1. Title: Single Phase Transformer Testing.

2. Objectives.
1. To carry out an open circuit test.
2. To conduct a short-circuit test.
3. To determine the efficiency and voltage regulation of the transformer.

3. Theoretical Background.
Operation of a transformer: Principle
The transformation of energy is done by mutual induction between the windings. The simplest
form of a transformer is shown in figure below, which depicts a transformer that consists of
two inductive coils, primary and secondary windings.

The two coils are connected through a laminated steel core that allows the flow of magnetic
flux through the laminated path.

When the primary winding is connected to an external source of alternating voltage, magnetic
flux is induced in the wingdings according to Faraday’s Law.

When an alternating current passes through the primary winding, the magnetic field changes,
thus inducing an electromotive force. The resulting magnetic field cuts the winding of the
secondary coil, which generates an alternating voltage in that winding through electromagnetic
induction.
Most of the magnetic flux becomes linked with the secondary winding, which is called ‘main
flux’, while the remaining flux does not get linked with secondary winding and is known as
‘leakage flux’.

The induced EMF is known as mutually induced EMF, and its frequency is the same as the
supplied electromotive force.

When the secondary winding is a closed circuit, the mutually induced current flows through the
circuit, transferring electrical energy from the primary circuit to the secondary one.

Consider an open circuit test, let

Poc = output power in open circuit test=core losses.
Psc = input power in short circuit.
2
I R = losses on full load.

Then total power = Poc + Psc.

𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑆) 𝑋 𝑝𝑓
Thus efficiency at full load = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑆) 𝑋 𝑝𝑓 + 𝑃𝑜𝑐 + 𝑃𝑠𝑐

Where S = apparent power (in VA)

Also for any load equal to nx full load corresponding to losses Poc + Psc the corresponding
efficiency become,

𝑛 𝑋 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑆) 𝑋 𝑝𝑓
Efficiency η = 2
𝑛 𝑋 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑆) 𝑋 𝑝𝑓 + 𝑃𝑜𝑐 + 𝑛 𝑃𝑠𝑐

In case of P,, the corresponding voltage is zero, hence the whole of the applied voltage is
absorbed in circulating current in the primary and secondary windings. If ϕ is the phase angle
between the primary voltage and current due to impedance referred to primary circuit

𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 Θ𝑒 =
𝐼1𝑉 𝑠𝑐

If Vsc be the value of primary voltage when full load current is flowing in primary and
secondary windings , then per unit voltage regulation is

𝑉𝑠𝑐(𝑐𝑜𝑠 Θ𝑒 + ϕ2)
𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑔
= 𝑉1

4. Methodology.
Apparatus and Equipment.
● Single-phase transformer under test (1kVA, ϕ=1)
● Variable transformer ( Variac Transformer)
● AC voltmeter
● AC ammeter
● Wattmeter
● Connecting wires

Procedure.
1. The circuit was connected as shown in the figure below and inspected by the
technician in charge.

2. The variac knob was set to minimum voltage.

3. The ON supply was switched on and voltage was adjusted in steps of 20V up to 125%
of rated transformer value, i.e. from 20V to 240V. In each step, all of the instrument
readings were recorded.
4. The circuit was then connected as shown in the figure below and inspected by the
technician in charge.
 5. The primary and secondary full load currents of the transformer were determined for
the connection.
6. The variac knob was set to minimum voltage.
7. The supply was switched on and the primary current was varied in steps of 0.5A up to
125% of rated transformer value, i.e. from 0.5A to 4.0A. In this step precision was
ensured as a small change in voltage resulted in a very big change in current.
8. All instrument readings in each step were recorded.

Results.

Voltage (V1) P Apparent Current (A1) Voltage (V2) Transformation ratio (n)
(W) Power, S
(kVA)

20 0.1 1 0.02 15 0.925

40 0.25 1 0.05 30 0.875

60 0.5 1 0.06 50 0.875

80 0.75 1 0.07 65 0.875

100 1 1 0.07 82.5 0.875

120 1 1 0.08 97.5 0.875

140 1 1 0.08 115 0.875

160 1 1 0.09 130 0.859

180 1 1 0.1 147.5 0.861

200 1.2 1 0.12 165 0.875

220 1.2 1 0.16 180 0.864

 240 2 1 0.2 195 0.865

Open circuit test

Current (A1) P (W) Voltage (V1) Current (A2)

0.5 0 1.4 1.6

1.0 0.5 2.3 2.4

1.5 1.0 3.6 3.5

2.0 1.5 5.1 4.9

2.5 2.0 6.0 5.8

3.0 2.5 7.6 7.1

3.5 3.0 9.0 8.3

4.0 3.5 10.4 9.7

Short circuit test

POC PSC VSC V1 N 0utput Efficiency Voltage

(kW) (kW) %(kVA) regulation

5 5 2.6 60 0.875 9.02 0.0902 0.0867

10 10 4.8 120 0.875 4.72 0.0472 0.0800

15 15 6.0 180 0.861 3.20 0.0320 0.0667

 20 20 7.2 200 0.875 2.42 0.0242 0.7199

25 25 8.2 240 0.865 1.94 0.0194 0.6833

25 30 8.6 0.422 1.37 0.0137

25 40 9.8 0.425 1.38 0.0138

5. Data Analysis.
V2 against V1 open circuit test

A2 against A1 short circuit test

Core losses against input voltage open circuit test

Copper losses against input current short circuit test.

Calculations.
- For a single- phase transformer, the transformation ratio is expressed as;
𝑉2
𝑛 = 𝑉1
70
𝑛 = 80
= 0. 875

- The power factor is obtained by,

PF = cos ϕ= cos(⁡1) = 0.9998
- Where, ϕ is the phasor angle.

- The transformer efficiency can be obtained from the expression;

𝑛 × 𝑆 × 𝑃𝐹
η= 2
𝑛 × 𝑠 × 𝑃𝐹 + 𝑃𝑂𝐶 + 𝑛 𝑃𝑆𝐶

0.875 × 1 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡1
η= 2 = 0. 0242
.87 5× 1 ×𝑐𝑜𝑠 ⁡1 + 20 +(0.875 × 20)

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be given by,

𝑉𝑆𝐶 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ϕ𝑒 + ϕ 𝑒)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 = 𝑉1
4.8(𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 1)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 = 120
= 0. 0800

From transformer efficiency, %output kVA is expressed as;

%Output(kVA) = η ×Input(kVA)
Output(kVA) = 0.0242 × 1 × 100% = 2.42%

6. Discussion.
A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the performance of a single-phase
transformer. These experiments aimed to identify its characteristics and considerations for
practical application.

Basic Functionality Verification.

- The turns ratio of the transformer windings was determined, and the polarity connections
were verified. The measured ratio aligned with the nameplate specifications, indicating proper
design and construction.
- The transformer polarity configuration was confirmed to be subtractive, consistent with
typical step-down transformers used in residential and commercial settings.

Loss Analysis
- An open-circuit test was performed to assess core losses. The measured values fell within the
expected range, suggesting satisfactory core material and construction. It is important to note,
however, that core losses tend to increase with aging.
- A short-circuit test was conducted to quantify winding losses. The measured copper loss was
consistent with expectations based on winding resistance and current levels. This test
emphasizes the importance of minimizing winding resistance for improved efficiency.

Performance Evaluation
- The transformer was subjected to various load conditions during a load test. The
corresponding voltage regulation was measured. As anticipated, higher load currents resulted in
increased voltage drops. The measured values remained within the acceptable range,
demonstrating the transformer's suitability for its intended application.
- Efficiency calculations were performed by comparing input and output power at different
loading conditions. The measured efficiency matched the manufacturer's specifications,
indicating effective electrical energy transfer. It is worth noting that efficiency tends to be
lower at light loads due to core losses, while copper losses become more significant at heavy
loads, reducing efficiency.

Thermal Management
- Temperature rise of the transformer was monitored during load tests. As expected, the
temperature of the windings and core increased with increased loading. However, the observed
rise remained within the safe operating limits specified by the manufacturer, signifying
adequate cooling under the tested conditions.

Measurement Considerations
- Throughout the experiments, potential sources of error and uncertainties were carefully
considered. Measures were taken to mitigate these where possible. Factors such as
measurement accuracy, instrument calibration, and environmental conditions were accounted for
to ensure reliable and reproducible results.

Analysis of Test Results

- The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage obtained during the open-circuit test yielded
the transformer's transformation ratio. Additionally, a direct proportionality between input and
output voltage was observed. A plot of these values produced a straight line with a gradient
representing the transformation ratio. The significantly higher input voltage confirmed the
transformer as a step-down type.
- The short-circuit test revealed a direct proportionality between input and output current. The
ratio of primary current to secondary current provided another means of determining the
transformation ratio due to the transformer's impedance. A plot of input current against output
current resulted in a linear graph with a gradient representing the inverse of the transformation
ratio.
- Core losses were observed to increase with a rise in supply voltage. The plot of core losses
against voltage exhibited a non-linear trend due to factors like eddy current and hysteresis loss.
- Copper losses were found to increase with increasing current. The plot of copper losses
against input current displayed a non-linear relationship as copper losses are directly
proportional to the square of the
current. Additionally, the rapid increase in copper losses with higher current contributed to the
non-linearity.
- A direct proportionality between efficiency and output power was observed. This indicates
that losses become less significant with increasing supply voltage. Voltage regulation also
demonstrated a direct proportionality to output power.

Recommendations
- Choosing the Right Core Material: The material used for the core can significantly impact
how well the transformer works. Consider using more advanced materials like amorphous or
nanocrystalline alloys instead of traditional silicon steel. These newer materials have lower
losses and can make the transformer more efficient.
- Improving Cooling Systems: Keeping the transformer cool is crucial for its performance and
longevity. Look into better cooling methods, such as using heat pipes or materials that change
phase, to help distribute heat more effectively.
- Optimizing Winding Design: Small changes to how the wires are wound can reduce energy
losses and improve voltage control. For example, using thicker wires can cut down on resistance,
but you need to balance this with the risk of increased leakage.
- Enhancing Insulation: The materials used to insulate the transformer are vital for its safety
and durability. Investigate using newer materials that can handle higher temperatures and
provide better protection against electrical breakdown.

Sources of Error
- Instrument Accuracy: The tools used to measure things like voltage and current need to be
calibrated correctly to avoid inaccuracies.
- Winding Resistance Variations: Even tiny differences in the wires' resistance can affect test
results, especially when the temperature changes.
- Core Losses and Magnetization: Sometimes the actual performance of the transformer's core
doesn't match what was expected, leading to discrepancies in test results.
- Winding Capacitance and Leakage: Things like stray electrical currents can throw off
measurements, especially in high-frequency or high-voltage situations.
- Loading Conditions: Changes in how much power the transformer is handling can affect test
results, especially if the load isn't consistent.
- Temperature Effects: Heat can change how the transformer behaves during testing, affecting
everything from resistance to insulation properties.
- Human Errors: Mistakes during testing, like misreading instruments or recording data
incorrectly, can skew results.
- Stray Magnetic Fields: External interference from things like other electronic devices can
mess with the transformer's performance during testing.
- Transformer Aging: As transformers get older, wear and tear can cause them to perform
differently than expected, leading to unexpected results.
Conclusion
- Insights from Testing: The experiments we conducted gave us a better understanding of how
the transformer works and what factors influence its performance. We tested things like the
turns ratio, losses, and efficiency.
- Reinforcing Theoretical Knowledge: Our experimental results lined up well with what we
learned in the classroom and what the manufacturer predicted, which shows that our
theoretical understanding is sound.
- Room for Improvement: While our tests covered a lot of ground, there's still more we could
explore to make transformers even better. Future work could involve researching new materials,
tweaking designs, and finding ways to monitor transformers' condition over time.
- Key Findings: We found that losses in the transformer increased as input voltage and current
went up, but efficiency improved with higher output power. Voltage regulation also became more
critical as the output power increased.

10. References.
1. The Electrical Engineering Handbook by Richard C. Dorf
2. Performance and Design of DC Machines by A.E. Clayton and N.H. Hancock
3. Electric Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen J. Chapman
4. Fitzgerald, A. E., Kingsley, C., & Umans, S. D. (2013). Electric Machinery (7th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.
5. Class Notes