respond moment by moment and therefore 'learn obedience'
22o
precisely in and through the stress and pain" of following God's wil1.
The point is not that Jesus moved from disobedience to obedience, but rather that he
could not demonstrate obedience to God until he was "placed in situations where the will of God
was challenged and obedience was required. ,,221 This obedience was learned through what Jesus
suffered. It seems clear that having what Johnson calls "obedient faith" will involve suffering and
pain. However, it is through these tough times and decisions that true obedience is learned.
Johnson makes an important point in that Jesus' obedient faith was not a one time thing. His
passion was not the only time that Jesus modeled obedience and suffered for it. Rather, he made
that choice daily and continued to grow and develop.
David Peterson connects Jesus' suffering to his role of being a mediator. He notes a
similar expression in Isaiah 50:4-9 where the Lord's servant is represented "both as a learner and
218 Ibid., 149.

219 Ibid., 151.
220 Ibid.
68
teacher and as one who willingly submits to suffering in the cause of his ministry." 222 Peterson
argues that the experiences prior to the cross were meant to test the reality of Christ's obedience.
"His sufferings were the means by which he could assent to and express obedience to the will of
God for his life. ,,223 Peterson stresses that it is completely appropriate to suggest that Jesus
garnered an increasing capacity for obedience and that various expressions of suffering and
temptation prepared him for the "ultimate act of obedience. ,,224
Two critical points can be made. First, 5:8 is a crucial statement concerning the humanity
of Christ. In fact, in this one verse we have the author's high Christology and emphasis on
Christ's humanity coming together. The phrase KlXl-ITEp WV uL6c;: brings with it the author's high
Christology ("Son" being the term which he has used up until now to convey Christ's exalted
status). "Nowhere else in Hebrews is Christ's Sonship related to the past, or to his earthly
existence; in such texts as Heb. 1:2, 3:6; 7:28, his eternal or heavenly state is presupposed. The
present verse therefore probably implies a contrast between this eternal status on one hand, and
the learning process of Christ's earthly life on the other. ,.225 In this one verse, "the author of
Hebrews brings together his remarkable high Christology (Jesus is the 'preexistent' Son of God)
and remarkable emphasis on Jesus' humanity (Jesus is like us in every respect, apart from
sin). ,,226
Second, Jesus' suffering had an important role in his qualification as high priest. Peterson
placed emphasis on the role of Jesus' sufferings in preparation for his ultimate sacrifice. Hebrews
5:9 connects Jesus' learning through suffering to his being made perfect. This recalls the
comments in 2:10 that Jesus was made perfect by what he suffered. The flow of thought in 5:8-

223 Ibid.
224 Ibid., 95.
225 Ellingworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 293.

69
lOis: Son => suffered => learned obedience => made perfect => became source of eternal
salvation and designated as high priest. Suffering, therefore, was essential to everything that
followed it. The author is stating that suffering did more than allow Jesus to be sympathetic to
humans, it was vital to his role as high priest and our salvation.
The concept that Jesus learned through suffering makes clear the personal aspect of his
suffering. It was through suffering that Christ learned obedience and demonstrated that
obedience in actual life. 5:9 says that this process led to his being made perfect. The author is
stressing actual growth and development in Jesus; not correcting something that was not there,
but strengthening and preparing him to fulfill God's will.
To summarize, Hebrews 4: 14-5: 10 is clear that Jesus' sufferings had a vocational role.
They served as a preparation for his high priestly office.227 One major way this was
accomplished is that sufferings allowed Jesus to sympathize with those he represents. He is able
to "empathize with our weaknesses" because he has been "tempted in every way, just as we are"
(4:15). Hebrews presents Jesus crying out to God and experiencing hardships like we do (5:7).
Furthermore, his sufferings taught him obedience, which as we have seen, was essential to his
designation as high priest. Jesus as a model to follow is another role that his sufferings take in
4:14-5:10. When stating that Jesus was tempted like we are, Hebrews adds that "he did not sin."
This communicates that Jesus was placed in the same difficult situations as us, yet was able to
refrain from giving into temptation or sinning. Furthermore, Jesus demonstrated a life of
obedience to the will of the Father. This is seen in the reference to God hearing his plea &rro Tf]~
EUA(XPEl(X~. Obedience seems to be a recurring theme of this section as the author makes clear that
Jesus became the source of eternal salvation for all who obey him (5:9, emphasis mine). "Jesus'
obedience is the basis for Christian obedience. Obedience is not a prerequisite for receiving
70
grace, but a characteristic of those on the journey of faith. ,,228 The author of Hebrews is
communicating to an audience facing serious opposition that suffering is not a sign that God has
abandoned them. Almost the opposite, in fact, is the case. Jesus himself suffered and endured
and learned obedience from his experience. The results of this obedience are exaltation and
perfection. Jesus modeled obedient faith and now his followers are called to follow this path.
Hebrews 4:14-5:10 further demonstrates that the sufferings of Jesus in Hebrews entail more than
his passion and death. Expanding this understanding from 2:5-18, his suffering points to his
faithful obedience played out during his entire life. His suffering is not defined by one act of
obedience, but a life spent pursuing and answering God's call.
Hebrews 12:1-3
The exhortation in 12: 1 ("Let us run with perseverance the race marked out for us") is
built upon the exposition presented in chapter 11. In this famous chapter presenting heroes of the
faith, the author concludes that none of them fully received what God had promised. They were
"all commended for their faith" (11 :39), but none had achieved perfection. That whole chapter
looks ahead to the presentation of Jesus as the "pioneer and perfecter of faith" in 12:2. "Hebrews
12:1-3 represents the culmination of the author's argument in chapter 11.,,229 Jesus reached the
end of the race and he opened the way for us to follow.
Attention will be given to this section of Hebrews as we look at the suffering of believers
in the next chapter, so here we will focus solely on the role that Jesus' suffering plays in verses 1-
3. Given the context, the "race" imagery points to a life of faith toward God. Like any physical
race, perseverance and discipline are important aspects to finishing. The goal is to finish the
"race marked out for us." Believers are encouraged to fix their eyes on Jesus. The author again

71
refers simply to "Jesus," using no additional title, possibly referring to their shared humanity. 23 0
That he is the "pioneer" recalls 2: 10 which states that, in bringing many sons and daughters to
glory, Jesus is "the pioneer of their salvation." "Jesus is the pioneer because he takes faith to its
goal, going where others have not yet gone. He is the source and model of faith for others. ,,231
The focus is on "his attitude amidst suffering and in the face of shame and hostility. ,,232 As the
perfecter of faith, Jesus is understood as the one in whom faith has reached its completion?33
The sufferings endured by Christ are mentioned in verses 2 and 3. 12:2 says that Jesus
"endured the cross, scorning its shame." It is clear that Jesus' suffering here was his crucifixion.
This is the only time in the epistle where the actual means of Christ's execution is mentioned.
The author chooses to focus on the crucifixion being the "most shameful of all deaths in
antiquity. ,,234 Certainly Jesus' "race" involved numerous experiences of suffering, but the author
focuses on the most significant and extreme. When verse 3 encourages believers to "consider
him who endured such opposition from sinners," the author is asking that believers compare their
own situation to that of Christ.
Hebrews 12: 1-3 continues to understand Christ's suffering as both personal and
vocational. It is personal in that his endurance of the sufferings that came his way led to Jesus'
placement "at the right hand ofthe throne of God" (v. 2). There is not a sense that sufferings
played a part in Jesus' preparation for his high priestly duties, but there is a vocational sense that
Jesus perfected faith through his endurance and has provided a way for others to follow. The
sense that Jesus is a model to follow is more obvious here than in the previous two passages. The

72
author explicitly encourages his audience to look to Jesus and consider how he endured suffering
along the race.
Hebrews 13:11-14
This final section is found in the concluding exhortation of chapter 13. The first six
verses of this chapter include various exhortations for daily life: be loving (v. 1), be hospitable
(v.2), remember the prisoner (v. 3), honor marriage (v. 4) and avoid materialism (v. 5).
Beginning in verse 7, the author shifts a bit to focus on a few themes already discussed: the
tabernacle (v. 10; 9:1-10), the high priest (v. 11; chaps. 7-10) and sin offerings (v. 11; 9:19-22).
Furthermore, 13:7 begins a contrast between the ineffective Jewish practices (ceremonial foods,
tabernacle, a city that does not endure) and the superiority of Christ's sacrifice (vv. 11-13).
Hebrews 13: 11 presents the customary Jewish ritual for a proper sacrifice: "the high
priest carries the blood of animals into the Most Holy Place as a sin offering, but the bodies are
burned outside the camp." The author uses Leviticus 16:27-a passage on the rites for Yom
Kippur-which states: "The bull and the goat for the sin offerings, whose blood was brought into
the Most Holy Place to make atonement, must be taken outside the camp; their hides, flesh and
intestines are to be burned up." The phrase "outside the camp" refers to a place of uncleanness.
Lepers dwelled "outside the camp" (Lev. 13:45-46; Num. 5:2-4); those defiled waited out their
purification there (Num. 12:14-15; 31:19-20), and lawbreakers were executed there (Num 15:32-
36),235 The emphasis here is not on what happens to the sacrificial victims, but on the situation or
circumstances in which the key action takes place. 236
235 deSilva, Perseverance in Gratitude, 501. deSilva calls the reference to outside the camp "ambiguous" since it
was also the place where God's presence is found in Ex. 33: 1-7. The parallel between Moses moving outside the
camp and pitching God's tent to Jesus shedding his blood there may be intentional. Ifnot deliberate, it is at least a
backdrop to our understanding of "outside the camp."
73
Verse 12 declares that Jesus suffered "outside the city gate." The reference here is to his
crucifixion. John 19:17-20 states that Jesus "went out to Golgotha, a place near the city." The
author of Hebrews could have been drawing upon an early Christian tradition concerning Christ's
crucifixion, or just the knowledge that executions happened outside the city walls. The main
point is that Jesus suffered "outside the camp." Concerning his suffering, the author focuses not
on the physical pain of his crucifixion but the shame and "disgrace he bore" (v. 13). That Jesus
suffered is one thing, but that it happened "outside the city gate" adds a whole other layer to that
suffering. The effect of this suffering, nevertheless, is that it made people holy (v. 12).
13: 13-14 encourages believers to go to Jesus outside the camp. Many scholars understand
the camp to be a reference to Judaism.237 Certainly the contrast between Jewish tradition and
Christ's better way is present in the text, but "outside the camp" should not be limited to the
Jewish religion. Koester argues:
The weakness of this view is that Abraham 'set out' from his land in the hope of
the city to come (11:8-16) and Moses left the royal court to bear reproach for
Christ (11 :24-26)-themes that appear in 13:13-14-but Hebrews says nothing
238
about either figure leaving behind Jewish practice.
It is better understood as any form of security that must be abandoned in order to pursue Christ.
The main point is that following Christ entails public disgrace and shame. It means taking up
one's cross no matter what our culture or society says.
Luke Timothy Johnson writes, "This has been the point toward which all exhortation has
been leading: that believers are to follow in the path already traveled by Jesus, the pioneer and
perfecter of faith. The link between Jesus' obedient suffering and theirs is made even stronger by
the exhortation's finale.,,239 Once again, Jesus' sufferings are connected to his role as model and
237 Bruce, Epistle to the Hebrews, 381; Guthrie, Hebrews, 440.

74
exemplar on how to live. We are to follow Christ and doing so means suffering as he suffered
and taking on the disgrace he took on.
Conclusion
Our examination of the four key passages concerning Jesus' suffering (2:5-18; 4:14-5:10;
12:1-3; and 13:11-14) set out to understand what such suffering entails and what role it plays in
the epistle. Concerning the role of Christ's suffering, Talbert's categories ofpersonal and
vocational were tested with the intent of further developing these aspects. Attention was also
paid to Talbert's presentation of Jesus as a model for believers to follow. A more detailed
analysis of Jesus' suffering in Hebrews confirmed Talbert's categories.
Suffering had a personal purpose in the life of Jesus. It was the means by which he was
perfected and moved to glory (2: 10; 5:9). As just mentioned, Jesus "learned" through his
sufferings and they played a role in his development of obedience (5:8). Furthermore, suffering
was the means that he completed faith (12:2) and became the pioneer and perfecter of it. To say
that Christ did not develop as a human being is to impose a perspective on the author of Hebrews
that he does not adopt. The epistle is clear that Jesus grew as a human and that suffering played
an important role in that growth.
The vocational aspect of Jesus' suffering was seen in all four passages ofthis study.
Christ's suffering yielded benefits for believers. 24o By his suffering, Jesus was able to be a
sympathetic high priest and identify with human weakness and temptation (2: 17-18; 4: 15).
Hebrews connects Christ's suffering to what it accomplished: bringing many sons and daughters
to glory (2: 10), destroying the power of death (2: 14; 5:7), becoming the source of eternal
salvation (5:9), and making people holy through his own blood (13:12). His suffering also was
essential to his finishing the race of faith and opening up a new way for others to follow (12: 1-3).
75
Hebrews also draws attention to Jesus' endurance in the midst of suffering as a model for
others to follow. The author calls him the "author of their salvation" (2: 10) and the "pioneer and
perfecter of faith" (12:2). He is the one on whom, having finished the race, we are to fix our eyes
(12:2). We are to go to him "outside the camp" and bear his disgrace (13:13). His example of
obedient faith played out by what he suffered is an example to be followed. Hebrews also sets a
pattern that Jesus' endurance through suffering ultimately leads to exaltation and promise (2:9,
10; 5:7-10; 12:2). Believers are to be encouraged that, ifthey faithfully endure as Christ did, they
too will reach the ultimate goal.
It is difficult to draw a line between Talbert's personal and vocational purposes of
Christ's suffering. Both have points of distinction and overlap. How suffering impacted Jesus
personally often yielded benefits for the believer. For example, when the author writes that Jesus
learned obedience through what he suffered (5:8), this ultimately had the purpose of Jesus
becoming a sympathetic high priest. Similarly, that Jesus was made perfect through suffering
(2: 10) affected both him personally and the believer since it was done "in bringing many sons
and daughters to glory." The text certainly understands Christ's suffering to affect him personally
(he learned, was made perfect, etc.) but also points to these things having a vocational purpose as
well.
In addition to Talbert's categories, this chapter sought to understand what Jesus' suffering
consisted of. It was argued that Christ's suffering included more than just his physical death on
the cross. His death is mentioned specifically (2:9, 12:2, 13:12), but the author never intended for
Jesus' death to be understood as the only way he suffered. In 2: 10, he uses the plural TIcx8..,flIXTWV
to refer to the sufferings through which Jesus was perfected. 2: 18 connects his suffering to
temptation and while this could be construed to refer only to the passion events, the context
76
supports a reading much broader than that. He suffered when he was tempted and is now able to
help those who are tempted. This is made clear in 4:15, which states that Jesus was tempted in
every way we are. Certainly this means the temptation reaches further back than the passion
events. The theme of obedience in 4: 14-5: 10 points to a broader definition of Christ's suffering
than just his death. The fact that he "learned" from what he suffered points to suffering outside of
his final moments on earth. As our interpretation identified suffering as a form of obedient faith,
we began to understand a form of suffering as a life of obedience to God. Suffering played a part
in the growth and development of Christ.
77
CHAPTER FOUR:
THE SUFFERING OF BELIEVERS IN HEBREWS
That the recipients of Hebrews experienced suffering is made clear within the text. As we
saw in chapter two, the epistle was written to a group who had faced persecution and oppression
from a hostile society. Examples oftheir suffering are presented in 10:32-34: being publically
exposed to insult and persecution (v. 33), being thrown in prison, and having property
confiscated (v. 34). The author alludes to suffering in the group by specifying that it is not yet to
point of martyrdom in 12:4. While this suffering may have included physical abuse, a major
element of it was verbal. 'OvEl<)LOIl6~ in 10:34, 11 :26, and 13: 13 has the basic meaning of
"reproach" or "insult.,,241 David deSilva points to antagonism between the Christian sect and the
society at large as a backdrop to this suffering. 242 13:3 again reminds the audience to remember
those in prison and who are mistreated "as if you yourselves were suffering." This community of
believers was experiencing hostility from the outside world. Whether this persecution was purely
verbal up until this point or had included physical abuse does not change the fact of the reality of
the believers' suffering or make it any less significant in the eyes ofthe author. Their suffering
was a crisis which needed to be addressed.
Not a Theodicy
At the beginning ofthis chapter, it needs to be clarified that the epistle to the Hebrews
should not be interpreted as a theodicy, meaning that it does not attempt to solve the problem of
the existence of evil. This is an important clarification since the question being posed in Hebrews
241 Norman Young, "Suffering," 56.

242 David deSilva, "The Epistle to the Hebrews in Social-Scientific Perspective," Restoration Quarterly 36 (1994),1-
21.
78
is not "how should we understand all suffering?" but rather "how should we understand the
suffering we are experiencing?" Clayton Croy writes:
The epistle is first and foremost pastoral. It begins with suffering as a "given" in
the reader's experience and does not attempt to probe behind its existence with
philosophical questions of causation or teleology. It does, however, contribute to
a Christian theology of suffering, especially suffering related to religious
persecution, and, with caution, more broadly, to the extent that suffering of other
243
types may engender a similar response of weakened faith and commitment.
The epistle to the Hebrews was written to a specific group of people in a specific situation. With
pastoral care, the author is speaking to a community which is sufferingfor their faith and identity
as Christians.
William Lane remarks that Hebrews is the beginning of a solution to theodicy, "but no
more than a beginning. ,,244 The author of Hebrews does not attempt to answer why all suffering
exists, but to help the community of believers rightly interpret their specific suffering. David
deSilva correctly emphasizes this point:
It is essential for both the exegesis and the application of this passage (12 :4-11 ) to
understand what sufferings the author has in mind. He is not speaking of disease
or illness, domestic abuse, poverty, or subjection to an oppressive regime. He is
speaking particularly of the censure, insult, abuse, and deprivations suffered by
the believers as a result of their association with Jesus and the people of God. If
the hardship is not encountered as a result of remaining faithful to Christ, it is not
included under this heading. 245
To misunderstand this point and incorrectly apply the message of Hebrews could be potentially
dangerous.
When Hebrews speaks of its audience's specific suffering, that suffering is understood as
a result oftheir faith in Christ. This is certainly the case in 10:32-34, which catalogues the
numerous experiences of suffering and persecution the community had endured in the past. The

244 Lane, Hebrews 9-13, 419.
79
author makes clear that the suffering presented in 10:33-34 occurred after they "had received the
light" (l0:32). There is no reference that such suffering was a result of their sin. As we explore
how the epistle exhorts its audience to understand their suffering, we will focus on how the
author does not refer to suffering as punitive. Rather, their suffering for their faith and identity as
Christians is non-punitive and a result of a hostile world.
Suffering As a Part of the Christian Experience
While the author does not attempt to write a theodicy that answers the question of why all
suffering exists, he does provide some insight into how his audience should understand the
suffering in their lives. Put simply, the author demonstrates that suffering is an important part of
the Christian experience. This is shown in three ways. First, Hebrews presents suffering as
closely connected to living a life of obedience. In opposition to the retributive understanding of
suffering, Hebrews upholds a view that living a life of faith and experiencing suffering are not
mutually exclusive. Secondly, the author of Hebrews understands suffering as a result of
following after Christ. With Jesus presented as a model, the author understands that following in
his footsteps means sharing in his suffering. Finally, in 12:5-11, Hebrews presents suffering as
divine discipline and evidence of belonging to the Father.
Suffering As a Result of Obedience
As we saw in our review of Jewish and Greco-Roman interpretations of suffering, it was
commonly held that suffering was a result of sin in one's life. This retributive understanding of
suffering was the dominant view and provides a backdrop for the composition of the epistle to
the Hebrews. While the author does not argue that suffering is never the result of sin, he does
articulate the view that sin is not always the reason for suffering. It is not unreasonable to suggest
that the community to whom this epistle is addressed struggled to understand how the presence
80
of suffering in their lives existed even while they remained faithful to the Gospel. Hebrews
argues that their suffering is not a sign of disobedience (created possibly by their movement out
of Judaism), but is commonly a result of one's obedience.
A major way the author communicates this is through the life of Christ. As we saw in our
examination of 5:8-1 0, Hebrews connects obedience and suffering in the life of Christ. If Jesus,
who "did not sin" (4: 15), still lived a life full of suffering, then the suffering in the lives of
believers does not necessarily mean they are living in sin. Rather, suffering is an opportunity to
learn and actualize obedience. As with 2: 10, the author presents suffering in the life of Christ as
something he endured in order to fulfill God's will for his life. Luke Timothy Johnson suggests
46
that the suffering presented in 5:8 is a "corollary of the very faithfulness" of Jesus.2 It is the
result of his commitment to do the will of God.
The author of Hebrews connects how one responds to suffering to whether they are doing
the will of God in 10:36: "You need to persevere so that when you have done the will of God
you will receive what he has promised." Following the encouragement to endure sufferings as
they had before, this verse connects such endurance to doing God's will. While it is not the
sufferings in 10:33-34 which are deemed "God's will, ,,247 they are the arena in which that will is
exercised. "Their Master came expressly to do the will of God, as they have been told already
(10:7; 9f.), although the doing of that will involved suffering and death for him; his servants can
expect no easier path as they in their turn do the will of God and await the promised bliss. ,,248 It
may be too strong to say that the author of Hebrews argues that being obedient to God's will
automatically means suffering, but he is clear that one should not be surprised when they suffer

247 Ell'mgsworth, Epistle to the Hebrews, 553.
81
for being obedient. This point is further expressed by the examples of the faith and suffering of
OT heroes in chapter 11.
The emphasis of the catalogue of historical examples of faith in chapter 11 is on "the life
of faith as a believing response to the promise of God. ,,249 The author draws attention to the fact
that many of the exemplars of faith also suffered greatly. This point is clearly expressed in verses
35b-38:
There were others who were tortured, refusing to be released so that they might
gain an even better resurrection. Some faced jeers and flogging, and even chains
and imprisonment. They were put to death by stoning; they were sawed in two;
they were killed by the sword. They went about in sheepskins and goatskins,
destitute, persecuted and mistreated-the world was not worthy of them. They
wandered in deserts and mountains, and in caves and holes in the ground.
These great men and women of faith suffered greatly in their obedience. There is not a hint that
this suffering was due to personal sin or disobedience. Rather, the author concludes that they
"were all commended for their faith" (v. 39).
The author of Hebrews does not connect any names to the suffering described in 11 :35b-
38, but the circumstances can be linked to a number of righteous persons in Israel's history?50
The prophet Jeremiah, for example, "faced jeers" (Jer. 20:7) and was beaten and imprisoned
(20:1-2). The Maccabees wandered in deserts and mountains (2 Mace. 5:27) and met in caves (2
Mace. 6:11). God's prophets were "killed by the sword," (l Kings 19:10), fled to caves (l Kings
18:13) and were generally mistreated. The prophet Zechariah was stoned (2 ehron. 24:21).
Uriah was murdered by the sword (Jer. 26:20-23). Elijah wore sheepskins (2 Kings 1:8).
According to tradition, King Manasseh ordered the prophet Isaiah to be sawed in twO?51
249 Lane, Hebrews 9-13, 315.

250 This section indebted to Koester's treatment of the text. Koester, Hebrews, 514-16.
251 Ibid., 515.
82
Craig Koester points out that the suffering presented in these verses correlates to that of
the epistle's audience. 252 11 :35b-36 describes persecution and imprisonment which many in the
community might have personally experienced. 11:37-38 presents more extreme suffering,
including martyrdom and being reduced to rags and poverty. Ifthe original audience struggled to
make sense of the suffering they were experiencing, the author seems to suggest that even more
intense suffering has afflicted the faithful.
The author is quick to point out that such suffering is not unworthy in the eyes of God,
but rather it is the world which is unworthy. The author declares that "the world was not worthy"
of these exemplars of faith. David deSilva writes, "The addressees may be assured in their
situation that the censure and abuse that befalls them as a result of their commitment to honor
and obey the One God signals not their own disgrace but the disgrace of the unbelievers. ,,253
Pamela Eisenbaum argues that the author of Hebrews included such a list in his epistle as
a way to connect Christian readers to OT figures. She admits that similar "hero lists" use heroes
as examples of abstract principles (such as faith), but rejects that as the primary purpose of
Hebrews 11. Rather, the primary function here is "to explain and legitimate the existence of the
community which is being addressed, by grounding the members of that community in a
significant genealogical history. ,,254 Hebrews 11, according to Eisenbaum, is not a history of
Israel but the theological history of Christians. "Abraham and Moses are not Israelites or Jews,
they are Christians.,,255
While it is debatable whether this is the "primary function" of Hebrews 11, Eisenbaum
presents a strong case that this list intends to connect this lineage of heroes to the Christian
252 Ibid., 519.

254 Pamela Michelle Eisenbaum, The Jewish Heroes ofChristian History: Hebrews 11 in Literary Context (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1997), 87.
255 Ibid., 220.
83
community. The author now looks back at the suffering of OT figures and interprets their
suffering not with a retributive understanding but through the lens of Christ's obedience in
suffering. Eisenbaum writes:
The author's henneneutic of continuity functions in that the heroes are models for
the new Christian community. Obedience in suffering since the advent of Christ is
valued as a sign of high station and not humility, and being an outsider among
256
one's own people need not be a source of shame.
By strengthening the bond between the heroes ofthe OT and the community, the author shows
that suffering for being obedient to God is not inconsistent with history. Those ancestors of the
Christian faith modeled suffering in the midst of faithfulness and the recipients of the epistle
should expect nothing less.
In opposition to the retributive view which understood suffering as a result of
disobedience, the author of Hebrews connects suffering to a life of obedience. The epistle
prepares the reader to expect suffering in this life?57 As made clear through the examples of
Christ, OT heroes, and the original audience's own experience, suffering is not inconsistent with
a life of faith. Obedience and suffering are not mutually exclusive.
Suffering As a Result of Following Christ
As we have seen, Christ's life is an example of suffering and obedience. However,
connected to these expositions of Christ's suffering are exhortations for the believer to follow
Jesus. Whereas Hebrews has made clear that being obedient may involve suffering, now it makes
the point that in following Christ one must be willing to suffer.
For this aspect ofthe believer's suffering, we turn once again to 12:1-4. Using the
imagery of a race, the author encourages his audience to "throw off anything that hinders" and
"run with perseverance the race marked out for us" (v. 1). This "race marked out for us" is the
256 Ibid., 187.

257 Stevenson-Moessner, "Road to Perfection," 281.
84
same course that Jesus ran before US. 258 They are encouraged to look only to Jesus who "endured
the cross, scorning its shame" (v. 2). The author encourages his readers to look to the example of
Jesus who has finished the race, endured all the hardships and is sitting at the right hand of God.
The race, as modeled by Jesus, is marked with suffering which one must endure. Verse 3 states:
"Consider him who endured such opposition from sinful men, so that you will not grow weary
and lose heart." Jesus is the example of how to properly endure the opposition which occurs as a
result of running this race. "The way in which Jesus encountered opposition on the way to the
goal provides the many children with a model for successful perseverance in the race. ,,259
Concerning 12: 1-3, Clayton Croy argues that the view of suffering as an athletic race
does not designate condemnation on the athlete's behalf for the hardships endured. Rather, "such
hardships are willingly assumed for the sake of participation in and completion of the agon. ,,260
The suffering is not a punishment from God or a result of one's sin26 ! but a result of simply
joining the race.
That following Jesus entails suffering is made clear in 13: 12-13. The author of the epistle
writes that Jesus suffered outside the city gate, emphasizing the shame he endured in order to
"make the people holy through his blood." In verse 13, he encourages his audience to "go to him
outside the camp, bearing the disgrace he bore." The participle cPEpoVtE~ comes from the verb
cPEpW, whose original meaning is to carry or bring something. In the sense of carrying burdens, it

259 Ibid.
261 Croy writes: "[W]hat is of importance to the author in 12.1-3 is Jesus as the model of endurance in extreme
suffering. Jesus was not punished by God; he did not suffer for his own sins (4.15; 7.26-28) ... In suffering not
condign punishment, but hostility at the hands of sinners (12.3; cf. 2.10; 5.7-8), Jesus learned obedience, was
perfected, and became 'the pioneer and perfecter' offaith for the readers of this epistle who similarly faced hostility."
Ibid., 214.
85
can have the sense of "bearing" or "enduring." The bearing of the shame of Christ, in Hebrews
13: 13, could also signify "the readiness for martyrdom. ,,262
While connecting martyrdom to TOV OVEl<)Wf.L0V aUTal) cPEpavm; may be the most extreme
result of "bearing the disgrace he bore," it certainly implies an active taking on of suffering for
the sake of Christ. "Christian identity is a matter of 'going out' now to him. It entails the costly
commitment to follow him resolutely, despite suffering.,,263 The call is similar to that of taking
up one's cross in the Gospels?64 To follow Jesus "outside the camp" is thus a call to willingly
face the same sort of suffering and shame which Christ endured. Jesus' movement of going
outside the camp set a precedent for believers to follow. "And so now the task of the community
is to emulate Jesus, leaving behind the security, congeniality, and respectability of the sacred
enclosure, risking the reproach that fell on him. ,,265
Suffering As Divine Discipline
The author of Hebrews presents a third understanding of suffering in the lives of
believers in 12:5-11. After a rebuke that the audience had forgotten Scripture (and forgotten to
properly apply it to their situation), the author quotes Proverbs 3:11-12 concerning divine
discipline (vv. 5-6). He interprets this proverb with an exhortation: "Endure hardship as
discipline" (v. 7a). The author presents discipline as a validation of their Father-child relationship
with God (v. 7b) and then makes the same point by declaring the opposite to be true in v. 8 ("If
you are not disciplined ... then you are not legitimate children,,).266 A lesser-to-greater argument
is presented in verse 9 saying that, if we respected our earthly parent's discipline, "how much
262 Konrad Weiss, "cI>EpW," in Theological Dictionary ofthe New Testament, eds. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard
Friedrich, vol. 9 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974),59.
263 Lane, Hebrews 9-13,543.
264 Mark 8:34; Matthew 10:38; and Luke 14:26-27.
265 William L. Lane, "Standing Before the Moral Claim of God: Discipleship in Hebrews," in Patterns of
Discipleship in the New Testament, ed. Richard N. Longenecker (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996),219-20.
266 Croy, Endurance in Suffering, 200, calls this a contrapositive form: "The contrapositive of 'If A, then B' is 'If not
B, then not A.'"
86
more" should we submit to God's. Verse 10 continues this comparison and declares that God's
discipline is always for our good while our earthly parents' is simply what "they thought best."
Finally, 12:11 reminds the reader that discipline always seems painful at the time but reaps fruit
and reward to those who endure it.
The context of this section aids in our understanding of it. The verses surrounding this
passage heavily use the imagery of athletic training and a race. 12: 1-3 encourages the reader to
"run with perseverance the race marked out for us." This imagery is present in 12:12-13 where
the audience is exhorted to "strengthen your feeble arms and weak knees" and "make level paths
for your feet." That we are within this imagery is supported by the use ofthe verb YUllva(w (to
exercise the body and mind). This context will help us understand how to interpret the repeated
use of TTlXlDEla in this passage. While 12:5-11 presents a positive view ofthe suffering faced by
believers, it is itself part of a mild rebuke by the author. This rebuke begins in 12:4 as the
recipients are reminded that they have not yet resisted to the point of shedding blood. "The writer
is not blaming them for their failure to resist to the point of bloodshed but shaming them: their
sufferings are much less than Jesus had to bear, and they are apparently ready to 'lose heart and
grow faint. 1lI267 This rebuke continues into verse 5 as the author accuses his audience of
forgetting what the Scriptures say.
can be taken as a statement268 or as an interrogative. 269 While the nature of rebuke is present in
either case, the phrase as a question works well rhetorically and strengthens the reproach. The
author refers to the OT passage as tfjc; TTapaKA~aEWC; ("of exhortation"), the same word he uses to
describe his own letter in 13 :22. Thus, the quotation should be understood as an encouragement

268 And so the majority of commentators: Attridge, Bruce, deSilva, Ellingworth, Koester, Thompson.
269 Cf. Johnson, Hebrews, 320; Lane, Hebrews 9-13,420; TNIV.
87
to the people. The author further expands that this word of exhortation is addressed to them "as
children" (wr; vioir;; literally, "as sons,,).270 The wr; in v. Sa is not contrary to fact ("as if") but
271
predictive ("as") and signifies that God addresses them as the "sons" that they really are.
Sonship becomes an important theme in the following quotation and exposition. "Like the earlier
reference to Christians as sons (2:10), this passage affirms that such a status is not incompatible
with suffering. Sonship and suffering in fact go hand in hand.,,272 The author expounds on this
idea as he quotes Proverbs 3:11-12.
The author follows the LXX in his quotation with only a slight variation: the addition of
the pronoun \-LOU to uiE at the beginning. Such an addition makes the quotation more intimate.
"The vocative viE without the addition is used when a teacher is addressing a pupil, and as such
is appropriate in Proverbs. In this context, however, it is God who addresses the Christian as
son. ,,273 The original context of Proverbs 3: 11-12 is of discipline as correction with a punitive
understanding. Clayton Croy argues convincingly that the author of Hebrews reinterprets the
quotation with a non-punitive understanding of discipline. The author, according to Croy,
purposefully avoids "the harsh, punitive language of UEyXw and j..Hwn yow. Ifthese words had
been used, they would imply culpable action on the part of the readers.,,274
In verse 7, the author interprets the quotation in light of his audience's situation in the
form of an exhortation emphasizing two key words: "Endure hardship as discipline (1HXl.6ElcrV);
God is treating you as his children (vloir;).,,275 TIcrl6Elcr (and its cognate 1Tcrl6EUW) is used
throughout 12:5-11. The Greek word commonly had to do with educating youth with various
270 While desiring to use gender-inclusive language in our translation ("as children"), our exposition of the text will
translate literally "as sons" to emphasis the theme of sonship used throughout the book toward believers and Christ.
273 Lane, Hebrews 9-12,420.
88
disciplines and chastisement. It was the way in which to achieve a goal, not the goal itself. 276
IIcw5ElCC commonly involved correction of error but is not limited to this definition. It also was
understood to mean "instruction" or "training." It involved being educated and equipped in order
to help one meet a challenge. 277 "Educative discipline also involved the endurance of rigorous
exercise that trained the mind, soul, and body, and it is this second aspect that the author
highlights. ,,278 There is no sense that the author understands such discipline as punitive. The
author's "repeated use of forms of 'discipline' in [verses] 7-11 contains no suggestion that
suffering is a punishment for the community's sins; it is instead paternal discipline necessary to
train them in order that they may attain the goal.,,279
The author also expands upon the idea that God treats those he disciplines as "sons"
(vioL). The language of sonship occurs twice in the quotation and the words for "father" and
"son(s)" are used three times each by the author in his interpretation?80 Christians are first
referenced as "sons" in 2: 10, which details that Christ was made perfect through suffering in
order to bring many ViODe; to glory. In 5:8, the author comments that Jesus learned by what he
suffered although he was viae;. Thus, the connection between sonship and suffering has already
been applied to Jesus and now pertains to Christians. In fact, a key point for the author is that the
existence of suffering is a sign that they are indeed viol. "The very fact that Christians suffer for
their faith, ifrighty regarded, is an assurance ojsonship.,,281
12:7 thus interprets the quotation and sets out two connected ways that the believers are
to understand their suffering. First, their suffering should be endured as divine discipline;
276 Georg Bertrand, "I1ali5Euw, etc.," in Theological Dictionary ofthe New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel and
Gerhard Friedrich, vol. 5 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974),596-625.
279 Thompson, Hebrews, 254.
89
understood as training, education, or instruction. Second, the existence of such discipline is
evidence that they are truly children of God. Croy concludes:
It is clear, especially from passages like 5:7-10, that sonship and suffering are not
mutually exclusive, Jesus himself being the ultimate test case. Although Jesus was
a son, he learned obedience through suffering. In 12:5-11 the readers are
reminded that neither does their status as God's children exclude suffering.
Indeed, it entails suffering, understood as mu6Ela. 282
Verse 7 is supported and expanded in what follows it.
12:8 restates verse 7 in negative terms. "If you are not disciplined," the author writes,
"then you are not legitimate children at all." More than just restating the connection of suffering
and sonship, 12:8 "strengthens it by making the former a sine qua non for the latter.,,283 I1(U6Ela
is expressed as something which is essential for sonship. The audience now begins to understand
their suffering in a completely different light. 12:8 "suggests to the readers that they would have
more reason for concern if they did not experience God's discipline through suffering of
persecution.,,284 The community, which had endured public disgrace and shame, must now
reevaluate their suffering. David deSilva writes: "The author thus makes the experience of
reproach and loss suffered for the sake of Christ a sign of favor and honor, and, more
astoundingly, the lack of such hardship a sign of disfavor and dishonor. ,,285
12:9-10 begins a comparison between our eartWy parents and our heavenly Father. In
verse 9, the argument is from lesser to greater stating that if we respected our earthly parents who
disciplined us, "how much more should we submit" to our Father. The Greek literally compares
"our fathers of the flesh" (rile; aapKoe; ~fl,WV TIarEpae;) with "the Father of spirits" (rQ TIarpt rwv
TIVEUfl,(XrWV), making the lesser to greater argument even stronger. Verse 9 also provides the

90
proper response to the Father of spirits' discipline: submission (uTIo-raYllo0flEea). 12: 10 compares
the intentions behind the discipline of earthly parents to God. Earthly parents disciplined "as they
thought best, but God disciplines us for our good." What is "thought best" by earthly parents is
capable of being wrong and not actually for the good of the one being disciplined. Divine
discipline, however, is always for our good and can never be thought of as misguided or
malicious. 12:9 and 10 both make a claim on the purpose and/or outcome of divine discipline:
that we may have life-that is, eternal life (v.9: (~OOflEV) and partake in God's holiness (v.10:
Verse 11 concludes the section on sonship and divine discipline with a reminder that
discipline never seems pleasant while one is experiencing it but it has a positive outcome. "The
author's appeal to this generalization, or maxim, allows the hearers to see their experiences of
hardship within the context of beneficial, necessary training. ,,286 The second half of the verse
remarks that once a person is "trained" (YEyuflvaoflEvoLc;-bringing back athletic imagery), their
discipline will produce "a harvest of righteousness and peace."
12:5-11 is a significant section dealing with how the Christian community should
understand their suffering. The author is clear that the existence of suffering is not evidence that
God has abandoned them but rather of their relationship to God as children. "The fact that the
righteous suffer is not a sign of divine displeasure, but of God's paternal affection. ,,287 In fact,
nowhere in the author's interpretation of Proverbs 3: 11-12 does he understand his recipients'
suffering to be caused by their sin. Rather, it is essential to their relationship as God's children.
286 Ibid., 453.

91
12:5-11 "develops the thought that the endurance of disciplinary sufferings (THW)ELa) is an
. I aspect 0 f Chr'IstIan
essentm . expenence.
. ,,288
Conclusion
The author of Hebrews encourages his audience to understand their suffering as an
important component of their lives as Christians. By appealing to the life of Christ, OT heroes,
and the audience's own experience, he demonstrates that suffering is not inconsistent with a life
of obedience. Next, the author presents exhortations to follow after Jesus within a context of
suffering. To follow Christ is to share in his suffering. Finally, in 12:5-11, the author encourages
his audience to understand their suffering as TIatOELa and a sign that they are God's children. The
suffering addressed by the author has been viewed as non-punitive. The author of Hebrews may
agree that some suffering is a result of one's sin, but that is not the suffering he addresses here.
Instead, he focuses only on the suffering and persecution which the recipients encountered for
their faith and identity as Christians.
288 Lane, Hebrews 9-13, 422.
92
CHAPTER FIVE:
FEMINIST CRITICISM OF SUFFERING IN HEBREWS
Through our examination of suffering in the epistle to the Hebrews, we have identified
suffering as a significant theme in the author's theology and exhortation. Suffering is a reality in
the lives of the believers he addresses and the author seeks to encourage his readers with a
correct response to it. To do so, he presents Jesus as one who suffered, yet endured, and how
God used that suffering toward a positive outcome. The audience is challenged to view their own
suffering as something potentially positive because of the example of Christ. The author turns
something shameful into a thing of honor.
When Scripture presents pain and suffering is this light, there is a risk that suffering itself
will be glorified rather than the God who transforms it. Suffering can be seen as something to
seek out or inflict. A danger may present itself where someone may be encouraged to needlessly
suffer or remain in contexts of abuse. Furthermore, such texts could be, and have been, twisted
for oppressive purposes to display dominance or to enforce submission. The danger of a
glorification or misinterpretation of suffering has been rightfully exposed through various forms
ofliberation theology. One form specifically-feminist theology-has presented strong criticism
of how Christianity has traditionally viewed suffering.
In this final chapter, we will challenge and strengthen our evaluation of suffering in
Hebrews with the help of feminist criticism. The goal will be to avoid dangerous misapplications
of the text which might be oppressive to women or thought of as sanctioning abuse. At certain
points, aspects of feminist theology will be tested, such as a rejection of the atonement.
93
However, the concerns of feminist criticism will be taken seriously and used to scrutinize our
interpretation of suffering in Hebrews.
A Feminist Critique of Suffering in Hebrews
Feminist biblical criticism provides a significant challenge to how suffering should be
understood in Scripture. Feminist hermeneutics are diverse in both scope and method but are
commonly rooted in a suspicion that the text is not "neutral" and the interpreter is not
"objective.,,289 More specifically, the text was written in male-dominated culture and interpreted
predominantly by men. Many feminists have confronted how the Bible presents suffering as well
as how such teaching has been interpreted and applied. Put simply, the question raised is whether
the Bible presents suffering in a way which legitimizes or potentially encourages the abuse
and/or oppression of women.
In an essay entitled "For God So Loved the World?" Joanne Carlson Brown and Rebecca
Parker write a harsh condemnation of Christianity's portrayal of suffering. 29o They argue that
Christianity "has been a primary-in many women's lives the primary-force in shaping our
acceptance of abuse. ,,291 It has been a significant motivating factor for the victimization and
oppression of women throughout the world.
Brown and Parker challenge many tenets of the Christian faith but focus a great deal of
attention on the atonement. That Jesus suffered and died for others to bring about salvation
models behavior that Christians seek to follow. Christianity's central image of Christ on the cross
289 Sandra M. Schneiders, "Feminist Hermeneutics," in Hearing the New Testament, ed. Joel B Green (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 350.
2<)\) Joanne Carlson Brown and Rebecca Parker, "For God So Loved the World?" in Christianity, Patriarchy and
Abuse: A Feminist Critique, ed. Joanne Carlson Brown and Carole R. Bohn (New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1989),
1-30.
291 Ibid., 2.
94
as savior "communicates the message that suffering is redemptive," and this message is further
complicated "by the theology that says Christ suffered in obedience to his Father's will. ,,292
The authors investigate three traditional views of the atonement (Christus Victor theory,
Satisfaction theory, and Moral Influence theory) arguing that not one challenges the necessity of
Jesus' suffering and they all commend suffering to the disciple.293 Next, three modern theories
critiquing those traditional views are examined but also found wanting. According to the authors,
all three fall short of an appropriate challenge to the doctrine of atonement.
The evaluation of six major theories of atonement leads Brown and Parker to conclude
that any concept of the atonement must be done away with. They write:
Christianity is an abusive theology that glorifies suffering. Is it any wonder that

there is so much abuse in modem society when the predominate image or
theology of the culture is of "divine child abuse"-God the Father demanding and
carrying out the suffering and death of his own son? If Christianity is to be
liberating for the oppressed, it must itself be liberated from this theology. We
must do away with the atonement, this idea that a blood sin upon the whole
human race which can be washed away only by the blood of the lamb. This
bloodthirsty God is the God of the patriarchy who at the moment controls the
whole Judeo-Christian tradition. 294
What we need to be saved from, according to Brown and Parker, is not some original sin by the
death of Jesus but from patriarchy.295
Another feminist theologian, Brita Gill-Austern, warns of the damage that any
glorification of suffering can cause. Like Brown and Parker, Gill-Austern writes that feminist
theology "rejects the interpretation that Jesus' death was ordained by God and required as
payment of sin. ,,296 Furthermore, the glorification of suffering "can result in theological
292 Ibid.
293 Ibid., 4.
294 Ibid., 26.
295 Ibid., 27.
296 Brita L. Gill-Austem, "Love Understood as Self-Sacrifice and Self-Denial: What Does It Do to Women?" in
Through the Eyes of Women: Insightsfor Pastoral Care, ed. Jeanne Stevenson Moessner (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 1996), 308.
95
masochism" and an "image of God as a violent, angry, sadistic father. ,,297 Gill-Austern writes
that the image of the suffering servant has reinforced, for some, the belief that suffering is
good.2 98
In her book, Towards a Feminist Christology, Julie Hopkins voices similar concerns over
the Christian concept of the atonement. She rejects a penal and substitionary doctrine of
atonement. "It is morally abhorrent to claim that God the Father demanded the self-sacrifice of
his only Son to balance the scales ofjustice. ,,299 Hopkins acknowledges that those who suffer
may find great comfort in identifying with Christ's suffering, but warns of the tendency to place
blame on the victim (i.e., the sin of a particular group or sex is responsible for sending Jesus to
the crosS).300 Along with many other feminist theologians, Hopkins understands the crucifixion
as an act of evil upon Jesus which in itself has no redeeming quality. Unique to her writing is a
strong emphasis that God was present at the crucifixion and is "actively sharing with the victim
in a solidarity of suffering and grief. ,,301
Rosemary Ruether investigates how Christians respond to suffering and describes it as
two fold. 302 First, Christians should regard themselves as ultimately guilty for their suffering
since humankind, the female sex specifically, introduced sin into the world. Second, "we become
Christ-like by enduring suffering like Christ, who, though innocent, suffered for our sins.,,303
Both ofthese responses to suffering are specifically detrimental to women. Ruether writes: "This
double bind of deserved suffering for guilt and the promise of becoming a Christlike agent of
redemption for one's victimizers through innocent suffering has been such a powerful message
297 Ibid.
298 Ibid.
299 Julie Hopkins, Towards a Feminist Christology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995),50.
300 Ibid., 54.
301 Ibid., 56.
302 Rosemary Ruether, Introducing Redemption in Christian Feminism (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998),
98.
303 Ibid.
96
that Christian women have found it very difficult to challenge. ,,304 Her response is to take the
focus off of Christ's suffering and place it on his life and teaching. Jesus did not come to suffer
and die, but rather to promote liberation and abundance oflife. 305 Finally, Ruether argues that
divine goodness and divine omnipotence cannot be reconciled as the theology of atonement
attempts. "If God wills Jesus' death, if God wills the unjust violence of poverty, sexism, racism
and anti-Semitism, then God is a sadist and a criminal. ,,306 "Rather, in so far as God represents
just and loving life in mutual sharing, God is for us the insurgent tenacity of life that is not in the
seats of power, but yet is still undefeated. ,,307
Such criticism does not represent all feminist theologians but it does demonstrate the
strongest attack on the traditional interpretation of suffering in Scripture. A few major issues
present themselves and need to be addressed. First, there is a concern that the doctrine of the
atonement communicates that suffering is redemptive. It is argued that suffering is never
redemptive and that such an understanding leads to actions that accept and encourage abuse.
Second, the biblical concept of the necessity of Christ's suffering leads to an understanding that
the disciples too must suffer if they are to follow his example. This can lead to a believer looking
for or remaining in unjust suffering needlessly in order to be "Christ-like." Third, the concept of
the Father sending his Son to suffer and die can be interpreted as a portrayal of divine child
abuse with justification for earthly parents to follow suit.
The epistle to the Hebrews finds itself at the center of this critique from feminist
interpretation. The epistle focuses numerous chapters on the concept and imagery of Christ on
the cross as sacrificial atonement. Hebrews presents Jesus as the one "who through the eternal
304 Ibid., 100.

305 Ibid., 104-5.
306 Ibid., 106.
307 Ibid., 106-7.
97
Spirit offered himself unblemished to God, cleansers] our consciences from acts that lead to
death" (9:14). Also, the epistle repeatedly presents Jesus as a model for Christians to follow,
especially in relation to how they respond to suffering. We are to "fix our eyes" on him, the
"pioneer and perfecter of faith" (12:2). Finally, the critique of attributing divine child abuse to
God is complicated by the section connecting suffering to divine discipline (12:5-11).
Theologian Mary Rose D'Angelo writes ofthis section, "Unchallenged, it collaborates with the
images of a father who 'perfects' his son 'by suffering' (2: 10) and a 'son [who] learns obedience
through what he suffered' (5:8).,,308
Concern One: No Suffering Should Be Understood as Redemptive
Mary VandenBerg responds to the feminist criticism of the atonement by arguing that
redemptive suffering is unique to Christ and that human suffering should not be understood in
those terms. 309 VandenBerg briefly surveys Old and New Testament literature to arrive at a
definition of redemption which, outside of a legal or commercial context, came to be understood
as salvation from sin and evil with the Godhead as the agent. In both testaments, "to speak
soteriologically of redemption is to assume the Redeemer is God. ,,31 0 With this definition in
place, VandenBerg investigates how Scripture presents the suffering of Christ and of the
believer. She presents two main points: Christ's suffering was unique and redemptive and the
believers' suffering is never understood as redemptive.
VandenBerg correctly sees the danger of rejecting the doctrine of the atonement and
provides a strong, feminist criticism of suffering in Scripture by emphasizing the unique nature
of Christ's redemptive suffering. An important point which VandenBerg articulates at the end of
308 Mary Rose D'Angelo, "Hebrews," in The Women's Bible Commentary - Expanded Edition, eds. C. A. Newson
and S. H. Ringe (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999),457.
309 Mary VandenBerg, "Redemptive Suffering: Christ's Alone," Scottish Journal ofTheology 60 (2007): 394-411.
310 Ibid., 401.
98
her article is that to "glorify suffering is to misunderstand the overall mission of Christ on the
cross.,,3l1 She notes that Scripture repeatedly points toward the hope of no longer suffering.
Does the author of Hebrews present the suffering of Jesus and of believers along these
same lines? While Mary VandenBerg looks briefly at Hebrews,312 her conclusions help us to
understand suffering in the epistle. Jesus' suffering is understood in terms of its redemptive
nature and this is unique to him alone. The author of Hebrews does not present the suffering of
believers to have a redemptive quality.
In our analysis of Christ's suffering in Hebrews, we emphasized its vocational aspect.
Suffering prepared Jesus to be a sympathetic high priest and to identify with human weakness
and temptation (2:17-18; 4:15). Furthermore, we saw that Christ's suffering was connected to
what it accomplished: bringing God's children to glory (2: 10), becoming the source of eternal
salvation (5 :9), and making people holy (13: 12). This is all unique to the suffering of Jesus and
highlights its redemptive purpose. Christ's suffering is distinguished from that of believers' in
that it accomplished something completely unique. The redemptive aspect of suffering is
connected only to Jesus.
The author of Hebrews has no reservation in discussing Christ's suffering in redemptive
terms. In fact, Jesus' suffering and death is primarily understood in the epistle to have a
redemptive purpose: Christ achieving for others the salvation that they could not achieve for
themselves. 313 Jesus suffered death "so that by the grace of God he might taste death for
everyone" (2:9). He was made like his brothers and sisters in every way so that "he might make
atonement for the sins of the people" (2:17). He is the "source of salvation" (5:9) and of "eternal
311 Ibid., 409.

312 One paragraph uses Hebrews 9:12 and 15 to demonstrate the epistle's understanding of Christ's suffering as
redemptive. VandenBerg, "Redemptive Suffering," 403.
99
redemption" (9:12). We have been made holy through the sacrifice of his body (10:10) which
opened up a "new and living way" for us (10:20). All of this was accomplished through his
suffering and death. In 9: 15 the author writes: "Christ is the mediator of a new covenant, that
those who are called may receive the promised eternal inheritance-now that he has died as a
ransom to set them free from the sins committed under the first covenant." It is obvious in
Hebrews that Christ's suffering was redemptive. To deny this redemptive quality is to strip the
epistle of a major theme.
Nowhere in Hebrews is there a hint that the author believes that the suffering or death of
the believer can accomplish what Jesus' suffering and death did. In fact, rarely does the author
discuss martyrdom or connect the believer's suffering to death. Chapter 11 does include those
who died for their faith (vv. 35-37), but their martyrdom is not understood as redemptive. Jesus'
death is not portrayed as that of a martyr and therefore as something to be replicated, but rather
as a sacrificial offering. 314 The author of Hebrews is clear that the accomplishments of Christ's
suffering and death are completely unique and cannot be replicated. Christ's sacrifice occurred
"once and for all" (9:26) and that one time sacrifice "took away the sin of many" (9:28). "For by
one sacrifice he has made perfect forever those who are being made holy" (10: 14). Furthermore,
there is no need for any more sacrifice after that of Jesus: "Sacrifice for sin is no longer
necessary" (10: 18).
When the author of Hebrews discusses the suffering of believers, there is no sense that it
is redemptive. After he lists the specific suffering in his audience's past, the author exhorts them
to endure in their present suffering so that they will "receive what he (God) has promised"
(10:36).12:5-11 encourages the audience to understand their suffering as divine discipline and
Marie E. Isaacs, Reading Hebrews and James: A Literary and Theological Commentary (Macon, GA: Smyth &
314
Helwys Publishing, 2002), 10.
100
training from the Father. The suffering is a sign that they belong to the Father. Nowhere does the
author connect their suffering to their own salvation or perfection. Rather, he points to their need
to endure suffering and the benefit of that endurance.
The Unique Nature of Jesus' Suffering as a Process of Perfection
Commenting on the function of suffering in Jesus' experience compared to the believers',
David Peterson warns that "we cannot draw the parallels too closely. ,,315 It has been stressed that
Jesus' suffering is unique in that it can be understood as redemptive, while the believers'
suffering can not be understood this way. Another way in which Jesus' suffering is unique in the
epistle is that the author understands his suffering as part of his process toward perfection.
Hebrews 2:10 states that Jesus was made perfect 6llX 1HX8TlflCXtwV. Also, the author writes that he
experienced temptation in suffering so that he could sympathize with those he ministers to as
high priest (2:18; 4:15).
The perfection of believers is not presented in the epistle as the same process which Jesus
traveled through. "Although the perfecting of Christ is a process, necessitating his learning
obedience through suffering, his death and exaltation, a simple parallel cannot be argued with
respect to the perfecting ofbelievers.,,316 Rather, Peterson makes clear, believers are perfected by
the "very actions and accomplishments that perfect Christ, not by any actions of their own.
Believers are perfected by the perfecting of Christ.,,317
The author of Hebrews does not suggest that believers are perfected through suffering on
their part. Rather, their perfection has already been accomplished through the actions of Jesus
Christ. In 10: 14, the author writes: "For by one sacrifice he has made perfect forever those who
are being made holy." Any understanding of suffering in Hebrews which connects the suffering

3J6 Ibid., 175.
317 Ibid.
101
in a believer's life to a process by which they are perfected is completely counter to the epistle's
theology.
Concern Two: Jesus as a Model of Suffering Encourages Believers to Seek Suffering
A second major concern from feminist theologians is that the necessity of Christ's
suffering communicates to believers that they too must seek and/or remain in suffering. Brown
and Parker write that Christianity commends suffering to the disciple. "The Christian is to 'be
318
like Jesus'-and imitation of Christ is first and foremost obedient willingness to endure pain."
Imitation of Jesus Christ is a repeated theme in the epistle to the Hebrews, especially in relation
to how one should respond to suffering. Jesus is presented as the "pioneer" (2: 10; 12:2)
designating his position as leader and trailblazer. 12:2 encourages believers to fix their eyes on
Jesus as they run the race marked out for them. The following verse encourages the believer to
consider his endurance in the face of opposition so they might not grow weary and lose heart.
Also, 13:13 exhorts the believer to follow Jesus outside of the camp-the place of his sacrifice
and shame.
Jesus a Model of Endurance in Suffering; Not Remaining in Suffering
Feminist theologians are correct to argue against any interpretation of the image of Jesus
as a model for believers in suffering which encourages one to seek or remain in abuse. Such
interpretations certainly do exist and have influenced pastoral care to those, especially women,
who are in the midst of avoidable suffering. In response to dangerous misinterpretations of this
theme, feminist scholars emphasize Jesus' suffering and death as an "unjust act, done by humans
who chose to reject his way oflife and sought to silence him through death.,,319 Jesus' choice to
318 Brown and Parker, "For God So Loved the World?" 4.

319 Ibid., 27.
102
live in obedience and faithfulness is the reason he should be followed, not that he experienced
suffering.
Tracing the theme of suffering in Hebrews, feminist scholar Jeanne Stevenson-Moessner

32o
argues that the author of the epistle's exhortation is not to remain in suffering but to resist evil.
She looks to the example of Moses in by the author of Hebrews in 11 :26-27 to make this point:
"He regarded disgrace for the sake of Christ as of greater value than the treasures of Egypt,
because he was looking ahead to his reward. By faith he left Egypt, not fearing the king's anger;
he persevered because he saw him who is invisible." The author of Hebrews presents Moses as
an example of one who did not seek suffering but experienced suffering because he chose to
reject evil. "He did not acquiesce to evil ... He chose defiance over deference to the king,
proactivity in leaving Egypt over passivity in remaining. ,,321 When one chooses to resist evil, like
Moses did, there will be suffering. Stevenson-Moessner stresses that the message to women in
abuse is not to remain and simply endure that abuse. "The call is to resist evil, even though
resistance, in some cases, may cost our life. ,,322
The author of Hebrews never presents Jesus as a model of choosing suffering but rather
of living a life of obedience. Such obedience goes against the tide of a sinful, fallen world. Jesus'
life showed that living in faithful obedience will result in opposition from the outside world.
Jesus modeled for the believer how to continue in that obedience even in the face of suffering.
This is how he is understood as the "pioneer" of faith-he leads the way. Using the race imagery,
the author encourages believers to throw off all sin and fix their eyes on Jesus. He ran this race,
endured through suffering, remained faithful to God and finished strong.
320 Stevenson-Moessner, "Road to Perfection," 280-90.

321 Ibid., 288.
322 Ibid., 289.
103
Jesus A Model of Endurance Since He Experienced Similar Suffering
Believers can look to Jesus as a model of endurance in suffering because he experienced
the same type of suffering they do and remained faithful to the Father. Jesus and believers are
understood as having similar experiences of suffering but to different degrees of severity.
William Lane writes that there is both a "qualitative and a quantitative difference between the
sufferings endured by Jesus and those experienced by the Christians addressed.,,323 In many
ways, the author of Hebrews connects the sufferings experienced by believers to that of Jesus to
present Christ as a model of endurance. Christ's suffering is often revealed as more severe than
the believers' as further reason to look to him as an exemplar in the face of suffering.
One major point of connection is that the suffering of both Jesus and believers involved
shame and ridicule. The author remarks that the Christian community had been "publicly
exposed to insult and persecution" (l0:33). Such experiences were examples of a hostile society
attempting to shame Christians back into conformity.324 Jesus Christ is also presented as
experiencing shame and disgrace as a part of his suffering. This is made clear in chapter 13
which states that Jesus suffered "outside the city gate" (v. 12) and believers are encouraged to
bear the disgrace he bore (v. 13). The shame of Christ is connected to his crucifixion. This was
made clear previously in 12:2 which states that Jesus "endured the cross, scorning its shame."
However, the shame to which believers are called to share in is not the shame of crucifixion but
that of association with Jesus. 325
A similar dynamic is present in regards to the physical suffering faced by both Jesus and
the Christian community. Jesus is understood as having endured a far greater amount of physical
suffering, which is used by the author to encourage his audience to endure. That the believers
'23
J Lane, Hebrews 9-13, 429.
104
endured physically is not stated directly in 10:32-35. However, 8Al.l!Jls in verse 33 may signify
physical persecution and affliction. That Jesus suffered physically is made clear at several places
in the epistle by focusing on the greatest of his suffering-his sacrificial death on the cross. 2:9
tells us that Jesus "suffered death." His sacrificial death is emphasized in the discussion of his
priesthood in chapters 7-10 (7:27; 9:12, 15,26,28; 10:10, 12, 14). That Jesus suffered physically
to a greater extent than the Christian community is made clear in 12:4: "In your struggle against
sin, you have not yet resisted to the point of shedding your blood. "
Concern Three: Jesus Sent to Suffer Equals Divine Abuse
Another critique by feminist theologians is that the doctrine of the atonement presents
God the Father demanding his only Son to suffer death in obedience to the Father's will. Joanne
Carlson Brown abbreviates her chapter with Rebecca Parker to form an article for Daughters of
Sarah with the provocative title "Divine Child Abuse?,,326 The title draws attention to the
concern that the atonement justifies victimization and abuse. Brown writes: "And when parents
image God as righteously demanding the total obedience of his son, even obedience to death,
what will prevent the parent from engaging in divinely sanctioned child abuse?,,327 She continues
that as long as our culture accepts this image, "it is sanctioning abuse and it is abandoning the
victims of abuse and oppression. Not until this image is shattered will it be possible to create a
just society.,,328
Before moving into the text of Hebrews, it is important to challenge Brown's provocative
title. The charge that a doctrine of atonement conveys a sort of cosmic child abuse disrupts the
unity of the Trinity and infringes upon Jesus' humanity. In a response to "Divine Child Abuse?"
Margo Houts points out that Brown's critique of the atonement severs Jesus from the Godhead so
326 Joanne Carlson Brown, "Divine Child Abuse?" Daughters a/Sarah 18 (1994): 24-28.
327 Ibid., 26.
328 Ibid.
105
that he is made an object of divine action against him. 329 Brown's critique seems to strip Jesus of
his divinity and the unity in the Trinity. I. Howard Marshall writes, "[I]t was God who initiated
the cross; it was God himself who suffered on the cross and bore the sin of the world. ,,330 He
elaborates:
There is an indissoluble unity between Father, Son, and Spirit in the work of
redemption. The recognition that it is God the Son, that is to say quite simply
God, who suffers and dies on the cross, settles the questions finally. This is God
331
himself bearing the consequences of sin, not the abuse of some cosmic child.
In another response, Reta Halteman Finger comments that Brown violates Jesus' humanity as
well. 332 She writes:
At his death Jesus was not a child without power and without choice. He was an
adult who made choices and understood their implications. As we see in
Gethsemane, Jesus had no more desire to suffer simply for the sake of suffering
than any of the rest of us. Suffering was simply the result of a life spent
challenging the powers of evil. 333
Brown's title highlights the fact that some theories of the atonement present God as an oppressive
father, but, as Halteman comments, "the term does not critique anything remotely biblical. ,,334
Does the epistle to the Hebrews present a view of suffering which sanctions abuse? The
author repeatedly speaks of Jesus as a faithful son whose obedience leads to suffering (3:2, 6;
5:8). This image is further complicated by 12:5-11 which connects suffering to divine discipline.
"Endure hardship as discipline; God is treating you as his children" (l2:7a). Furthermore, godly
discipline is closely related to that of earthly parental discipline: "For what children are not
disciplined by their father?" (l2:7b). Mary Rose D'Angelo calls Hebrews 12:4-11 an abusive
329 Margo G. Houts, "Atonement and Abuse: An Alternate View," Daughters a/Sarah 18 (1994): 29-32.
3301. Howard Marshall, "The Theology ofthe Atonement," in The Atonement Debate, eds. Derek Tidball, David
Hilborn and Justin Thacker (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008), 62.
331 I. Howard Marhsall, Aspects a/the Atonement: Cross and Resurrection in the Reconciling a/God and Humanity
(Milton Keynes: Paternoster, 2007), 56.
332 Reta Halteman Finger, "Liberation or Abuse?" Daughters a/Sarah 18 (1994): 37-38.
333 Ibid., 38.
334 Ibid., 37-38.
106
connection of punishment and love. She writes, "Hebrew's counsel puts a divine sanction behind
the abuse of women and abusive child rearing.,,335 Philip Greven refers to 12:5-11 as "the key
text in the New Testament cited in favor of harsh physical discipline of children,,336 and
justification for corporal punishment. 337
While the text of Hebrews can be grossly misinterpreted to support victimization and
sanction abuse, it does not seem to be warranted by the author. Clayton Croy writes: "It would
clearly go against the implicit message of the text to suggest that the author condones the
ongoing oppression of the readers, or of modem Christians, by calling them to endure. ,,338 The
author's exhortation to endure in suffering is not a call to passively remain in abuse, but to not let
suffering defeat them. With the imagery of the race (10:32; 12:1-13), the author views suffering
as the obstacle to be overcome. We are to consider Jesus "who endured such opposition from
sinners, so that you will not grow weary and lose heart" (12:3). Endurance does not mean to
remain in suffering; that, it seems, would lead to weariness. Rather, the believer is called to
"strengthen your feeble arms and weak knees ... so that the lame may not be disabled, but rather
healed" (12:12-13).
Endurance is not a call to passiveness as some feminist theologians have claimed. Marie
Fortune writes that:
Personal violence presents a victim with two options: endurance and acceptance
of continued suffering, or an occasion for transformation. Endurance means
remaining a victim; transformation means becoming a survivor. In order to
become a survivor and transform one's suffering, persons must use their strength
and all available resources within themselves and from others to move away from
a situation in which violence continues unabated. 339
335 D'Angelo, "Hebrews," 457.

336 Philip Greven, Spare the Child: The Religious Roots ofPunishment and the Psychological Impact ofPhysical
Abuse (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 52.
337 Ibid., 53.
338 Croy, Endurance in Suffering, 221-22.

339 Marie F. Fortune, "The Transformation of Suffering," in Christianity, Patriarchy and Abuse: A Feminist Critique
(New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1989), 145.
107
The endurance which Fortune describes does not correlate with the endurance to which the
author of Hebrews exhorts his readers. In Hebrews, endurance is an active movement toward
God no matter the cost. Hebrews 10: 19-25 describes such endurance with encouragement to
"enter the Most Holy Place" (v. 19), "draw near to God" (v. 22), "hold unswervingly to the hope
we profess" (v. 23), "spur one another" (v. 24) and "not give up meeting together" (v. 25). In
10:39, he writes, "But we are not of those who shrink back and are destroyed, but ofthose who
believe and are saved." Hebrews 12:5-11 calls believers to "endure hardship as discipline." The
author uses the term TIlW5EllX to convey education and training. The call by the author to endure
suffering is closer to Fortune's option oftransformation than "remaining a victim."
Finally, the author of Hebrews did not intend for his comparison between divine and
earthly parental discipline to be read as a manual for child rearing. The pastoral purpose of 12:5-
11 is to allow the oppressed believers to view their suffering as transformational. The author
encourages them to see their hardship as an opportunity for growth. As we saw in the previous
chapter, 'TTlXL<5EllX is used in the sense oftraining or equipping to accomplish a task. The point is
that God is able to take such experiences and use them for our benefit.
Does Hebrews Glorify Suffering?
The question remains as to whether Hebrews glorifies suffering. Brown and Parker
declare that "the glorification of anyone's suffering allows the glorification of all suffering. ,,340
Our examination of Hebrews has presented suffering as a significant theme for its theology and
context. The author is writing a pastoral "word of exhortation" and not a theology. Therefore, his
letter should be understood first and foremost as encouraging his listeners and not as a theodicy
or articulation of doctrine. The emphasis on Jesus' suffering should be understood as how it
340 Brown and Parker, "For God So Loved the World?" 23.
108
would encourage the readers. The author goes to great length to emphasize Jesus' suffering
because he is addressing a community that faces great suffering. His goal was to show that
suffering is part of the human life and is not a sign that God has abandoned them. Furthermore,
since the gospel goes against the values of the society which they live in, they should expect to
suffer as a result of their relationship with Christ and obedience to God.
The death of Christ is an important theme in the epistle, but to understand the author's
words as a glorification of suffering is to misconstrue them. The epistle never presents Jesus as
encouraging suffering or eagerly seeking it out. Rather, he is portrayed as offering up "prayers
and petitions with fervent cries and tears to the one who could save him from death" (5:7).
"Christ did not come to glorify suffering but to overcome suffering, sin, death and the power of
evil through his suffering.,,341 The epistle declares that Jesus "shared in their humanity so that by
his death he might break the power of him who holds the power of death-that is, the devil-and
free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death" (2: 14-15).
Jesus' death and resurrection give believers hope for the suffering in their life. "Jesus'
crucifixion does not sanctify suffering ... It is not a model of how suffering should be borne but
a witness to God's desire that no one should have to suffer such violence again. ,,342 It also
encourages us that God can bring beauty out of suffering. "Because of the Easter experience, we
know that through the pain something can be born, something can be raised up, and we have
hope for the transformation of tragedy. ,,343 Furthermore, Hebrews presents Christ's priesthood as
having a present reality in our lives. "Because Jesus lives forever, he has a permanent priesthood.
Therefore he is able to save completely those who come to God through him, because he always
341 VandenBerg, "Redemptive Suffering," 409.

342 Fortune, "Transformation of Suffering," 145.
343 Jeanne Stevenson Moessner, "A New Pastoral Paradigm and Practice," in Women in Travail and Transition
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991),208.
109
lives to intercede for them" (7:24-25). "It is not a matter of enduring suffering and sacrifice now
because we are promised that things will get better in the future, but precisely the truth that
things are better now because Christ has risen, and Christ's ongoing transformation ofthe world
. ... ,,344
ca11 s us to actIve partIcIpatIOn.
Jesus' suffering and death also give us great hope in our own suffering. Since he suffered
and was tempted just like us (2: 18) and yet endured, we find hope that we too can endure. Since
God used the suffering in his life to grow and develop him (5:8), we know that God can do the
same for us (12:5-11). That God can take evil and use it for good purposes does not glorify evil,
but glorifies God. Hebrews points to the reality of suffering in our lives and that God uses such
things for good purposes. "To say, for example, that one can acquire spiritual strength through
suffering is not to glorify suffering; it is only to say that suffering can be transformed into
positive qualities. ,,345
Conclusion
Feminist criticism provides a much needed challenge to how one interprets suffering in
Scripture. The writing of many feminist scholars exposes the reality of the abuse and
victimization of women within the Church, encouraged and defended with Biblical passages.
Feminist concerns over how Scripture presents and understands suffering serves as a crucial
balance to an interpretive tradition which has been historically dominated by men and has been
used for unbiblical application. Such criticism rightly forces the interpreter to consider how a
biblical view of suffering can be misinterpreted to support abuse or victimization. Feminist
criticism should be praised for its exposure of the patriarchal oppression defended through an
abuse of Scripture.
344 Martha Schull Gilliss, "Resurrecting the Atonement," in Feminist and Womanist Essays in Reformed Dogmatics
(Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 133-34.
345 Weaver Santaniello, "Jesus Did Suffer," Daughters ofSarah 18 (1994): 36.
110
At the same time, it is going too far to conclude that in order for Christianity to be
liberating for women it must abandon the doctrine of atonement. Many feminist scholars reject
such a notion and suggest that "it is the nonbiblical distortions and theoretical accretions which
need to be excised, rather than the central tenet of atonement. ,,346 It should be acknowledged that
the atonement has been used as a tool of oppression, but the answer is correct theology and not
outright rejection. "Abolishing the metaphor of the cross is not the answer to the problem of
suffering. ,,347 It is the misappropriation of the text, not the text itself, which has led to abuse and
victimization. The goal of the theologian is to correct any dangerous and incorrect interpretation
and application. Feminist biblical criticism has been a valuable tool in furthering this goal.
An evaluation of suffering in Hebrews is greatly aided by feminist criticism. Several
points have been highlighted and reinforced in order to avoid potentially hazardous
understanding of the text. First, it was clarified that Jesus' suffering is unique in that it alone is
redemptive. The author of Hebrews never correlates believers' suffering with having redemptive
value. This was further seen in how the author understands the perfection of Jesus and of
believers. Jesus' suffering was a part of his process of perfection. The believer, however, is not
perfected through suffering but by the very actions which perfected Christ. Second, the epistle's
elevation of Jesus as a model for Christian behavior is not an encouragement to seek or remain in
suffering, but how to endure in the face of it. Jesus suffered like we do and paved the way for us
to endure in obedience. Lastly, Hebrews never encourages the believer to passively remain in
abuse. Instead, the epistle encourages us to not let suffering distract us from our race. Endurance
is not remaining in suffering but rather an active term of pursuing God no matter the opposition
346 Houts, "Atonement and Abuse," 29.

347 Santaniello, "Jesus Did Suffer," 36.
111
CONCLUSION
When the author of Hebrews set out to compose his epistle, he was addressing an
audience who faced a great amount of suffering due to their Christian faith. Suffering was a
reality in their lives and most likely added to the spiritual lethargy which prompted the author's
response. The author of Hebrews did not set out to write a theological discourse on the problem
of evil or a doctrinal treatise on why suffering exists. Rather, he wrote a pastoral"word of
exhortation" addressing the reality of suffering in his audience's lives. This issue, and the theme
of suffering, is more prominent in the epistle to the Hebrews than many scholars acknowledge.
Understanding how the author comprehends suffering and interprets its presence in the believers'
lives contributes to a better understanding of the epistle.
Suffering is not interpreted along the lines of the orthodox Jewish retributive view. This
view, which understands suffering to be a result of sin or disobedience in a person's life, is not
flatly denied in Hebrews but is certainly not strictly adhered to. Rather, the author has no
problem showing that Jesus, who was "without sin" (4:15), lived a life full of suffering.
Furthermore, he shows that suffering was a significant part of the process of his perfection (2: 10)
and that experiences of suffering provided Jesus with opportunities for growth and greater
obedience (5:8). The author goes as far as to say that the presence of suffering in one's life is a
sign that they belong to the Father (12:7-8). Suffering in Hebrews is much closer to the concept
of divine discipline from Jewish literature together with the idea of suffering as a learning tool
(TIlXlOEla) from Greco-Roman sources. Furthermore, Christ's suffering is understood in its
redemptive role for the sins of others.
112
What Jesus suffered was broadened from solely his passion and death to include his life
lived in obedience and dedication to the Father's will. Jesus suffered not only in his final hours,
but throughout his life. Certainly the epistle argues that Christ's suffering included his death (2:9;
12:2; 13:12) but it does not limit Christ's suffering to this event. The author uses the plural
TIa811fla:rwv in 2: 10 to refer to sufferings through which Jesus was perfected. 2: 18 connects Jesus'
suffering to temptation. The idea that Jesus "learned" through what he suffered (5:8) also points
to suffering beyond that of his closing hours. This study argued for a definition of the suffering
of Christ in Hebrews which included Jesus' life of obedience.
In order to encourage his readers, the author of Hebrews shows how suffering was not
only a reality in Jesus' life but was used by the Father for good. Jesus' suffering prepared him to
be a faithful high priest (4:15; 5:5-10) and was something which he passed through toward
perfection (2: 10). His suffering also benefitted believers since by his suffering Christ "tasted
death for everyone" (2:9), became the source of eternal salvation (5:9), and makes people holy
through his blood (13:12). Suffering is not presented as something which Christ sought out or
which God inflicted. However, the epistle does show that God is able to take the presence of
suffering and work it for good and beneficial purposes.
Similarly, believers are called to understand the reality the suffering in their life as an
opportunity for personal growth and training. The section on divine discipline (12 :5-11 ) reveals
that God can take something evil like suffering and work it for good. The imagery of an athlete is
used to show divine discipline as training toward maturity and endurance. Never does the author
present God as the cause of suffering, but he does present Jesus as a model of a proper response
to suffering. The readers are called to fix their eyes of Jesus (12:2) and follow his example of
being faithful even in the midst of suffering.
113
Rhetorically, the author of Hebrews does something unique in that he presents suffering
as something designating honor rather than shame. The suffering which the believers endured
certainly included a sense of shame from the outside world (10:33). The epistle identifies the
suffering of Jesus with similar shame from a hostile society since he suffered "outside the city
gate" (13:12). Concerning Jesus, the author remarks that he "endured the cross, scorning its
shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God" (12:2). Jesus took on the shame of
the world and is presently honored at the throne of God. Similarly, believers are called to "bear
the disgrace" which Jesus bore (13:13). To the culture it is a shameful thing to follow Jesus, but
the author of Hebrews reveals it as what is truly honoring. In fact, he flips the shame/honor
scheme in the section on divine discipline in 12:5-11. In verse 7, he calls for believers to endure
their hardships-the suffering which has brought them shame-as discipline and a sign that they
are truly "sons" of God. Verse 8 declares that those who do not have such discipline in their lives
(i.e. those who are shaming them) are illegitimate children and do not belong to the Father.
The author of Hebrews does not attempt to glorify suffering or to probe into theological
questions oftheodicy. Rather, he provides pastoral care to a group of Christian believers tempted
to abandon their faith. Suffering was a reality in their lives and a result of their faith in Christ.
The author challenges them to view the suffering in their lives in a new way; not as a
discouragement, but as an opportunity for growth and maturity; not as a thing of shame, but
rather of honor. Their suffering was not a sign that God has abandoned them, but rather as a sign
of their close relationship to the Father. The example of Christ is repeatedly used to show that
suffering can be endured and can be used for good. To a community which had endured in the
past and is now faces more severe persecution, the author challenges them to follow Christ who
endured even greater suffering than they did.
114
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Master of Arts in Biblical Studies

ONE SUFFERING IN JEWISH AND GREEK THOUGHT 7

TWO BACKGROUND TO THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS 31

THREE THE SUFFERING OF CHRIST IN HEBREWS 51

FOUR THE SUFFERING OF BELIEVERS IN HEBREWS 78

FIVE FEMINIST CRITICISM OF SUFFERING IN HEBREWS 93

under these great biblical scholars.

finish, but to finish well.

suffering is a prominent theme in the epistle to the Hebrews.

for the Christian to follow.

'sons being led to glory.",5

2 William Lane, Hebrews 1-8 (Dallas, TX: Word, 1991), 12l.

persevere by faith through suffering to glory" (11: 1-12:24).6

she asks, or does it even exist?8

suffering' provides a pattern for Christian discipleship." 10

6 Craig R. Koester, Hebrews (New York: Doubleday, 2001),83-86.

the lives of believers as well.

suffering was understood in the Jewish, Greco-Roman and Intertestamentalliterature. The

influence on the author of Hebrews.

provide rich background for our study as a whole.

understood suffering to impact Christ personally as well as vocationally-as in how it was

this suffering to entail more than just Christ's death.

audience to understand their hardship as discipline from God.

dangerous misapplications of the text which might be oppressive to women or thought of as

an abuse of an interpretation of suffering as well as challenge some aspects of feminist theology,

such as the rejection of the atonement.

significant contribution for understanding the epistle. Through an evaluation of background

addition to both Hebrews scholarship and feminist theology.

SUFFERING IN JEWISH AND GREEK THOUGHT

vicarious and a result of being separated by God.

probationary and evidential, revelational, sacrificial, and eschatological. The retributive

deliverance from it. ,,17

(retributive, disciplinary, probational, revelational, and eschatological). To these he adds three:

18 Sanders, Suffering as Divine Discipline, 1.

interpretations of suffering which were influential to the author of Hebrews.

attention to where suffering is seen as educative or disciplinary as well as non-punitive.

Educative/Disciplinary Suffering in the Old Testament

on the composition of the epistle to the Hebrews.

The OT commonly presented suffering as a result of sin in an individual's or nation's life.

this point clear:

due to his failure to listen to God's words (2 Chron. 35:20-24).25

friends respond by appealing to the retributive view of suffering:

When your children sinned against him,

traditional view" of suffering?8

retributive/punitive view of suffering than Job. James L. Crenshaw writes:

Qoheleth [Ecclesiastes] could muster no confidence in God's disposition to

radically transformed by being replaced by some other basic construct.,,3!

For you, God, tested us;

30Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, 117-18.

suffering will be explored in greater detail.

passages extend it to present Yahweh using corrective or educational discipline. Sometimes

This disciplinary interpretation of suffering is most common in the Wisdom literature.

The Psalms present disciplinary suffering as something precious: