WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT AND LOCAL

GOVERNANCE IN TANZANIA1

By
Eliza Mwakasangula2, Dominik Msabila3 and Venosa Mushi4

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A paper to be presented in the symposium on “Towards Millennium Development Goals in relation to
population and sustainable development in Tanzania" from 9th to 10th June 2010
2
Correspondent author: Faculty of Public Administration and Management, P. O. Box 1 Mzumbe Tanzania
E-mail: elizafaty@yahoo.co.uk
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Institute of Development Studies, Mzumbe University, P. O. Box 83 Mzumbe – Tanzania
ABSTRACT
This paper tries is to investigate the extent to which Tanzanian women participate in
development and local governance in local government Authorities in Tanzania, factors
behind the existing participation and what should be done to achieve full and equal women
access to all areas and all levels of public life. The main assumption of this paper is that
women have a great potential in contributing development and to the promotion of effective
local governance in Tanzania because of their large number compared to men. Despite being
more than men their contribution is said to be under-recognized; in most they are
discriminated, segregated and under-represented in political, social and economic
development activities; thus, creating not only a democratic deficit but also a gender gap in
which there is exclusion of women and women's needs, interests and perspectives from
governance.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background information
Men and women have an equal chance to realize their individual potential to contribute to the
development of their countries or nations. These two groups can add to their country’s
economic and social development and to benefit equal from their participation in society. If
there is inequality of any kind in that particular societies do limit a country economic growth.
Removing inequalities gives societies a better possibility to develop. It is globally said that
when women and men have relative equality economies grow faster; children health
improves and is less corruption. Gender equality is an important human right and facilitates
rapid development.

However, in many African genders inequality in development activities is vividly shown. For
example the government of Tanzania realizes that women have a great potential in the
development of the country due to their large number as compared to men. According to
census of 2002, women constitute 51% while men constitute 49% in terms of proportion in
the country’s population, which are about 35 million people (National Bureau of Statistics,
2002). The report further shows that they have a longer life expectancy of 48 years while men
have a life expectancy of 46 years. Despite their great number and potential, women have

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traditionally been sidelined or marginalized in the decision-making processes in the local
authorities leading to adverse effects in the development in general. The country has,
therefore, decided to increase women participation in politics to thirty per cent (30%) so that
they can have a substantial contribution in making decisions and influencing resource
allocation in Tanzania (Mwakasangula and Msabila, 2007).

Tanzania, like many other developing countries, is in the state of transformation. A core
element of transformation is the establishment of local government to ensure effective local
governance and grassroots’ participation. The push is to enhance local power and /or
decentralized authority to create a situation in which local people enjoy power of decision-
making in matters that affect their development endeavours; decisions made are relevant to
local needs and conditions; leaders live and work with people in their own areas; there is
commitment of the local people and the public servants who own decisions on their own
development; people have a sense of ownership for the type of governance issues they deal
with; local level decisions are faster to make and implement; and local initiatives and
endeavours place more responsibility and accountability on local leaders (Covers as cited by
Shio, 2004).

Local governments, as established by the Tanzanian Local Government Acts No. 7 and 8 of
1982, are very important grassroots organizations. These organizations have both
administrative and development roles. The development role, which is the most critical.
Involves ensuring the well-being of people in areas of social service provision, agricultural
development, community development and governance. Further, according to article 146(1)
of the United Republic of Tanzania Constitution (1977), the prime objective of local
government is to consolidate and give more power to the people. It says “Local government
shall be entitled and competent to participate and to involve the people, in the planning and
implementation of the development”. The major responsibility is that of enhancing
democracy at local level through participation of both men and women in the development
process in their particular localities. Enhancing local government ensures effective local
governance in which gender-balanced representation is important in order to attain true
democracy and meet the needs of both men and women on an equal basis.

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History shows that women in many societies have great and potential roles to play in
supporting their families, though their contribution is invisible because most of their
activities are subsistence in nature and due to the patriarchal attitudes that exist among men
in many societies in Tanzania. Men give low opinion on women and they do not believe that
they (women) can do anything substantial. These situations make women to be more
occupied with household activities such as cooking, cleanliness, farming and the like to the
extent that they are neglected in political affairs such as leadership in local governance.

However, women are usually ignored in making decisions on important matters that concern
development and resource allocation. They are usually the implementers of decisions that are
made by men and their ideas, though important, are usually ignored or sometimes are not
given chance to contribute. Moreover, if at all they are given chance, they are more likely to
be found in less important and less influential positions (Stacey and Price, 1981) Therefore
the paper analyze the extent to which Tanzanian women participate in development matters
in local governments authorities in Tanzania, factors behind the existing participation and
what should be done to achieve full and equal women access to all areas and all levels of
public life, in enhancing gender balance in terms of participation and representation, in local
governance decision-making and implementation.

1.2 Conceptual framework

Stacey and Price (1981) contend that men and women possess substantial differences in terms
of their respective interests, roles and responsibilities in the society. In many countries,
especially in the developing world, it has been found by researchers that more representation
of women or men is likely to favour the interest of the dominant group hence unequal access
to opportunities, biased policies, rules and regulations. Given the fact that both men and
women posses some potentialities, equal opportunities facilitates the development process of
any country (Chambers, 1983).

In this paper woman participation is viewed to be more than mere participation in activity. It
has to involve women making informed decisions based on reliable and critical information.

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The assumption is that women are more than men and therefore bear the brunt of the
production process. Nonetheless, they are usually accorded low importance in as far as
decision-making is concerned.

In local governance women may play greater roles in decision-making, however, the
expectation is contrary to the reality as such the development process faces some problems.
Local governance should involve gender-balanced participation, which is important in
addressing the interests and needs of both men and women. When there is gender balance
there can be effective local governance that can promote poverty reduction and hence
development. The conceptual framework can be represented diagrammatically as shown in
figure 1.1.

Participation of both
men and women

IN Local
governance Development

Decision making
Planning
Implementation
Evaluation

Figure 1.1 Conceptual framework

1.3 Conceptualisation of key concepts

1.3.1 Local Governance

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The term local governance is defined as the active involvement of the local population within
the territorial boundaries of local government in ensuring improved quality of services and
leadership and the local government level. It includes greater participation by civil society in
decision-making processes and involves consensus-building and civic awareness (Ofei-
Aboagye, 2000). Contributing to the definition of local governance, Estrella (2001) identifies
five key aspects to consider when measuring local governance, which include: Participation,
new styles of leadership, accountability and transparency, capable public management, and
respect for law and human rights.

1.3.2 Participation
The concept of Participation is broadly understood as the involvement of the entire populace
in the choice, execution and evaluation of programmes and projects designed to bring about
significant improvement in the lives of the people (Lisk, 1985). Chambers (1983) and Uphoff
(1979) also argue that “Participation is about power, an increase in the power of the
disadvantaged”. Participation is seen therefore, not only as a management tool for the
efficient execution of specific projects, but also as a part of a drive for more democratic
residents or households.

1.3.3 Gender
Gender is defined as the active roles that men and women play in society and the label
attached to these roles, signifying which of the roles is feminine and which is masculine
(Stolen,1991). With regard to gender and politics, it must be taken into consideration that
both women and men are “gendered” beings, whose operations are not natural, but
historically, socially and culturally constructed. Thus, their political behaviour will be
determined consciously or unconsciously by their gender. This paper is essential because it
intends to promote Gender Sensitivity in Local Governance by removing disparities in
Participation, making local government more responsive to women and gender concerns and
to help enhance women’s participation in development.

It is evidenced that there is a nature of biased gender-power relations in the local authorities,
especially in rural areas. Women are marginalized when it comes to decision-making process

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while they are more involved in the implementation stage. The study intended to examine the
extent to which women’s voices are heard in setting priorities in the local authorities; hence,
devise ways of instituting gender balance, such as by building the capacity of women to
aspire to attain positions and perform in local government offices; and on women’s groups to
engage in various activities in local governments. Secondly, to encourage stakeholder
institutions such as the village, ward, division and district assemblies, training institutions,
and agencies providing services and implementing development initiatives to provide
appropriate support to women’s concerns by targeting, positive action, creating an enabling
environment for their participation, advocacy, education and the provision of resources.

2.0 CONTEXT
2.1 Importance of Local Governance
The local government is intended to reinvigorate local democracy and to ensure that
government is more responsive to local needs. According to Beetham (1996:30) local
governance has the potential to democratize because of its greater capacity for responsiveness
and representativeness. For example, elected councillors may be more accessible and have
greater incentives to recognize local demands, and wider range of representation is likely
especially of women and ethnic minorities. Also, Konadu (1999, 2001) argues that local
governance fosters a sense of unity, wholeness, and of being a part of a solidarity community.
The Sustainable Development Policy Institute (2003, 2006), identifies the general advantages
of local governance as follows:
(i) Enhanced control of the people over official decision making apparatuses and the
corresponding greater opportunities for participation in governmental decision
making.
(ii) Greater awareness and sensitivity of the problems of the people, given that those
with limited financial resources will also have the possibility of being elected.
(iii) Improved access to government and resolution of problem locally without
reference to provincial and federal capitals.
(iv) Greater transparency as the officials will be generally known to the people and
their actions will be more visible.

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 (v) Improved coordination between the various agencies performing various civic and
local level functions.
(vi) A visible and direct nexus between tax collection and provision of civic services
and, thereby, improved tax collection.
(vii) Attention to problems unique to a particular area and resolution of problems
specific the light of the local customs and traditions and local political power
equations.
(viii) Greater utilization of local resources for development.
(ix) Greater attention to local infrastructure needs and greater employment
opportunities for the local labour force.

Explaining the importance of local authorities, Warioba (1999:2) asserts that they provide the
dignity and physical satisfaction for everybody by making them have a share in the control
and management of their environment and the power structure. The author adds that they
enable the local inhabitants to be involved in the decision-making machinery and the
implementation of the development programmes. In as far as local governance is concerned,
popular participation is of great importance and women have to be accorded an equal chance
as men.

In brief it can be could summarized that local governance presumes to offer the prospect of
providing better quality and more 'joined-up' forms of service delivery based on community
priorities; ensuring that local authority main programmes and budgets are better targeted at
community needs and priorities; providing a territorial focus for crosscutting measures, which
emphasize outcomes for citizens rather than outputs for bureaucrats; presenting the
opportunity for enhanced community participation and partnerships with local authorities and
strengthening the role of elected councillors.

2.2 The gender factor in local governance

Various approaches have been adopted to try and make local government more responsive to
women and gender concerns and to help enhance women’s participation in governance. The
first category has focused on building the capacity of women to aspire to, attain and perform

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in local government office; and on women’s groups to engage local governments. The second
has sought to encourage stakeholder institutions such as training institutions, and agencies
providing services and implementing development initiatives to provide appropriate support
to women’s concerns by targeting, positive action, creating an enabling environment for their
participation, advocacy, education and the provision of resources. In both approaches, there
has been extensive European support, materially, financial and in the form of technical
assistance.

Given that local agencies deliver services which impact households directly, women as
housekeepers have a more direct stake in local governance. As such, along with the persistent
demand to hold local bodies’ election, there is also a general concern among gender activists
about raising the level of women’s participation in local bodies affairs. However, the question
arises as to what the local bodies and the women therein can achieve given the structure,
powers and functions of local bodies. With respect to women, their participation is a function
of their general socio-political status. It is not a problem or a matter at the local level only and
cannot be tackled at that level. In fact, women’s participation in local politics may be a
product of filter-down effect of their emancipation at the national/provincial level.

According to the report by Gender Links in Johannesburg on 10 December 2003-

International Human Rights Day, where women are represented in politics in significant
numbers and work in enabling environments, they make a marked difference to local
governance. The report concludes that women’s equal participation in decision-making is not
just a democratic right, but is critical to more accountable and responsive governance.
Despite the achievement of universal suffrage, increased education and incomes for women,
and efforts to increase participation of women in public life, women everywhere remain
marginalized and under-represented in those areas of public life where important decisions
and policies are made. The fact is that, men have monopolized and dominated strategic
decision-making positions. The few women, who hold relevant positions, often have values
and ways of thinking that fit the status quo; therefore, they are not always inclined to improve
the status of women. Women form at least half of the population of all countries of the world
and perform many important productive and reproductive roles; furthermore, because of their

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numbers in population, women make up half of the electorate in all countries. By their
numbers, women have the capacity to decide on political leadership if there are elections.
However, women are not elected to political office and few are put up as candidates at top
level of decision-making positions (Ofei-Aboagye, opcit).

According to the National Bureau of Statistics, (2002), in Tanzania, women are more than
men by 748,590. This suggests that once women are empowered and effectively involved in
local governance they can bring about viable contribution to the development process.
However, women are usually ignored in making decisions on important matters that concern
development and resource allocation. They are usually the implementers of decisions that are
made by men and their ideas, though important, are usually ignored and sometimes are even
not given chance to contribute. Moreover, if at all they are given chance, they are more likely
to be found in less important and less influential positions (Stacey and Price, 1981).

2.3 Scope of women participation in local governance

Empowerment is about people- both women and men- taking control over their lives: setting
their own agendas, gaining skills, building self confidence, problem solving and developing
self reliance. Women participation in local governance is more than mere involvement in
different activities in the local areas. It involves women making informed decisions based on
reliable and critical information. Most importantly, it has to do with organizing meetings,
creating organizations and institutions that allow for and welcome women participation. It
also has to do with learning skills and practices that stimulate maximum participation.

Women cannot become involved in decision-making structures in equal proportions to men

when they remain primarily responsible for child-rearing, when they are economically
disadvantaged by their care-giving role, and when they have fewer economic resources to run
for office. An important perspective is lost, which may affect the direction and priorities of
the country as a whole.

Participation needs to be dealt with in three areas of focus. Firstly, under category of
“capabilities”, societies should have structures and systems for true women participation, as

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well as give them the opportunities and freedom to engage. Secondly, under category of
“competence”, the societies must have competent women involved in managing the systems
and structures in a constructive way. Thirdly and often most importantly, women must have
the motivation to participate – to become engaged.

2.4 Importance of women participation and development in local governance

Women participation in local governance is important in various ways as explained below:
Firstly, it improves women’s confidence with which they can freely give their own ideas
pertaining to various developmental aspects in their localities. Warioba (1999) contends that
they become more concerned about various aspects in their local areas like knowing about
what is being done with their taxes and how it is being done as well as questioning about
various acts that pertain to corruption or extravagance. This means that they become part and
parcel of the development process and hence they can contribute substantially and
effectively.

Secondly, it improves sustainable use and conservation of local resources. This is due to the
fact that women become more responsible and efficient in managing and protecting the
resources at hand. Thirdly, it also enables women become independent and even be able to
lead their own life by facing various intricate challenges resolutely and confidently.

Lastly, participation makes women able to create additional resources where they are scarce.
For example, they can help in reclaiming the marginal land leading to the expansion of the
arable land in their localities.

2.5 Linkage of gender to poverty reduction

Poverty is a world-wide problem with its roots in inequality. The world's 225 richest people
have a combined wealth of more than one trillion US dollars, equal to the annual income of
the poorest 47% of the world's population (2.5 billion people). The three richest people's
assets exceed the combined Gross Domestic Product of 48 developing countries (Jacqueline
Neun, 1997). In the world, women are the poorest of the poor.

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According to Whitehead (2003), poverty has a woman face. It is not sufficient to simply
acknowledge that poor people are both women and men. Poverty is more complexly
gendered, as men and women are often poor for different reasons, experience poverty
differently, and have differing capacities to withstand and or escape poverty. Gender
inequalities and gender power relations interact with other inequalities and power relations to
produce these differences. It is argued that the majority of the 1.5 billion people living on 1
dollar a day or less are women, and that the gap between women and men caught in the cycle
of poverty has continuing to be wide.

Women living in poverty are often denied access to critical resources and that their labour
goes unrewarded and unrecognized. Cagatay (2001:14) argues that women are more
vulnerable to poverty than men as a result of unbalanced gender-power relations. Women
have long been ignored in the decision-making process and resource control making them fail
to engage effectively and sustainably in the production process. Therefore, there is a need to
involve women in decision-making and implementation in local governance in order to
promote their productive role and the general performance of the local governance and to
bring about development.

An important achievement of the Beijing Conference has been the recognition by

governments that there is a gender dimension to poverty. This has resulted in efforts to
refocus poverty eradication policies to address specifically the needs of women, particularly
in rural areas. It has also led to the introduction of a wider definition of poverty, one that not
only takes into account minimum basic needs but also includes the denial of opportunities
and choices.

The overwhelming majority of countries reporting on their implementation of the Beijing

Platform for Action have referred to many initiatives in this area. A few examples are:
(i) In Uganda, there is now an understanding that only by incorporating a gender
perspective in all aspects of the National Poverty Eradication Action Plan can the goal
to eradicate mass poverty by the year 2017 be achieved.

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 (ii) Cameroon, Madagascar and Niger have identified women as a specific target group in
their national poverty eradication programmes.
(iii) Senegal has conducted gender training for senior decision-makers to mainstream a
gender perspective into sectoral development planning.
(iv) Denmark's development assistance policy calls for the inclusion of a gender
perspective in all programmes.
(v) Singapore has implemented the Small Families Improvement Scheme, the purpose of
which is to help low-income families to get access to education and housing.
(http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/followup/session/presskit/fs1.htm)

3.0 CONCLUSION
Empowering women is a critical factor in freeing the millions of people who are caught in the
cycle of poverty and hunger. By providing women with access to economic and educational
opportunities, as well as the autonomy needed to take advantage of such opportunities, an
important obstacle to poverty eradication would be overcome.

Although there are no laws that directly or indirectly prevent women from participating in
politics in the country, this has not led to a significant increase in their participation, and the
numbers of women participating in politics continue to be low. The problem is more
pronounced in rural areas as compared to urban areas. This suggests that there are some
forces influencing the extent of women’s civic and political participation in local governance,
which need to be researched and see how the situation can be improved.

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