Functions

Chapter 3
Functions
Qëndrim Krasniqi
In the context of programming, a function is a named sequence of
statements that performs a computation. When you define a function,
you specify the name and the sequence of statements. Later, you can
“call” the function by name.
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Function calls
We have already seen one example of a function call:
Interactive mode
>>> type(42)
<class 'int'>
The name of the function is type. The expression in parentheses is

called the argument of the function. The result, for this function, is the
type of the argument.
It is common to say that a function “takes” an argument and “returns”
a result. The result is also called the return value.
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1.1 Exercises
What is the name, the argument, and the return value of the following
function calls?
1. len(“pse”)
2. float(3)
Note: To write a multiple-line string in a python script, you use triple quotes:
Script mode
"""
This is a
multiple-line string
in python
"""
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1.1 Solutions
Script mode
"""
1. len("pse")
function name: len
function argument: "pse"
function return value: 3
2. float(3)
function name: float
function argument: 3
function return value: 3.0
"""
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1.2 Exercises
What is the name, the argument, and the return value of the following
function calls?
1. type(3.0)
2. abs(-1)
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Function calls
Python provides functions that convert values from one type to
another.
The int function takes any value and converts it to an integer, if it can,
or complains otherwise:
Interactive mode
>>> int('32')
32
>>> int('Hello')
ValueError: invalid literal for int(): Hello
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Function calls
int can convert floating-point values to integers, but it doesn’t round
off; it chops off the fraction part:
Interactive mode
>>> int(3.99999)
3
>>> int(-2.3)
-2
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Function calls
float converts integers and strings to floating-point numbers:
Interactive mode
>>> float(32)
32.0
>>> float('3.14159')
3.14159
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Function calls
Finally, str converts its argument to a string:
Interactive mode
>>> str(32)
'32'
>>> str(3.14159)
'3.14159'
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2.1 Exercises
1. Convert 2 to float.
2. Convert ‘2’ to float.
3. Convert 2 to string.
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2.1 Solutions
Interactive mode
>>> float(2)
2.0
>>> float('2')
2.0
>>> str(2)
'2'
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2.2 Exercises
1. Convert 32.0 to integer.
2. Convert ‘2’ to integer.
3. Convert ’33.9’ to integer.
4. Convert 2.1 to integer
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Math functions
Python has a math module that provides most of the familiar
mathematical functions.
Before we can use the functions in a module, we have to import it with
an import statement:
Interactive mode
>>> import math
The module object contains the functions and variables defined in the
module. To access one of the functions, you have to specify the name
of the module and the name of the function, separated by a dot (also
known as a period). This format is called dot notation.
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Math functions
Interactive mode
>>> import math
>>> degrees = 45
>>> radians = degrees / 180.0 * math.pi
>>> math.sin(radians)
The expression math.pi gets the variable pi from the math module.
math.sin(radians) calls sin funksion from math module and
gives radians as its argument.
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3.1 Exercises
1. There is a variable named e in math module. Print that variable.
2. There is a function named sqrt in math module. Call this function,
giving 16 as its argument.
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3.1 Solutions
Interactive mode
>>> print(math.e)
2.718281828459045
>>> math.sqrt(16)
4.0
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3.2 Exercises
1. There is a variable named tau in math module. Print that variable.
2. There is a function named cos in math module. Call this function, giving
0 as its argument.
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Composition
One of the most useful features of programming languages is their
ability to take small building blocks and compose them. For example,
the argument of a function can be any kind of expression, including
arithmetic operators or even function calls:
Interactive mode
>>> math.sqrt(3*3)
3.0
>>> math.sqrt(math.pow(3, 2))
3.0
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Composition
Almost anywhere you can put a value, you can put an arbitrary
expression, with one exception: the left side of an assignment
statement has to be a variable name. Any other expression on the left
side is a syntax error (we will see exceptions to this rule later)
Interactive mode
>>> minutes = hours * 60 # right
>>> hours * 60 = minutes # wrong!
SyntaxError: can't assign to operator
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4.1 Exercises
1. Call math.sqrt giving 30+34 as argument.
2. Call math.sin giving math.pi*2 as argument.
3. Call type giving “Pse”+“?” as argument.
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4.1 Solutions
Interactive mode
>>> import math
>>> math.sqrt(30+34)
8.0
>>> math.sin(math.pi*2)
-2.4492935982947064e-16
>>> type("Pse"+"?")
<class 'str'>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
4.2 Exercises
1. Call math.sqrt giving 27/3 as argument.
2. Call int function giving 12–3.3*2 as argument
3. Assign 32 to a. Call float giving a+4 as argument.
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Adding new functions
So far, we have only been using the functions that come with Python, but it is
also possible to add new functions. A function definition specifies the name
of a new function and the sequence of statements that run when the
function is called.
Here is an example:
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print("I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay.")
print("I sleep all night and I work all day.")
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def is a keyword that indicates that this is a function definition. The
name of the function is print_lyrics. The rules for function names
are the same as for variable names: letters, numbers and underscore
are legal, but the first character can’t be a number. You can’t use a
keyword as the name of a function, and you should avoid having a
variable and a function with the same name.
The empty parentheses after the name indicate that this function
doesn’t take any arguments.
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The first line of the function definition is called the header; the rest is
called the body.
The header has to end with a colon and the body has to be indented.
By convention, indentation is always four spaces.
The body can contain any number of statements.
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The syntax for calling the new function is the same as for built-in
functions:
Interactive mode
>>> print_lyrics()
I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay.
I sleep all night and I work all day
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Once you have defined a function, you can use it inside another function. For
example, to repeat the previous refrain, we could write a function called
repeat_lyrics:
Script mode
def repeat_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
And then call repeat_lyrics:

Interactive mode
>>> repeat_lyrics()
I sleep all night and I work all day.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
5.1 Exercises
1. Define a function named shtyp_tekstin, which prints “Shndet
prej mejet të m’i falesh”.
2. Call shtyp_tesktin.
3. Define a function named perserit_tekstin which calles
shtyp_tekstin three times.
4. Call perserit_tekstin.
5. Define a function called add, which adds 11 and 22 and prints the result
6. Call add.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
5.1 Solutions
Script mode
def shtyp_tekstin():
print("Shndet prej mejet t'mi falesh")
shtyp_tekstin()
def perserit_tekstin():
shtyp_tekstin()
shtyp_tekstin()
shtyp_tekstin()
perserit_tekstin()
def add():
print(11 + 22)
add()
Qëndrim Krasniqi
5.2 Exercises
1. Define a function named print_smth which prints “Shnetë e
pranverë!”
2. Call print_smth.
3. Define a function named repeat_smth which calls print_smth once.
4. Call repeat_smth.
5. Define a function named sub which prints the difference of 54 and 2.
6. Call sub.
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Definitions and uses
Pulling together the code fragments from the previous section, the
whole program looks like this:
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
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This program contains two function definitions: print_lyrics and
repeat_lyrics. Function definitions get executed just like other
statements, but the effect is to create function objects. The statements
inside the function do not run until the function is called, and the
function definition generates no output.
As you might expect, you have to create a function before you can run
it. In other words, the function definition has to run before the function
gets called.
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As an exercise, move the last line of this program to the top, so the
function call appears before the definitions. Run the program and see
what error message you get.
Now move the function call back to the bottom and move the
definition of print_lyrics after the definition of
repeat_lyrics. What happens when you run this program?
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Flow of execution
To ensure that a function is defined before its first use, you have to
know the order statements run in, which is called the flow of
execution.
Execution always begins at the first statement of the program.
Statements are run one at a time, in order from top to bottom.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Flow of execution
Function definitions do not alter the flow of execution of the program,
but remember that statements inside the function don’t run until the
function is called.
A function call is like a detour in the flow of execution. Instead of going
to the next statement, the flow jumps to the body of the function, runs
the statements there, and then comes back to pick up where it left off.
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Flow of execution
Let’s see the flow of execution of the below script.
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
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Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_lyrics():
print_lyrics()
print_lyrics()
repeat_lyrics()
Interactive mode
>>>
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Parameters and arguments
Some of the functions we have seen require arguments. For example,
when you call math.sin you pass a number as an argument. Some
functions take more than one argument: math.pow takes two, the
base and the exponent.
Inside the function, the arguments are assigned to variables called
parameters. Here is a definition for a function that takes an argument:
Script mode
def print_twice(bruce):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
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Interactive mode
>>> print_twice('Spam')
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(math.pi)
3.14159265359
3.14159265359
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Flow of execution
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
3.14159265359
3.14159265359
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Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_twice('Spam'):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print('Spam')
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print('Spam')
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print('Spam')
print('Spam')
Interactive mode
Spam
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_twice(42):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(42)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(42)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(42)
print(42)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_twice(3.14159265359):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(3.14159265359)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(3.14159265359)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
3.14159265359
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(3.14159265359)
print(3.14159265359)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
3.14159265359
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam
Spam
>>> print_twice(42)
42
42
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(3.14159265359)
3.14159265359
3.14159265359
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
The same rules of composition that apply to built-in functions also
apply to programmer defined functions, so we can use any kind of
expression as an argument for print_twice:
Interactive mode
>>> print_twice('Spam '*4)
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(math.cos(math.pi))
-1.0
-1.0
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Flow of execution
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
-1.0
-1.0
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
>>> print_twice('Spam Spam Spam Spam')
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_twice('Spam Spam Spam Spam'):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print('Spam Spam Spam Spam')
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(math.cos(3.14159265359))
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
>>> print_twice(-1.0)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
def print_twice(-1.0):
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(-1.0)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(-1.0)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
-1.0
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(-1.0)
print(-1.0)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
-1.0
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Script mode
print(bruce)
print(bruce)
Interactive mode
Spam Spam Spam Spam
Spam Spam Spam Spam
>>> import math
-1.0
-1.0
>>>
Qëndrim Krasniqi
The argument is evaluated before the function is called, so in the
examples the expressions 'Spam '*4 and math.cos(math.pi)
are only evaluated once.
You can also use a variable as an argument:
Interactive mode
>>> michael = 'Eric, the half a bee.'
>>> print_twice(michael)
Eric, the half a bee.
Eric, the half a bee
Qëndrim Krasniqi
6.1 Exercises
1. Define a function named shtyp_tekstin which has one parameter,
teksti, and prints it.
2. Define a function which takes one argument and prints it twice.
3. Define a function named shumezo which takes two arguments, a and b,
and prints the product of them.
4. Call shtyp_tekstin giving 33 as argument.
5. Call the second function, giving a float as argument.
6. Call shumezo giving one integer and one float as arguments.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
6.1 Solutions
Script mode
def shtyp_tekstin(teksti):
print(teksti)
def shtyp_argumentin(a):
print(a)
print(a)
def shumezo(a, b):

print(a * b)
shtyp_tekstin(33)
shtyp_argumentin(2.0)
shumezo(2, 3.3)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
6.2 Exercises
1. Define a function named what which takes one argument, and prints it.
2. Define a function which takes three integers as arguments, x, y, and z and
prints them
3. Define a function called sub which has two parameters, a and b, and
prints a-b.
4. Call what.
5. Call the second function giving three floats as arguments.
6. Call sub giving 2 and 3 as arguments.
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Variables and parameters are local
When you create a variable inside a function, it is local, which means
that it only exists inside the function. For example:
Script mode
def cat_twice(part1, part2):
cat = part1 + part2
print_twice(cat)
Qëndrim Krasniqi
This function takes two arguments, concatenates them, and prints the
result twice. Here is an example that uses it:
Interactive mode
>>> line1 = 'Bing tiddle '
>>> line2 = 'tiddle bang.'
>>> cat_twice(line1, line2)
Bing tiddle tiddle bang.
Bing tiddle tiddle bang
Qëndrim Krasniqi
When cat_twice terminates, the variable cat is destroyed. If we try
to print it, we get an exception:
Interactive mode
>>> print(cat)
NameError: name 'cat' is not defined
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Fruitful functions and void functions
Some of the functions we have used, such as the math functions,
return results; for lack of a better name, I call them fruitful functions.
Other functions, like print_twice, perform an action but don’t
return a value. They are called void functions.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
When you call a fruitful function, you almost always want to do
something with the result; for example, you might assign it to a variable
or use it as part of an expression:
Script mode
x = math.cos(radians)
golden = (math.sqrt(5) + 1) / 2
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Void functions might display something on the screen or have some
other effect, but they don’t have a return value. If you assign the result
to a variable, you get a special value called None.
Script mode
>>> result = print_twice('Bing')
Bing Bing
>>> print(result)
None
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Debugging
One of the most important skills you will acquire is debugging.
Although it can be frustrating, debugging is one of the most
intellectually rich, challenging, and interesting parts of programming.
In some ways debugging is like detective work. You are confronted with
clues and you have to infer the processes and events that led to the
results you see.
Qëndrim Krasniqi
Debugging
Debugging is also like an experimental science. Once you have an idea
about what is going wrong, you modify your program and try again. If
your hypothesis was correct, you can predict the result of the
modification, and you take a step closer to a working program. If your
hypothesis was wrong, you have to come up with a new one.
Qëndrim Krasniqi

Functions

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Functions

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Chapter 3

The name of the function is type. The expression in parentheses is

And then call repeat_lyrics:

def shumezo(a, b):

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