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Final Exam: PSY 334 Perception

Shaina M. Rippetoe

Psychology Department, Colorado State University – Pueblo

Dr. Janell Campbell, Psy.D.

PSYC 334 – Perception Lecture

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Final Exam: PSY 334 Perception

For the final exam in the Perception class at CSU-P students were directed to pick ten

concepts that each individual student found important/interesting things (such as a concept or a

research finding, but not an entire chapter). The following ten items are what the student

composing this exam found most interesting by level of perceived importance in the opinion of

the student composing this final exam report:

1. Considering that we are living through a pandemic where individuals may get COVID-19

(or a variant) that may cause them to lose their sense of taste and smell, these are the first

two topics that I think are most meaningful and pertinent to what we’re learning as well

as what we’re going through world-wide. It’s common knowledge that individuals that

have been infected by the COVID virus (or a variant) lose their sense of smell and taste

(though not all individuals experience these symptoms). I believe that the loss of taste

could be a detriment to loving a high-quality life and that’s why this is the first concept

I’d like to discuss.

In my opinion (and some others on the internet) the loss of taste and/or smell when an

individual has been exposed to the COVID virus (or a variant) could be due to damage to

the olfactory receptor neurons or the olfactory epithelium, and both terms are discussed in

chapter one. The olfactory epithelium is a small balloon-shaped mucous membrane that is

connected to the cribriform plate. This is where the olfactory receptor neurons can be

found, is on the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory receptors transfer information

through small tunnels in the cribriform plate and to the olfactory bulb.

The olfactory bulb then delivers information to the primary olfactory cortex (where smell

data is delegated to the orbitofrontal cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala,

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entorhinal cortex, and hippocampal formation) and the amygdala directly. These areas of

the brain then turn what an individual has sensed into what they perceived. Individuals

that have had the COVID virus (or a variant) may have damage to the support cells of the

olfactory neurons (Rawson, N., & Genovese, F., 2020). The support cells are what help to

carry the data as discussed above, so without these support cells, or with damage to these

support cells, individuals lose their sense of taste (this may range from mild to moderate

taste loss).

2. Photoreceptors are very important for an individual’s ability to see. Therefore, the next

item I’ve chosen to discuss is photoreceptors. For an individual to perceive light and

color the retina must utilize millions of photoreceptor cells (Mather, G., 2016). Chapter

six of the assigned course reading talks about rods and cones – the two different types of

photoreceptors that enable transduction. Rods are very sensitive in low-level light

(scotopic) while cones function best in high levels of light (photopic). Both receptors can

respond in medium level light (mesopic) (Mather, G., 2016).

Cones are much less sensitive than rods, however, rods outnumber cones by a landslide,

and this could be an explanation for this sensitivity (Mather, G., 2016). Cones meet at the

fovea which is located inside of the retina. The fovea does not contain rods demonstrating

that rods and cones are distributed differently within the retina.

In chapter seven the book discusses the physical differences between these

photoreceptors such as the fact that cones have more synaptic clefts, differently shaped

inner segments, and completely different outer segments (see figure 7.3 on pg. 200)

(Mather, G., 2016).

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3. The third concept I’d like to discuss is how cones are split up in to three different

ganglion cell type groups that allow for the perception of light. In chapter seven S (short)-

cones (sensitive to blue light), M (medium)-cones (sensitive to green), and L (large)-

cones (sensitive to red light) are discussed (Mather, G., 2016). These three cone types

detect different types of light and sometimes spectral opponency is exhibited. S-cones are

opposite of L-cone and some M-cone inputs (blue-yellow opponent), and some L-cone

and M-cones are opposite of one another (red-green opponent) – kind of like the color

wheel we’re taught in earlier years. S-, M- and L-cones can be triggered at the same time,

and how an individual perceives color and light are dependent on the mixed (and

independent, at times) responses of the set of cones (Mather, G., 2016).

For individuals that experience color deficiency a difference in cone photopigments (part

of the photo receptor anatomy) causes the individual to not be able to differentiate

between some colors. There are many different types of color deficiency discussed in

chapter eight of the assigned reading, and these deficiencies are caused by overlaps in

spectral sensitivity between M- and L-cones (discussed above), the overuse of rods and

underuse of cones (monochromacy), and even missing cones (protanopia, deuteranopia,

and tritanopia) (Mather, G., 2016).

4. The next thing I want to discuss is tetrachromacy. While this concept is not discussed in

the book, it’s a phenomenon widely discussed in peer-reviewed articles and can be

defined with a cursory google search. Research suggests that tetrachromats consist of

mainly females in the human species and these women may see color with four

photoreceptors as opposed to three or less allowing for the perception of more colors than

other individuals that do not have all four receptors (Jordan, G., & Mollon, J., 2019). This
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difference is due to a genetic mutation that is passed via the X chromosome (Jewell, T.,

2018).

The reason I wanted to include this finding is because I feel it demonstrates critical

thinking – if individuals can have color deficiency, I am sure others are able to have more

vivid color experiences. Reading studies regarding tetrachromats brought me back to high

school and remined me of a science class where a teacher took a purple liquid and put it

on the overhead. Some individuals in the class only saw one consistent purple color.

Some individuals saw three or four different rings. However, I saw more than 10 different

rings of color. The teacher and all my classmates thought I was being a fibber but

learning more about this type of visual perception gives me a better understanding of how

individuals can misunderstand one another based on perception alone. Perception is

reality, and reality apparently differs for each human being.

5. The next most interesting or important thing that we learned about was the anatomy of

the ear and how the three bones in the middle ear are key to transforming sound waves to

electric sensory information the brain can perceive. The ear is made up of three different

parts – the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear is made up of the

pinna (the part that we usually get pierced – it’s made of cartilage, ligaments, muscles,

and skin) and the funnel shape (called the concha) leads to the middle ear. This is where

the three bones mentioned above are located. Inside the middle ear are three important

bones that transfer sound waves to electrical sensory information that the brain can

understand. These bones are called the malleus, incus, and stapes (Mather, G., 2016).

They relay sound waves received by the tympanic membrane (more commonly called the

ear drum) to the oval window and finally to the fluid-filled cochlea where the corti (the
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organ used for audition) is located (Mather, G., 2016). The corti is a structure that is

located inside the inner ear, and it is made up of three rows of outer hairs and one row of

inner hairs. The vibration of these hairs (caused by the electromagnetic waves that have

been produced by the middle ear) is what causes the transduction of sensory information

and allows for perception. This information is important because it shows how many

different structures are used to perceive sound, and if an individual is lacking one of these

areas or has damage to one of these areas, their perception may be different from others.

6. The student composing this exam has an unusual attachment to a soft shirt, and the

unusual bond caused the student to be more interested in the types of skin receptors that

are used while the student is touching the blankie for comfort. Chapter three of the

assigned course reading discusses The body senses, and this is where the student gathered

information to learn about how they perceive the softness of their favorite comfort item

(Mather, G., 2016). While using the blankie for comfort uses multisensory processing,

the student will focus only on the aspect of touch. The student utilizes blankie in real

world to help with anxiety and overstimulation. By rubbing the blanket across her upper

lip, nose, and across her fingertips in a rhythmic motion the student finds relief from

anxiety and overstimulation. While rubbing the blankie across their nose, upper lip, and

manipulating the blankie with their fingertips and hands the student is using nociceptors,

Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s disks, Pacinian corpuscles, and Ruffini’s corpuscles

(Mather, G., 2016).

Nociceptors utilize the A⸹ and C fibers and sense the temperature of blankie as well as

the tickle the blankie gives when rubbed across the skin and manipulated with the fingers

and hands (Mather, G., 2016). Messner’s corpuscles utilize RA fiber and sense the light,
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dynamic touches of blankie from spots that are not actively engaging with blankie such as

the top of the hand, neck, and arms (contact that is indirect, but still is perceived by the

body as light, dynamic touches). Merkel’s disks utilize the SAI fiber and are in use

constantly as these receptors sense static pressure and any changes in that static pressure

(pressure is changed when the blankie is pressed against the face and when the student

uses different pressures to manipulate the blankie between her fingertips and her palm)

(Mather, G., 2016). Pacinian corpuscles utilize the RC fiber and similarly to Merkel’s

disks Pacinian corpuscles sense pressure and vibration, but not necessarily static pressure.

Ruffini’s corpuscles utilize the SAII fiber and sense the stretching of skin when the

student presses their blankie against their nose, rubs it across their lip, and use their

fingertips to manipulate the fabric (Mather, G., 2016).

In addition to using the softness of the blanket as comfort, the student enjoys the dirty,

musty smell of the shirt (named Blankie) as well. This fact led the student to be more

interested in how the scents are translated from the nose and to the brain. For this reason,

number seven on the list is olfaction, or the process of perceiving what an individual is

smelling.

7. Olfaction is the process a human being uses for intaking sensory information through the

nose and relaying this sensory information to the brain. As opposed to our other senses,

olfaction can activate both hemispheres of the brain with only one nostril. Other senses

activate only one hemisphere at a time (Mather, G., 2016). As discussed in question one,

the olfactory epithelium is used in the process of perceiving smells (so this concept will

not be discussed again) along with the olfactory bulb (also discussed in question one, so

this will not be elaborated on). Olfactory glomeruli (bundles of receptor axons and mitral
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cell dendrites) consist of up to 255 (but no fewer than five) mitral cells (Mather, G.,

2016). The axons of these mitral cells extend into the primary olfactory cortex and the

amygdala where perception is completed, and reaction processes begin. Since olfactory

sensory information bypasses the thalamus on the way to the cortex of the brain, some

research suggests that smell was one of the earliest senses to develop in humans (Mather,

G., 2016).

Smells use combinatorial coding at the receptor level to sort out olfactory sensations.

Figure 2.4 in chapter two (The chemical senses) of the assigned course reading shows a

visual representation of this information. Humans only have a few hundred different

types of receptor cells, but most individuals can sense thousands of different smells

(Mather, G., 2016). This is because each smell activates at least two receptors – this

means that smells are dynamic, and any loss of receptors causes a loss of perception in

olfactory senses (as well as others that were discussed above). That is just one reason

why smell is number seven on the most important list.

8. Modal attention is another concept that I found interesting and important, but less

important than other concepts discussed thus far. This concept is discussed in chapter 14

– Attention and perception (Mather, G., 2016). Modal attention refers to how sensory

income is process and delivered based on how the information is received by receptors

and the brain. Visual modal attention causes sensitivity regarding motion detection and

determining patterns, hearing modal attention allows for individuals to discern certain

voices from a crowd of talking individuals, somatosensation modal attention allows for

the perception of texture, and these are just a few examples and there are many more

examples in the body.

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Different modalities call for different levels of attention from the brain for perception, as

well. This means that the brain may react more quickly to one type of sensory input over

another type of input, and this delay may also cause a delay in action time. Figure 14.3

(on page 399 of the assigned course reading) in chapter 14 shows how reaction time can

vary depending on if an individual is expecting the stimulus or if an individual is

expecting a different stimulus, and this is just one factor that may change reaction time to

a sensation (Mather, G., 2016).

The student found modal attention to be important because this pertains to every aspect of

life. During every second of life the body is bombarded by many sensations and the body

must preserve energy by choosing which of these sensations to perceive and then react to.

9. A concept that stood out to me was postural alcohol nystagmus because my father was an

alcoholic until the day he died, one of my daughter’s fathers is an alcoholic, and in

general an individual may observe that the homeless population in Pueblo often struggle

with drug or alcohol problems. To me, this is an occurrence that my father, my daughter’s

uncle, and individuals struggling with alcohol abuse experience often and to understand

this occurrence may give some insight into the difference of perception between

alcoholics and those that abstain from use completely. Part of improving a community is

grasping a true understanding of community member perceptions and working around

those perceptions.

Chapter three in the assigned course reading talks about postural alcohol nystagmus,

which is a perception that individuals struggling with alcohol use may experience often

(Mather, G., 2016). Nystagmus is the name of small, involuntary, eye movements that

usually occur when an individual is heavily inebriated (Mather, G., 2016). Some
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researchers have drawn the conclusion that postural alcohol nystagmus begins in the

semicircular canals. This assumption is because alcohol is lighter than endolymph

(vestibular fluid) and affects the cupula. When an individual that is heavily inebriated

lays down, gravity-sensitive hairs are triggered because of the movement of the cupula,

which may cause vertigo. The movement of the cupula is also the cause nystagmus.

When the nystagmus occurs (rapid, involuntary, eye movements) and individual may

experience nausea and sensory problems (Mather, G., 2016). It takes around 12 hours for

alcohol to leave the cupula, and as it does the endolymph has a moment of regularity

where the whirlies/spinnies/spins (what some individuals call the vertigo experienced

when they lay down while under heavy influence of alcohol), then the intoxicated

individual will have experience postural alcohol nystagmus again, but at a lesser rate.

This is usually what causes the feeling of a hang over (in conjunction with other physical

symptoms) (Mather, G., 2016).

10. Since only ten items can be discussed in this final the student had a small amount of

trouble narrowing down just ten interesting/important items from all 15 chapters of the

assigned course reading. However, the student has done their best to narrow down these

concepts/terms/scientific findings by levels of importance. The student also

acknowledges that the course reading holds a wealth of other important and interesting

information that deserves to be in the final. For the last concept, the student would like to

discuss monocular vs binocular visual cues (Mather, G., 2016). The reason the student

finds this to be important is because it taught the student a lot about why two eyes are

necessary for some types of vision and opened the student’s mind as to how useful just
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one eye can be. Additionally, visual processing only activates one hemisphere of the

brain at a time in contrast to smell, so this seemed to tie into the exam concepts well.

Table 11.1 in chapter 11 shows a table of depth cues and depth computations and

designates if an individuals needs monocular or binocular depth cues to achieve each type

of visual perception (Mather, G., 2016). A monocular depth cue only requires one eye but

may also be used when both eyes are receiving sensory information. Binocular depth cues

are only available when an individual is using (or has) both eyes. Monocular cues include

interposition, height in the visual field, and texture gradient. Binocular cues include

vergence angle as well as far and near disparity. An individual processes sensory

information using cue combination as interposition cannot specify depth interval, size is

only pertinent to information a person already has in their head regarding real-life size,

and accommodation changes as an individual gets older (Mather, G., 2016). For these

reasons, and many others, the eyes must use a combination of cues for accurate visual

perception.

Thank you for your hard work and dedication to our learning during this semester. This

semester has been challenging for many of us, and your diligence and continued efforts show a

true motivation to help students learn AND succeed.

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References

Campbell, J. (2021). Final Exam Material on Blackboard. Personal Collection of (Janell

Campbell, Psy.D.), Colorado State University - Pueblo, Pueblo, Colorado.

Jewell, T. (2018, October 25). Is tetrachromacy real? definition, causes, test, and more.

Healthline. Retrieved December 4, 2021, from

https://www.healthline.com/health/tetrachromacy#causes.

Jordan, G., & Mollon, J. (2019). Tetrachromacy: The mysterious case of extra-ordinary color

vision. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 30, 130–134.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.08.002

Mather, G. (2016). Whole book. "Foundations of sensation and perception". Psychology Press.

Rawson, N., & Genovese, F. (2020, December 23). How coronavirus affects smell. AbScent.

Retrieved December 4, 2021, from https://abscent.org/insights-blog/blog/coronavirus-

affects-smell.