PeterRNChilds 2014 133brakes MechanicalDesignEngin

Clutches and Brakes 531
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Select the outer radius to be the largest possible, i.e. ro ¼ 50 mm. Using ri ¼ 1=3ro ,
ri ¼ 28.87 mm. From Eqn (13.19), the number of frictional surfaces, N, can be determined.
T 286:5
N¼ 2
¼ 6
¼ 23:23
2
ppmax ri m ro ri p1:2 10 0:02887 0:068ð0:052 0:028872 Þ
This must be an even number, so the number of frictional surfaces is taken as N ¼ 24. This
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requires thirteen driving discs and twelve driven discs to implement.

Using Eqn (13.14) the clamping force can be calculated:
2T 2 286:5
F¼ ¼ ¼ 4452 N:
mNðro þ ri Þ 0:068 24ð0:05 þ 0:02887Þ
As well as the disc or discs, detailed design of a disc clutch such as the automotive variant
illustrated in Figure 13.16 requires specification and consideration of all the associated
components such as the shaft, splined hub, damping springs in the disc, Figure 13.17,
actuating springs, cover plate, spline, bearings, flywheel, crankshaft, gearbox connections,
and release mechanism. The choice of whether to use coil springs or a diaphragm spring,
Figure 13.18, depends on the clamping force required and cost considerations. Diaphragm
springs have been developed from Belleville springs and are made from a steel disc. The inner
portion of the disc has a number of radial slots to form actuating fingers. Stress relieving holes
are included at the outer end of the fingers to prevent cracking. Multicoil spring units are
used in heavy commercial vehicles, where it is difficult to provide the required clamping
force from a single diaphragm.
13.3 Brakes
The basic function of a brake is to absorb kinetic energy and dissipate it in the form of
heat. An idea of the magnitude of energy that must be dissipated can be obtained from
considering the familiar example of a car undergoing an emergency stop in 7 s from
60 mph (96 km/h). If the car’s mass is 1400 kg and assuming that 65% of the car’s
weight is loaded onto the front axles during rapid braking, then the load on the front
axle is
1400 9:81 0:65 ¼ 8927 N
Copyright 2014. Butterworth-Heinemann.
This will be shared between two brakes, so the energy that must be absorbed by one
brake is
1 2 2

E ¼ m Vi Vf (13.22)
2
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532 Chapter 13
Starter ring gear Cover-pressing

Engine flywheel
Actuating lever
Driven-plate lining
Actuating push-rod
Drive strap
Pressure-plate
Thrust spring Withdrawal bearing
Torsional damper spring
Withdrawal sleeve
Driven-plate splined hub
Spigot bearing Bearing cover and
Gearbox sleeve support
primary shaft Gearbox housing
Crankshaft Withdrawal lever

Cross-shaft
Oil-seal Friction lining and plate
Release-lever plate
Eyebolt adjusting nut
Eyebolt
Pivot pin
Strut
Pressure-plate lug
Clutch engaged
Release-lever
Pressure-plate
Figure 13.16
Automotive clutch. Reproduced from Heisler (1999).
where m ¼ mass (kg), Vi ¼ initial velocity (m/s), and Vf ¼ final velocity (m/s).
1 1 8927
96 103
2
E ¼ m Vi2 Vf2 ¼ 0:5 02 ¼ 161:8 kJ
2 2 9:81 3600
If the car brakes uniformly in 7 s, the heat that must be dissipated is 161.8 103/7 ¼ 23.1 kW.
From your experience of heat transfer from, say, 1-kW domestic heaters, you will recognize
that this is a significant quantity of heat to transfer away from the relatively compact
components that make up brake assemblies.
Convective heat transfer can be modeled by Fourier’s equation:

Q ¼ hADT ¼ hA Ts Tf (13.23)
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Friction
linings
Lining Spring
rivets segment
Segment
rivets
Side
Spring plates
segment
Torsional Pivot
damper post
spring
Hub Limiting
Belleville slot
flange
spring
Hub
Lugged flange
thrust
washer
Friction
washers
Splined
hub
Figure 13.17
Automotive disc illustrating the use of torsional damping springs. Reproduced from Heisler (1999).
where Q ¼ heat transfer rate (W), h ¼ the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K),
Ts ¼ temperature of the surface (K or C), Tf ¼ temperature of the surrounding fluid
(K or C), and A ¼ surface area (m2).
This equation indicates that the ability of a brake to dissipate the heat generated increases
as the surface area increases or as the heat transfer coefficient rises. For air, the heat
transfer coefficient is usually dependent on the local flow velocity and on the geometry.
A method often used for disc brakes to increase both the surface area and the local flow is
534 Chapter 13
Release-plate
Carbon release bearing
and saddle
Blunted
location
hole
Diaphragm spring
Diaphragm release-fingers
Release-plate strap
Pressure-plate strap
Figure 13.18
Diaphragm spring. Reproduced from Heisler (1999).
to machine multiple axial or radial holes in the disc (this also reduces the mass and
inertia).
Example 13.5
Calculate the energy that must be absorbed in stopping a 100-ton Airbus airliner traveling at
250 km/h in an aborted takeoff, stopping in 40 s.
Solution

1 1 2
250 103
E ¼ m Vi2 Vf2 ¼ 100 103 0 ¼ 241:1 MJ:
2 2 3600
Assuming that the aircraft brakes uniformly, the power that must be dissipated is
241:1 106
¼ 6:028 MW:
40
Method of Short shoe

actuation Long shoe
Drum
Mechanical
Band
Friction
Pneumatic
and hydraulic
Method of Caliper disc
engagement Disc
Full disc
Electrical
Automatic
Electrically on
Magnetic
Electrically off
Figure 13.19
Brake classification.
This is a significant quantity of power, equivalent to six thousand 1-kW electric heaters
and evenly divided between multiple brakes, gives an indication why aborted takeoffs
can result in burnt-out brakes.
Note that the effects of any thrust reversal and aerodynamic drag has been ignored. Both of
these effects would reduce the heat dissipated within the brakes.
There are numerous brake types, as shown in Figure 13.19. The selection and configuration of
a brake depends on the requirements. Table 13.4 gives an indication of brake operation
against various criteria. The brake factor listed in Table 13.4 is the ratio of frictional braking
force generated to the actuating force applied.
Brakes can be designed so that once engaged, the actuating force applied is assisted by the
braking torque. This kind of brake is called a self-energizing brake and is useful for braking
large loads. Great care must be exercised in brake design. It is possible and sometimes desirable
to design a brake, which once engaged, will grab and lock up (called self-locking action).
A critical aspect of all brakes is the material used for frictional contact. Normally one
component will comprise a steel or cast iron disc or drum and this is brought into frictional
contact against a geometrically similar component with a brake lining made up of one of
the materials listed in Table 13.3.
Section 13.3.1 gives details about the configuration design of disc brakes and Section 13.3.2
introduces the design of drum brakes.
13.3.1 Disc Brakes
Disc brakes are familiar from automotive applications where they are used extensively for
car and motorcycle wheels. These typically consist of a cast iron disc, bolted to the wheel
hub. This is sandwiched between two pads actuated by pistons supported in a caliper mounted
536 Chapter 13
Table 13.4: Comparative table of brake performance.
Maximum operating Brake Dust and
Type of brake temperature factor Stability Dryness dirt Typical applications
Differential band brake Low High Low Unstable but still Good Winches, hoist, excavators,
effective tractors
External drum brake Low Medium Medium Unstable if humid, Good Mills, elevators, winders
(leading trailing edge) poor if wet
Internal drum brake Higher than external Medium Medium Unstable if humid, Good if Vehicles (rear axles on
(leading trailing edge) brake ineffective if wet sealed passenger cars)
Internal drum brake Higher than external High Low Unstable if humid, Good if Vehicles (rear axles on
(two leading shoes) brake ineffective if wet sealed passenger cars)
Internal drum brake Low High Low Unstable if humid, Good if Vehicles (rear axles on
(duo-servo) ineffective if wet sealed passenger cars)
Caliper disc brake High Low High Good Poor Vehicles and industrial
machinery
Full disc brake High Low High Good Poor Machine tools and other
industrial machinery
Source: Reproduced from Neale (1994).
Stub-axle
Caliper
Pads
Disc
Seal
Seal
Hydraulic
Wheel cylinder
hub
Figure 13.20
Automotive disc brake.
on the stub shaft (see Figure 13.20). When the brake pedal is pressed, hydraulically
pressurized fluid is forced into the cylinders, pushing the opposing pistons and brake pads into
frictional contact with the disc. The advantages of this form of braking are steady braking,
easy ventilation, balancing thrust loads, and design simplicity. There is no self-energizing
action, so the braking action is proportional to the applied force. The use of a discrete pad
allows the disc to cool as it rotates, enabling heat transfer between the cooler disc and the
hot brake pad. As the pads on either side of the disc are pushed to the disc with equal
forces, the net thrust load on the disc cancels.
With reference to Figure 13.21, the torque capacity per pad is given by
T ¼ mFre (13.24)
where re is an effective radius.

R
F F
re
θ ro r
ri
Annular pad Circular pad

Figure 13.21
Caliper disc brake.
538 Chapter 13
The actuating force assuming constant pressure is given by
ro2 ri2
F ¼ pav q (13.25)
2
or assuming uniform wear by
F ¼ pmax qri ðro ri Þ (13.26)
where q (in radians) is the included angle of the pad, ri is the inner radius of the pad, and ro is
the outer radius of the pad.
The relationship between the average and the maximum pressure for the uniform wear
assumption is given by
pav 2ri =ro

¼ (13.27)
pmax 1 þ ri =ro
For an annular disc brake, the effective radius is given by Eqn (13.28), assuming constant
pressure and Eqn (13.29) assuming uniform wear.

2 ro3 ri3
re ¼ 2 (13.28)
3 ro ri2
ri þ ro
re ¼ (13.29)
2
For circular pads the effective radius is given by re ¼ rd, where values for d are given
in Table 13.5 as a function of the ratio of the pad radius and the radial location, R/r.
The actuating force for circular pads can be calculated using
F ¼ pR2 pav (13.30)
Table 13.5: Circular pad disk brake design values.

R/r d [ re/r pmax/pav
0 1.000 1.000
0.1 0.983 1.093
0.2 0.969 1.212
0.3 0.957 1.367
0.4 0.947 1.578
0.5 0.938 1.875
Source: Fazekas (1972).
Example 13.6
A caliper brake is required for the front wheels of a sport’s car with a braking capacity of
820 N m for each brake. Preliminary design estimates have set the brake geometry as
ri ¼ 100 mm, ro ¼ 160 mm, and q ¼ 45 . A pad with a coefficient of friction of 0.35 has been
selected. Determine the required actuating force and the average and maximum contact
pressures.
Solution
The torque capacity per pad ¼ 820/2 ¼ 410 N m.
0:1 þ 0:16
The effective radius is re ¼ ¼ 0:13 m:
2
T 410
The actuating force is given by F ¼ ¼ ¼ 9:011 kN:
mre 0:35 0:13
The maximum contact pressure is given by
F 9:011 103
pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:912 MN=m2 :
qri ðro ri Þ 45 ð2p=360Þ 0:1 ð0:16 0:1Þ
The average pressure is given by
2ri =ro
pav ¼ pmax ¼ 1:471 MN=m2 :
1 þ ri =ro
Example 13.7
A caliper brake is required for the front wheels of a passenger car with a braking capacity of
320 N m for each brake. Preliminary design estimates have set the brake geometry as
ri ¼ 100 mm, ro ¼ 140 mm, and q ¼ 40 . Pads with a coefficient of friction of 0.35 have been
selected. Each pad is actuated by means of a hydraulic cylinder of nominal diameter
25.4 mm. Determine the required actuating force, the average and the maximum contact
pressures, and the required hydraulic pressure for brake actuation.
Solution
The torque capacity per pad is 320/2 ¼ 160 N m
0:1 þ 0:14
The effective radius is given by re ¼ ¼ 0:12 m
2
T 160
The actuation force required is F ¼ ¼ ¼ 3810 N
mre 0:35 0:12
The maximum pressure is
F 3810
pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:364 106 N=m2
qri ðro ri Þ 40ð2p=360Þ 0:1ð0:14 0:1Þ
540 Chapter 13
The average pressure is

2ri =ro 2 0:1=0:14
pav ¼ pmax ¼ 1:36 106 ¼ 1:137 106 N=m2
1 þ ri =ro 1 þ 0:1=0:14
The area of one of the hydraulic cylinders is p0.01272 ¼ 5.067 104 m2
The hydraulic pressure required is given by
F 3810
phydraulic ¼ ¼ ¼ 7:519 106 N=m2
Acylinder 5:067 104
i.e. phydraulic z 75 bar.

Full disc brakes, consisting of a complete annular ring pad, are principally used for industrial
machinery. The disc clutch equations developed in Section 13.2.1 are applicable to their
design. The disc configuration can be designed to function as either a clutch or a brake
(a clutchebrake combination) to transmit a load or control its speed.
13.3.2 Drum Brakes
Drum brakes apply friction to the external or internal circumference of a cylinder. A

drum brake consists of the brake shoe, which has the friction material bonded to it, and
the brake drum. For braking, the shoe is forced against the drum developing the friction
torque. Drum brakes can be divided into two groups depending on whether the brake shoe
is external or internal to the drum. A further classification can be made in terms of the
length of the brake shoe: short, long, or complete band.
Short-shoe internal brakes are used for centrifugal brakes that engage at a particular critical
speed. Long-shoe internal drum brakes are used principally in automotive applications.
Drum brakes (or clutches) can be designed to be self-energizing. Once engaged, the friction
force increases the normal force nonlinearly, increasing the friction torque as in a positive
feedback loop. This can be advantageous in braking large loads, but it makes control much
more difficult. One problem associated with some drum brakes is stability. If the brake
has been designed so that the braking torque is not sensitive to small changes in the coefficient
of friction, which would occur if the brake is worn or wet, the brake is said to be stable. If a
small change in the coefficient of friction causes a significant change to the braking
torque, the brake is unstable and will tend to grab if the friction coefficient rises or the braking
torque will drop noticeably if the friction coefficient reduces.
13.3.3 Short-Shoe External Drum Brakes
The schematic of a short-shoe external drum brake is given in Figure 13.22. If the included
angle of contact between the brake shoe and the brake drum is less than 45 , the force
Brake
Fa
lever
y Ff
Shoe
c
Fn
Pivot x
θ
b r
ω
Drum
a
Figure 13.22
Short-shoe external drum brake.
between the shoe and the drum is relatively uniform and can be modeled by a single
concentrated load Fn at the center of the contact area. If the maximum permissible pressure is
pmax, the force Fn can be estimated by
Fn ¼ pmax rqw (13.31)

where w ¼ width of the brake shoe (m) and q ¼ angle of contact between the brake shoe
and the lining (rad).
The frictional force, Ff, is given by
Ff ¼ mFn (13.32)
where m is the coefficient of friction.
The torque on the brake drum is
T ¼ Ff r ¼ mFn r (13.33)
Summing moments, for the shoe arm, about the pivot gives
X
Mpivot ¼ aFa bFn þ cFf ¼ 0
bFn cFf b mc
Fa ¼ ¼ Fn (13.34)
a a
Resolving forces gives the reactions at the pivot:
Rx ¼ Ff (13.35)
Ry ¼ Fa Fn (13.36)
542 Chapter 13
Note that for the configuration and direction of rotation shown in Figure 13.22, the
friction moment mFnc adds or combines with the actuating moment aFa. Once the actuating
force is applied, the friction generated at the shoe acts to increase the braking torque.
This kind of braking action is called self-energizing. If the brake direction is reversed, the
friction moment term mFnc becomes negative and the applied load Fa must be maintained to
generate braking torque. This combination is called self de-energizing. From Eqn (13.34),
note that if the brake is self-energizing and if mc > b, then the force required to actuate
the brake is zero or negative and the brake action is called self-locking. If the shoe touches
the drum it will grab and lock. This is usually undesirable, with exceptions being hoist stops
or over-running clutch type applications.
Example 13.8
A double short-shoe external brake is illustrated in Figure 13.23. The actuating force required
to limit the drum rotation to 100 rpm is 2.4 kN. The coefficient of friction for the brake lining
is 0.35. Determine the braking torque and the rate of heat generation.
Solution
For the top shoe:
F 0:56 Fn 0:3 þ mFn 0:05 ¼ 0;

2400 0:56
Fn ¼ ¼ 4758 N:
0:3 0:35 0:05
For the bottom shoe:
F 0:56 þ Fn 0:3 þ mFn 0:05 ¼ 0;
2.4 kN
300 mm o
45
250 mm
v
300 mm
2.4 kN
300 mm 260 mm
Figure 13.23
Double short-shoe external brake.
2400 0:56
Fn ¼ ¼ 4233 N:
0:3 þ 0:35 0:05
Torque ¼ mðFn total Þ 0:125 ¼ 0:35ð4758 þ 4233Þ 0:125 ¼ 393:4 N m:
2p
Heat generation ¼ u T ¼ 100 393:4 ¼ 4119 W:
60
13.3.4 Long-Shoe External Drum Brakes
If the included angle of contact between the brake shoe and the drum is greater than 45 , the
pressure between the shoe and the brake lining cannot be regarded as uniform and the
approximations made for the short-shoe brake analysis are inadequate. Most drum brakes
use contact angles greater than 90 . Brake shoes are not rigid, and the local deflection of
the shoe affects the pressure distribution. Detailed shoe analysis is possible using finite
element software. For initial synthesis/specification of brake geometry, a simpler
analysis suffices.
For a single block brake (see Figure 13.24) the force exerted on the drum by the brake shoe
must be supported by the bearings. To balance this load and provide a compact braking
arrangement, two opposing brake shoes are usually used in a caliper arrangement as shown in
Figure 13.25.
The following equations can be used (with reference to Figure 13.24) to determine the
performance of a long-shoe brake.
Brake
Fa
lever
Ff Shoe
Fn
θ1 θ2
θ
Pivot r
b
ω
Drum
a
Figure 13.24
Long-shoe external drum brake.
544 Chapter 13
Shoe Fa
θ1 θ2
θ
r
ω
Drum
Fa
Figure 13.25
Double long-shoe external drum brake.
The braking torque T is given by

pmax
T ¼ mwr 2 ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ (13.37)
ðsin qÞmax
where m ¼ coefficient of friction, w ¼ width of the brake shoe (m), r ¼ radius of drum (m),
pmax ¼ maximum allowable pressure for the lining material (N/m2), q ¼ angular location
(rad), (sin q)max ¼ maximum value of sin q, q1 ¼ center angle from the shoe pivot to the heel
of the lining (rad), q2 ¼ center angle from the shoe pivot to the toe of the lining (rad).
This is based on the assumption that the local pressure p at an angular location q is related to
the maximum pressure, pmax, by
pmax sin q
p¼ (13.38)
ðsin qÞmax
The local pressure p will be a maximum when q ¼ 90 . If q2 < 90 , the pressure will be a
maximum at the toe, q2. The relationship given in Eqn (13.38) assumes that there is no
deflection at the shoe or the drum, no wear on the drum, and that the shoe wear is proportional
to the frictional work and hence the local pressure. Note that if q ¼ 0, the pressure is zero.
This indicates that frictional material near the pivot or heel of the brake does not contribute
significantly to the braking action. For this reason, common practice is to leave out the
frictional material near the heel and start it at an angle typically between q1 ¼ 10 and
q1 ¼ 30 .
With the direction of rotation shown in Figure 13.24 (i.e. the brake is self-energizing), the
magnitude of the actuation force is given by
Mn Mf
Fa ¼ (13.39)
a
where Mn ¼ the moment of the normal forces (N m), Mf ¼ the moment due to the frictional
forces (N m), and a ¼ the orthogonal distance between the brake pivot and the line of action
of the applied force (m).
The normal and frictional moments can be determined using Eqns (13.40) and (13.41),
respectively. If the geometry and materials are selected such that Mf ¼ Mn, the actuation force
becomes zero. Such a brake would be self-locking. The slightest contact between the shoe and
drum would bring the two surfaces into contact and the brake would snatch giving rapid
braking. Alternatively, values for the brake geometry and materials can be selected to give
different levels of self-energization depending on the relative magnitudes of Mn and Mf.

wrbpmax 1 1
Mn ¼ ðq2 q1 Þ ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ (13.40)
ðsin qÞmax 2 4

mwrpmax b
Mf ¼ rðcos q1 cos q2 Þ þ ðcos 2q2 cos 2q1 Þ (13.41)
ðsin qÞmax 4
If the direction of rotation for the drum shown in Figure 13.24 is reversed, the brake becomes
self de-energizing and the actuation force is given by
Mn þ Mf
Fa ¼ (13.42)
a
The pivot reactions can be determined by resolving the horizontal and vertical forces. For a
self-energizing brake they are given by

wrpmax 2 q2 q1 1
Rx ¼ 0:5 sin q2 sin2 q1 m ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ Fx
ðsin qÞmax 2 2 4
(13.43)

wrpmax 2 q2 q1 1
Ry ¼ 0:5 sin q2 sin2 q1 þ m ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ þ Fy
ðsin qÞmax 2 2 4
(13.44)
and for a self de-energizing brake by

wrpmax 2 2
q2 q1 1
Rx ¼ 0:5 sin q2 sin q1 þ m ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ Fx
ðsin qÞmax 2 2 4
(13.45)

wrpmax 2 2
q2 q1 1
Ry ¼ 0:5 sin q2 sin q1 m ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ þ Fy
ðsin qÞmax 2 2 4
(13.46)
546 Chapter 13
Example 13.9
Design a long-shoe drum brake to produce a friction torque of 75 N m to stop a drum rotating
at 140 rpm. Initial design calculations have indicated that a shoe lining with m ¼ 0.25 and
using a value of pmax ¼ 0.5 106 N/m2 in the design will give suitable life.
Solution
First propose trial values for the brake geometry, say r ¼ 0.1 m, b ¼ 0.2 m, a ¼ 0.3 m,
q1 ¼ 30 , q2 ¼ 150 . Using Eqn (13.37) and solving for the width of the shoe,
Tðsin qÞmax 75 sin 90

w¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0346 m
mr2 pmax ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ 0:25 0:12 0:5 106 ðcos 30 cos 150Þ
Select the width to be 35 mm, as this is a standard size. The actual maximum pressure
experienced will be
0:0346
pmax ¼ 0:5 106 ¼ 494;900 N=m2 :
0:035
From Eqn (13.40) the moment of the normal force with respect to the shoe pivot is

0:035 0:1 0:2 0:4949 106 1 2p 1
Mn ¼ 120 ðsin 300 sin 60Þ
sin 90 2 360 4
¼ 512:8 N m:
From Eqn (13.41) the moment of the frictional forces with respect to the shoe pivot is

0:25 0:035 0:1 0:4949 106 0:2
Mf ¼ 0:1ðcos 30 cos 150Þ þ ðcos 300 cos 60Þ
sin 90 4
¼ 75 N m:
From Eqn (13.39) the actuation force is

Mn Mf 512:8 75
Fa ¼ ¼ ¼ 1459 N:
a 0:3
For the double long-shoe external drum brake illustrated in Figure 13.25, the left hand shoe is
self-energizing, and the frictional moment reduces the actuation load. The right hand shoe,
however, is self de-energizing, and its frictional moment acts to reduce the maximum pressure
that occurs on the right hand brake shoe. The normal and frictional moments for a self-
energizing and self de-energizing brake are related by
Mn p0max
Mn0 ¼ (13.47)
pmax
Mf p0max
Mf0 ¼ (13.48)
pmax
where Mn0 ¼ the moment of the normal forces for the self de-energizing brake (N m),
Mf0 ¼ the moment due to the frictional forces for the self de-energizing brake (N m), and
p0max ¼ the maximum pressure on the self de-energizing brake (N/m2).
Example 13.10
For the double long shoe external drum brake illustrated in Figure 13.26 determine the
limiting force on the lever such that the maximum pressure on the brake lining does not
exceed 1.4 MPa and determine the torque capacity of the brake. The face width of the shoes is
30 mm and the coefficient of friction between the shoes and the drum can be taken as 0.28.
Solution
First it is necessary to calculate values for q1 and q2 as these are not indicated directly on the
diagram.
79.37 200
Fa
50
115
R1
00
130º
120
20º
20
Figure 13.26
Double long-shoe external drum brake.
548 Chapter 13

20 1
q1 ¼ 20 tan ¼ 10:54
120

1 20
q2 ¼ 20 þ 130 tan ¼ 140:5
120
The maximum value of sin q would be sin 90 ¼ 1.

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The distance between the pivot and the drum center, b ¼ 0:022 þ 0:122 ¼ 0:1217 m.
The normal moment is given by

wrbpmax 1 1
Mn ¼ ðq2 q1 Þ ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ
ðsin qÞmax 2 4
0:03 0:1 0:1217 1:4 106
¼
sin 90

1 2p 1
ð140:5 10:54Þ ðsin 281 sin 21:08Þ
2 360 4
¼ 751:1 N m:

mwrpmax b
Mf ¼ rðcos q1 cos q2 Þ þ ðcos 2q2 cos 2q1 Þ
ðsin qÞmax 4
0:28 0:03 0:1 1:4 106
¼
sin 90

0:1217
0:1ðcos 10:54 cos 140:5Þ þ ðcos 281 cos 21:08Þ
4
¼ 179:8 N m:
The orthogonal distance between the actuation force and the pivot, a ¼ 0.12 þ 0.115 þ
0.05 ¼ 0.285 m.
The actuation load on the left hand shoe is given by
Mn Mf 751:1 179:8
Fa left shoe ¼ ¼ ¼ 2004 N:
a 0:285
The torque contribution from the left hand shoe is given by

pmax
Tleft shoe ¼ mwr2 ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
¼ 0:28 0:03 0:12 1:4 106 ðcos 10:54 cos 140:5Þ ¼ 206:4 N m:
B
V
C C B B
H H 79.37 H V
B
C C H
V V
50
A
H 200
A F
V
F = 2004 N
a left shoe
200
50
o
14.04
F = 501 N
F = 2065 N
a right shoe
Figure 13.27
Free body diagrams.
The actuation force on the right hand shoe can be determined by considering each member
of the lever mechanism as a free body (see Figure 13.27).
F AV þ BV ¼ 0:
AH ¼ BH :
BH ¼ CH :
AH ¼ CH :
0:2F ¼ 0:05BH ; F ¼ BH =4; BH ¼ 2004 N; F ¼ 2004=4 ¼ 501 N:
So the limiting lever force is F ¼ 501 N.
CV ¼ 0; BV ¼ 0:
The actuating force for the right hand lever is the resultant of F and BH. The resultant angle is
given by tan1(0.05/0.2) ¼ 14.04 .
2004
Fa right shoe ¼ ¼ 2065 N
cos 14:04
The orthogonal distance between the actuation force vector and the pivot, Figure 13.28, is
given by
a ¼ ð0:235 0:01969 tan 14:04Þ cos 14:04 ¼ 0:2232 m
550 Chapter 13
19.69
14.04º
235
223.2
14.04º
Figure 13.28
Orthogonal distance.
The normal and frictional moments for the right hand shoe can be determined using
Eqns (13.47) and (13.48).
Mn p0max 751:1p0max
Mn0 ¼ ¼
pmax 1:4 106
Mf p0max 179:8p0max
Mf0 ¼ ¼
pmax 1:4 106
For the right hand shoe the maximum pressure can be determined from
Mn0 þ Mf0 751:1p0max 179:8p0max

Fa right shoe ¼ ¼ 2065 ¼
a 1:4 106 0:2232
p0max ¼ 1:130 106 N=m2 :
The torque contribution from the right hand shoe is
p0max
Tright shoe ¼ mwr 2 ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
¼ 0:28 0:03 0:12 1:13 106 ðcos 10:54 cos 140:5Þ ¼ 166:6 N m:
The total torque is given by
Ttotal ¼ Tleft shoe þ Tright shoe ¼ 206:4 þ 166:6 ¼ 373 N m
Example 13.11
A double external long-shoe drum brake is illustrated in Figure 13.29. The face width of
the shoes is 50 mm, and the maximum permissible lining pressure is 1 MPa. If the coefficient
of friction is 0.32, determine the limiting actuating force and the torque capacity.
180 350
Fa
100
300
R25
0
130º
300
25º
90
Figure 13.29
Double external long-shoe drum brake.
552 Chapter 13
Solution
First it is necessary to calculate values for q1 and q2 as these are not indicated directly on the
diagram.

1 90
q1 ¼ 25 tan ¼ 8:301 :
300

1 90
q2 ¼ 25 þ 130 tan ¼ 138:3 :
300
The maximum value of sin q would be sin 90 ¼ 1.

The distance between the pivot and the drum center,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b ¼ 0:092 þ 0:32 ¼ 0:3132 m:
The normal moment is given by

wrbpmax 1 1
Mn ¼ ðq2 q1 Þ ðsin 2q2 sin 2q1 Þ
ðsin qÞmax 2 4
0:05 0:25 0:3132 1 106
¼
sin 90

1 2p 1
ð138:3 8:301Þ ðsin 276:6 sin 16:6Þ
2 360 4
¼ 5693 N m:

mwrpmax b
Mf ¼ rðcos q1 cos q2 Þ þ ðcos 2q2 cos 2q1 Þ
ðsin qÞmax 4
0:32 0:05 0:25 1 106
¼
sin 90

0:3132
0:25ðcos 8:301 cos 138:3Þ þ ðcos 276:6 cos 16:6Þ
4
¼ 1472 N m:
The orthogonal distance between the actuation force and the pivot, a ¼ 0.7 m.
The actuation load on the left hand shoe is given by
Mn Mf 5693 1472
Fa left shoe ¼ ¼ ¼ 6031 N:
a 0:7
The torque contribution from the left hand shoe is given by

pmax
Tleft shoe ¼ mwr2 ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
¼ 0:32 0:05 0:252 1 106 ðcos 8:301 cos 138:3Þ ¼ 1736 N m:
The actuation force on the right hand shoe can be determined by considering each member of
the lever mechanism as a free body.
F AV þ BV ¼ 0:
AH ¼ BH :
BH ¼ CH :
AH ¼ CH :
0:35F ¼ 0:1BH ;
F ¼ 0:1BH =0:35:
BH ¼ 6031:
F ¼ 6031 0:1=0:35 ¼ 1723 N:
So the limiting lever force is F ¼ 1723 N.
CV ¼ 0;
BV ¼ 0:
The actuating force for the right hand lever is the resultant of F and BH.
The resultant angle is given by tan1(0.1/0.35) ¼ 15.95 .
1723
Fa right shoe ¼ ¼ 6272 N:
cos 15:95
The perpendicular distance between the actuation force vector and the pivot is given by
a ¼ 0:6 cos 15:95 ¼ 0:5769 m:
The normal and frictional moments for the right hand shoe can be determined using
Eqns (10.47) and (10.48).
Mn p0max 5693p0max
Mn0 ¼ ¼ :
pmax 1 106
554 Chapter 13
Mf p0max 1472p0max
Mf0 ¼ ¼ :
pmax 1 106
For the right hand shoe the maximum pressure can be determined from
Mn0 þ Mf0 5693p0max 1472p0max

Fa right shoe ¼ ¼ 6272 ¼
a 1 106 0:5769
p0max ¼ 0:8571 106 N=m2 :
The torque contribution from the right hand shoe is
p0max
Tright shoe ¼ mwr2 ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
¼ 0:32 0:05 0:252 0:8571 106 ðcos 8:301 cos 138:3Þ ¼ 1488 N m:
The total torque is given by
Ttotal ¼ Tleft shoe þ Tright shoe ¼ 1736 þ 1488 ¼ 3224 N m
13.3.5 Long-Shoe Internal Drum Brakes
Most drum brakes use internal shoes that expand against the inner radius of the drum.
Long-shoe internal drum brakes are principally used in automotive applications. An
automotive drum brake typically comprises two brake shoes and linings supported on a
back plate bolted to the axle casing. The shoes are pivoted at one end on anchor pins or
abutments fixed onto the back plate (see Figure 13.30). The brake can be actuated by a
double hydraulic piston expander that forces the free ends of the brake apart so the
nonrotating shoes come into frictional contact with the rotating brake drum. A leading and
trailing shoe layout consists of a pair of shoes pivoted at a common anchor point as
shown in Figure 13.30. The leading shoe is identified as the shoe whose expander piston
moves in the direction of rotation of the drum. The frictional drag between the shoe and
the drum will tend to assist the expander piston in forcing the shoe against the drum; this
action is referred to as self-energizing or the self-servo action of the shoe. The trailing shoe
is the one whose expander piston moves in the direction opposed to the rotation of the
drum. The frictional force opposes the expander, hence a trailing brake shoe provides less
braking torque than an equivalent leading shoe actuated by the same force. The equations
developed for external long-shoe drum brakes are also valid for internal long-shoe drum
brakes.
Shoe
Hydraulic
toe Retraction
cylinder
spring
Rotation
Leading
shoe Trailing
shoe
r
Drum θ2 c
rp θ1
Brake
lining
Anchor
pins or Shoe
abutments heel
Figure 13.30
Double long-shoe internal drum brake.
Example 13.12
Determine the actuating force and the braking capacity for the double internal long-shoe
brake illustrated in Figure 13.31. The lining is sintered metal with a coefficient of friction
of 0.32, and the maximum lining pressure is 1.2 MPa. The drum radius is 68 mm and the shoe
width is 25 mm.
Solution
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b¼ 0:0152 þ 0:0552 ¼ 0:05701 m
As the brake lining angles relative to the pivot, brake axis line, are not explicitly shown on the
diagram, they must be calculated.
q1 ¼ 4:745 ; q2 ¼ 124:7
As q2 > 90 , the maximum value of sin q is sin 90 ¼ 1 ¼ (sin q)max.

For this brake with the direction of rotation as shown, the right hand shoe is self-energizing.
For the right hand shoe:
0:025 0:068 0:05701 1:2 106

Mn ¼
1
1 2p 1
ð124:7 4:745Þ ðsin 249:4 sin 9:49Þ ¼ 153:8 N m:
2 360 4
556 Chapter 13
Figure 13.31
Double long-shoe internal drum brake.
0:32 0:025 0:068 1:2 106

Mf ¼
1
0:05701
0:068ðcos 4:745 cos 124:7Þ þ ðcos 249:4 cos 9:49Þ ¼ 57:1 N m:
4
a ¼ 0:055 þ 0:048 ¼ 0:103 m:
Mn Mf 153:8 57:1
Fa ¼ ¼ ¼ 938:9 N:
a 0:103
The actuating force is 938.9 N.

The torque applied by the right hand shoe is given by
mwr2 pmax
Tright shoe ¼ ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
0:32 0:025 0:0682 1:2 106
¼ ðcos 4:745 cos 124:7Þ ¼ 69:54 N m:
1
The torque applied by the left hand shoe cannot be determined until the maximum operating
pressure p0max for the left hand shoe has been calculated.
As the left hand shoe is self de-energizing, the normal and frictional moments can be
determined using Eqns (13.47) and (13.48).
Mn p0max 153:8p0max
Mn0 ¼ ¼
pmax 1:2 106
Mf p0max 57:1p0max
Mf0 ¼ ¼
pmax 1:2 106
The left hand shoe is self de-energizing, so

Mn þ Mf
Fa ¼ :
a
Fa ¼ 938.9 N as calculated earlier.
153:8p0max þ 57:1p0max
938:9 ¼
1:2 106 0:103
p0max ¼ 0:5502 106 N=m2 :
The torque applied by the left hand shoe is given by
mwr2 p0max
Tleft shoe ¼ ðcos q1 cos q2 Þ
ðsin qÞmax
0:32 0:025 0:0682 0:5502 106
¼ ðcos 4:745 cos 124:7Þ ¼ 31:89 N m:
1
The total torque applied by both shoes is
Ttotal ¼ Tright shoe þ Tleft shoe ¼ 69:54 þ 31:89 ¼ 101:4 N m:
From this example, the advantage in torque capacity of using self-energizing brakes is
apparent. Both the left hand and the right hand shoes could be made self-energizing by
inverting the left hand shoe, having the pivot at the top. This would be advantageous if
rotation occurred in just one direction. If, however, drum rotation is possible in either
direction, it may be more suitable to have one brake self-energizing for forward motion
and one self-energizing for reverse motion.
13.3.6 Band Brakes
One of the simplest types of braking device is the band brake. This consists of a flexible
metal band lined with a frictional material wrapped partly around a drum. The brake is
558 Chapter 13
F2 Fa
F1
a
c
Figure 13.32
Band brake.
actuated by pulling the band against the drum, as illustrated in Figure 13.32. For the
clockwise rotation shown in Figure 13.32, the friction forces increase F1 relative to F2. The
relationship between the tight and slack sides of the band is given by
F1
¼ emq (13.49)
F2
where F1 ¼ tension in the tight side of the band (N), F2 ¼ tension in the slack side of the band
(N), m ¼ coefficient of friction, and q ¼ angle of wrap (rad).
The point of maximum contact pressure for the friction material occurs at the tight end and is
given by
F1
pmax ¼ (13.50)
rw
where w is the width of the band (m).
The torque braking capacity is given by
T ¼ ðF1 F2 Þr (13.51)
The relationship, for the simple band brake shown in Figure 13.32, between the applied lever
force Fa and F2 can be found by taking moments about the pivot point.
Fa c F 2 a ¼ 0
a
Fa ¼ F2 (13.52)
c
The brake configuration shown in Figure 13.32 is self-energizing for clockwise rotation.
The level of self-energization can be enhanced by using the differential band brake
configuration shown in Figure 13.33. Summation of the moments about the pivot gives
Fa c F2 a þ F1 b ¼ 0 (13.53)
F2 Fa
F1
b a
c
Figure 13.33
Self-energizing band brake.
So the relationship between the applied load Fa and the band brake tensions is given by
F2 a F1 b
Fa ¼ (13.54)
c
Note that the value of b must be less than a so that applying the lever tightens F2 more than it
loosens F1. Substituting for F1 in Eqn (13.54) gives

F2 a bemq
Fa ¼ (13.55)
c
The brake can be made self-locking if a < bemq, and the slightest touch on the lever would
cause the brake to grab or lock abruptly. This principle can be used to permit rotation in
one direction only, as in hoist and conveyor applications.
Example 13.13
Design a band brake to exert a braking torque of 85 N m. Assume the coefficient of friction
for the lining material is 0.25 and the maximum permissible pressure is 0.345 MPa.
Solution
Propose a trial geometry, say r ¼ 150 mm, q ¼ 225 , and w ¼ 50 mm.
F1 ¼ pmax rw ¼ 0:345 106 0:15 0:05 ¼ 2587 N:

F1 2587:5
F2 ¼ mq
¼ 0:25ð2252p=360Þ ¼ 969 N:
e e
T ¼ ðF1 F2 Þr ¼ ð2587:5 969Þ0:15 ¼ 242:7 N m:
This torque is much greater than the 80 N m desired, so try a different combination of r, q, and
w until a satisfactory design is achieved.
560 Chapter 13
Try r ¼ 0.1 m, q ¼ 225 , and w ¼ 50 mm.

F1 ¼ pmax rw ¼ 0:345 106 0:1 0:05 ¼ 1725 N:
F1 1725
F2 ¼ mq
¼ 0:25ð2252p=360Þ ¼ 646:3 N:
e e
T ¼ ðF1 F2 Þr ¼ ð1725 646:3Þ0:1 ¼ 107:9 N m:
Try r ¼ 0.09 m, q ¼ 225 , and w ¼ 50 mm.

F1 ¼ pmax rw ¼ 0:345 106 0:09 0:05 ¼ 1552:5 N:
F1 1552:5
F2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 581:7 N:
emq e0:25ð2252p=360Þ
T ¼ ðF1 F2 Þr ¼ ð1552:5 581:7Þ0:09 ¼ 87:4 N m:
The actuating force is given by Fa ¼ F2a/c. If a ¼ 0.08 m and c ¼ 0.15 m then,

0:08
Fa ¼ 581:7 ¼ 310:2 N:
0:15
Practical braking systems comprise an energy supplying device, a control device, a

transmission device for controlling the braking force, and the brakes themselves. For
example, in the case of a braking system for passenger cars, the braking system could control
the brake pedal, a vacuum booster, master hydraulic fluid cylinder, brake fluid reservoir, a
device to warn the driver of a brake circuit failure, a sensor to warn of low brake fluid level,
valves, hydraulic cylinders, springs, pads, and discs. For heavy vehicles, say two to three
tons and over, the force required for braking can become greater than a person can exert.
In such cases some assistance needs to be given to the driver. This can be achieved by using a
servo mechanism that adds to the driver’s effort, for example a vacuum assisted brake
servo unit, or by using power operation in which case the driver’s effort is simply for control
purposes and is not transmitted directly to the brakes.
The performance of braking systems in, say, automotive applications has been significantly
enhanced over the purely mechanical variants described so far by the use of sensors, actuators
and sophisticated control systems. An example is antilock braking systems (ABS), which
are closed-loop control devices within the braking system. The objective of ABS is to prevent
wheel lockup during braking, and as a result retain greater steering control and vehicle
stability. The principal components of an ABS system are a hydraulic modulator, wheel based
sensors, and the engine control unit (ECU). The ECU processes the signals and controls
and triggers the hydraulics. The control loop for an antilock braking system is shown in
Figure 13.34. ABS systems are considered in more detail in the Bosch Automotive
Handbook (2000) and Garrett et al. (2001).
Electric Motor/ Dual-circuit

ECU motor pump pump
and drive coupling
Inlet
Reservoir
valve
Solenoid Inlet
supply valve
valves Position
(SSV) sensor
(open)
Solenoid
discharge
valves Plunger Eccentric
(SDV) cam
(closed) Outlet valves
Master-
cylinder
Speed
sensor
Brake disc and caliper

(a) Pressure increasing position
SSV SSV
(closed) (closed)
SDV SDV
(closed) (open)
(b) Pressure hold position (c) Pressure reducing position

Figure 13.34
Control loop for an antilock braking system (ABS). (a) Pressure increasing position; (b) Pressure
hold position; (c) Pressure reducing position. Reproduced from Heisler (1999).

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Clutches and Brakes 531

requires thirteen driving discs and twelve driven discs to implement.

Starter ring gear Cover-pressing

Crankshaft Withdrawal lever

Method of Short shoe

13.3.1 Disc Brakes

where re is an effective radius.

Annular pad Circular pad

The actuating force assuming constant pressure is given by

F ¼ pmax qri ðro ri Þ (13.26)

pav 2ri =ro

F ¼ pR2 pav (13.30)

Table 13.5: Circular pad disk brake design values.

The average pressure is given by

The average pressure is

i.e. phydraulic z 75 bar.

13.3.2 Drum Brakes

Drum brakes apply friction to the external or internal circumference of a cylinder. A

13.3.3 Short-Shoe External Drum Brakes

Fn ¼ pmax rqw (13.31)

where m is the coefficient of friction.

The torque on the brake drum is

Resolving forces gives the reactions at the pivot:

F 0:56 Fn 0:3 þ mFn 0:05 ¼ 0;

For the bottom shoe:

F 0:56 þ Fn 0:3 þ mFn 0:05 ¼ 0;

Torque ¼ mðFn total Þ 0:125 ¼ 0:35ð4758 þ 4233Þ 0:125 ¼ 393:4 N m:

13.3.4 Long-Shoe External Drum Brakes

The braking torque T is given by

Tðsin qÞmax 75 sin 90

From Eqn (13.39) the actuation force is

The maximum value of sin q would be sin 90 ¼ 1.

The torque contribution from the left hand shoe is given by

So the limiting lever force is F ¼ 501 N.

a ¼ ð0:235 0:01969 tan 14:04Þ cos 14:04 ¼ 0:2232 m

Mn0 þ Mf0 751:1p0max 179:8p0max

The torque contribution from the right hand shoe is

The total torque is given by

Ttotal ¼ Tleft shoe þ Tright shoe ¼ 206:4 þ 166:6 ¼ 373 N m

The maximum value of sin q would be sin 90 ¼ 1.

The normal moment is given by

The torque contribution from the left hand shoe is given by

So the limiting lever force is F ¼ 1723 N.

a ¼ 0:6 cos 15:95 ¼ 0:5769 m:

Mn0 þ Mf0 5693p0max 1472p0max

The torque contribution from the right hand shoe is

The total torque is given by

Ttotal ¼ Tleft shoe þ Tright shoe ¼ 1736 þ 1488 ¼ 3224 N m

13.3.5 Long-Shoe Internal Drum Brakes

As q2 > 90 , the maximum value of sin q is sin 90 ¼ 1 ¼ (sin q)max.

0:025 0:068 0:05701 1:2 106

0:32 0:025 0:068 1:2 106

The actuating force is 938.9 N.

The left hand shoe is self de-energizing, so

The torque applied by the left hand shoe is given by

The total torque applied by both shoes is

Ttotal ¼ Tright shoe þ Tleft shoe ¼ 69:54 þ 31:89 ¼ 101:4 N m:

13.3.6 Band Brakes