Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instrument

Definition: The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetic
field between which the coil moves is known as the permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. It
operates on the principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the permanent
magnet. The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC measurement.

The moving coil and permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC instrument. The parts of the PMMC
instruments are explained below in details.

Moving Coil – The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is freely moved between the
stationary field of the permanent magnet. The current passes through the coil deflects it due to which the
magnitude of the current or voltage is determined. The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is
made up of aluminium. The former increases the radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of
the poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a magnet.

The coil is mounted on the rectangular former which is made up of aluminium. The former increases the
radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover
copper wire between the poles of a magnet.

Magnet System – The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnets.
The Alcomax and Alnico material are used for creating the permanent magnet because this magnet has the
high coercive force (The coercive force changes the magnetisation property of the magnet). Also, the
magnet has high field intensities.
Control – In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs. The springs are made up of
phosphorous bronze and placed between the two jewel bearings. The spring also provides the path to the
lead current to flow in and out of the moving coil. The controlling torque is mainly because of the suspension
of the ribbon.

Damping – The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in rest. This damping torque
is induced because of the movement of the aluminium core which is moving between the poles of the
permanent magnet.

Pointer & Scale – The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflection of the coil,
and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale. The pointer is made of the lightweight material,
and hence it is easily deflected with the movement of the coil. Sometimes the parallax error occurs in the
instrument which is easily reduced by correctly aligning the blade of the pointer.
Torque Equation for PMMC Instrument

The deflecting torque induces because of the movement of the coil. The deflecting torque is expressed by
the equation shown below.

Error in PMMC Instruments

In PMMC instruments the error occurs because of the ageing and the temperature effects of the instruments.
The magnet, spring and the moving coil are the main parts of the instruments which cause the error. The
different types of errors of the instrument are explained below in details.

1. Magnet – The heat and vibration reduce the lifespan of the permanent magnet. This treatment also
reduced the magnetism of the magnet. The magnetism is the property of the attraction or repulsion of the
magnet. The weakness of the magnet decreases the deflection of the coil.

2. Springs – The weakness of the spring increases the deflection of moving coil between the permanent
magnet. So, even for the small value of current, the coil show large deflection. The spring gets weakened
because of the effect of the temperature. One degree rise in temperature reduces the 0.004 percent life of
the spring.

3. Moving Coil – The error exists in the coil when their range is extended from the given limit by the use of
the shunt. The error occurs because of the change of the coil resistance on the shunt resistance. This
happens because the coil is made up of copper wire which has high shunt resistance and the shunt wire
made up of Magnin has low resistance.

To overcome from this error, the swamping resistance is placed in series with the moving coil. The resistor
which has low-temperature coefficient is known as the swamping resistance. The swamping resistance
reduces the effect of temperature on the moving coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instruments

The following are the advantages of the PMMC Instruments.

1. The scale of the PMMC instruments is correctly divided.

2. The power consumption of the devices is very less.
3. The PMMC instruments have high accuracy because of the high torque weight ratio.
4. The single device measures the different range of voltage and current. This can be done by the use
of multipliers and shunts.
5. The PMMC instruments use shelf shielding magnet which is useful for the aerospace applications.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments

The following are the disadvantages of the PMMC instruments.

1. The PMMC instruments are only used for the direct current. The alternating current varies with the
time. The rapid variation of the current varies the torque of the coil. But the pointer can not follow
the fast reversal and the deflection of the torque. Thus, it cannot use for AC.
2. The cost of the PPMC instruments is much higher as compared to the moving coil instruments.

The moving coil itself provides the electromagnetic damping. The electromagnetic damping opposes the
motion of the coil which is because of the reaction of the eddy current and the magnetic field.
Moving Iron or MI Instrument

Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or voltage is
known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that the iron place near the magnet attracts
towards it. The force of attraction depends on the strength of the magnet field. The magnetic field induces
by the electromagnet whose strength depends on the magnitude of the current passes through it.

The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument. The vane is so placed that it
can freely move in the magnetic field of the stationary coil. The conductor makes the stationary coil, and it
is excited by the voltage or current whose magnitude is used to be measured.

The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The electromagnet is the
temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength increases or decreases with the magnitude of the current
passes through it.

Working of the Moving Iron Instrument

The moving iron instruments use the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire which acts as an
electromagnet when an electric current passes through it. The strength of the magnetic field induces by the
electromagnet is directly proportional to the current passes through it.

The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the inductance of the stationary coil (the
inductance is the property of the conductor which increases their electromotive force when the varying
current passes through it).

The electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes through the coil tries to occupy the minimum
reluctance path (the reluctance is the property of the magnet which opposes the flow of electric current).

The vane passes through the coil experience a force of repulsion caused by the electromagnet. The repulsion
force increases the strength of the coil inductance.
This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely proportional to each other.

Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments

The attraction and the repulsion are the types of the moving iron instruments. Their detail explanation is
shown below.

1. Attraction Type – The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the weaker field towards the
stronger field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type instrument.

Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type instrument is flat
and has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core. The current flow through the
stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron coil.
The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of the
deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we can say that
the iron coil attracts towards in.

The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The deflection of the coil
is reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.

2. Repulsion Type Instruments – The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron plates. One is fixed,
and the other one is movable. The vanes become magnetised when the current passes through the
stationary coil and the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a repulsive force, the moving coil
starts moving away from the fixed vane.
The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque, which opposes the
movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized instrument, i.e., free from the
direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for both AC and DC.

Advantages of the MI Instruments

The following are the advantages of the moving iron instruments.

1. Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence used for
both AC and DC.
2. Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because their
torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current carrying part is
stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.
3. Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC instrument.
Thus, it is cheaper.
4. Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also because their
current carrying part is stationary.

Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.

The following are the disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument.

1. Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate result is
not possible.
2. Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency and stray
magnetic field.
3. Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to the square
of the current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.
4. Difference between AC and DC calibration – The calibration of the AC and DC are differed because
of the effect of the inductance of meter and the eddy current which is used on AC. The AC is
calibrated on the frequency at which they use.

Two type of error occurs in the MI instruments i.e., the error which occurs on both AC and DC and the error
which only occur on AC.
Electrostatic Type Instruments
As the name suggests the electrostatic type instrument use static electrical field to produce the deflecting
torque. These types of instrument are generally used for the measurement of high voltages but in some cases
they can be used in measuring the lower voltages and powers of a given circuit. Now there are two possible ways
in which the electrostatic force can act. The two possible conditions are written below,

Construction of Electrostatic Type Instruments

1. When one of the plates is fixed and other plate is free to move, plates are oppositely charged in order
to have attractive force between them. Now due this attractive force movable plate will move towards
the stationary or fixed plate till the moving plate stored maximum electrostatic energy.
2. In other arrangement there may be force of attraction or repulsion or both, due to some rotary of plate.

Force and Torque Equation of Electrostatic Type Instrument

Now let us derive force equation for the linear electrostatic type instruments. Let us consider two plates as
shown in the diagram given below.

Plate A is positively charged and plate B is negatively charged. As mentioned above as per the possible condition
(a) we have linear motion between the plates. The plate A is fixed and plate B is free to move. Let us assume
there exists some force F between the two plates at equilibrium when electrostatic force becomes equal to spring
force. At this point, the electrostatic energy stored in the plates is

Now suppose we increase the applied voltage by an amount dV, due to this the plate B moves towards the plate
A by a distance dx. The work done against the spring force due to displacement of the plate B be F.dx. The applied
voltage is related to current as

From this value of electric current the input energy can be calculated as

From this we can calculate the change in the stored energy and that comes out to be

By neglecting the higher order terms that appears in the expression. Now applying the principle of energy
conservation we have input energy to the system = increase in the stored energy of the system + mechanical
work done by the system. From this we can write,
From the above equation the force can be calculated as

Now let us derive force and torque equation for the rotary electrostatic type instruments. Diagram is shown
below,

In order to find out the expression for deflecting torque in case of rotary type electrostatic instruments, just
replace the in the equation (1) F by Td and dx by dA. Now rewriting the modified equation we have deflecting
torque is equals to

Now at steady state we have controlling torque is given by the expression Tc = K × A. The deflection A can be
written as

From this expression we conclude that the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the square of the
voltage to be measured hence the scale will be non uniform. Let us now discuss about Quadrant electrometer.
This instrument is generally used in measuring the voltage ranging from 100V to 20 kilo volts. Again the deflecting
torque obtained in the Quadrant electrometer is directly proportional to the square of the applied voltage; one
advantage of this is that this instrument can used to measure both the AC and DC voltages. One advantage of
using the electrostatic type instruments as voltmeters is that we can extend the range of voltage to be measured.
Now there are two ways of extending the range of this instrument. We will discuss them one by one.

(a) By using resistance potential dividers: Given below is the circuit diagram of this type of configuration.

The voltage which we want to measure is applied across the total resistance r and the electrostatic capacitor is
connected across the portion of the total resistance which is marked as r. Now suppose the applied voltage is DC,
then we should make one assumption that the capacitor which is connected is having infinite leakage resistance.
In this case the multiplying factor is given by the ratio of electrical resistance r/R. The ac operation on this circuit
can also be analyzed easily again in case of ac operation we multiplying factor equal to r/R.
(b) By using capacitor multiplier technique: We can increase the range of voltage to be measured by placing a
series of capacitors as shown in the given circuit.

Let us derive the expression for multiplying factor for the circuit diagram 1. Let us mark the capacitance of the
voltmeter be C1 and series capacitor be C2 as shown in the given circuit diagram. Now the series combination of
these capacitor be equal to

Which is the total capacitance of the circuit. Now the impedance of the voltmeter is equal to Z 1 = 1/jωC1 and
thus total impedance will be equal to
Now the multiplying factor can be defined as the ratio of Z/Z1 which is equal to 1 + C2 / C1. Similarly the multiplying
factor can also be calculated. Hence by this way we can increase the range of voltage to be measure.

Advantages of Electrostatic Type Instruments

Now let us look at some advantages of electrostatic type instruments.

1. The first and the most important advantage is that we can measure both AC and DC voltage and the
reason is very obvious the deflecting torque is directly proportional to the square of the voltage.
2. Power consumption is quite low in these types of instruments as the current drawn by these
instruments is quite low.
3. We can measure high value of voltage.

Disadvantages of Electrostatic Type Instruments

Instead of various advantages, electrostatic instruments possess few disadvantages and these are written below.

1. These are quite costly as compared to other instruments and these have large size.
2. The scale is not uniform.
3. The various operating forces involved are small in magnitude.
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS
An electrodynamometer type instrument is a moving coil instrument in which the operating field is
produced by another coil which is fixed. This type of instrument can be used either as an ammeter or as
a voltmeter, but is generally used as a wattmeter.

ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT AS AN AMMETER

ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT AS A VOLTMETER

Electrodynamic instruments are also capable of functioning as transfer instruments. Besides, their use
as an ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter; they are also used to transfer calibration of working
instruments.

CONSTRUCTION –

The instrument consists of a fixed coil and a moving coil. The fixed coil is usually air-cored to avoid
hysteresis effects when used on AC circuits. Fixed coils are wound with fine wire for use as a voltmeter.
But, if the instrument is to be used as an ammeter or wattmeter, then the fixed coils are wound with
heavy wire carrying the main current.

The moving coil is mounted on an aluminium spindle. It is wound either as self sustaining coil or else
on a non-metallic former so as to prevent eddy currents. Moving coils are also air-cored.

CONTROLLING TORQUE –

Controlling torque is provided by two control springs. These springs act as leads to the moving coil.

DAMPING –

Air friction damping is provided by aluminium vanes attached to the spindle at the bottom.

DEFLECTING TORQUE –

Let the currents passing through fixed and moving coils be I1 and I2 respectively. Since, there is no iron,
field strength and hence flux density is proportional to I 1.
As, the deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, ⇒θ ∝ I1 I2. The deflection produced in the
instrument is proportional to the product of currents flowing in the fixed and the moving coil.

ADVANTAGES –

• These instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current losses.
• They can be used on both AC and DC.
• They are used as transfer instruments.

DISADVANTAGES –

• Low torque/weight ratio and hence low sensitivity.

• Costlier than PMMC and moving iron type.
• Non-uniform scale.
HOT WIRE TYPE INSTRUMENT

The working of a hot wire type measuring instrument is based on the heating effect of the current. These
type of instruments are not much in use nowadays because if their instability in working. Nevertheless,
they paved the way for further advancements of their own type.

CONSTRUCTION –

HOT WIRE TYPE INSTRUMENT

The adjacent figure shows the constructional features of a hot wire type instrument. It consists of a
platinum-iridium wire AB stretched between a fixed end B and tension adjusting screw at A. The
platinum-iridium wire used here can withstand oxidation at high temperatures. Now, a phosphor bronze
wire CD is attached or hooked up to the centre of AB. This wire CD is further attached to a silk fiber
which after passing round the pulley is attached to a spring S.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

When the current is passed through the fine wire AB, it gets heated up and expands. The sag of the wire
is magnified and the expansion is taken up by the spring. This causes the pulley to rotate and the pointer
to deflect, indicating the value of the current.

The expansion is proportional to the heating effect of the current and hence to the square of the rms
value of the current.
DAMPING –

Damping is provided by eddy currents produced in the aluminium disc. This thin disc is attached to the
pulley such that its edge moves between the poles of the permanent magnet M.

ADVANTAGES –

• Suited for both AC and DC work.

• Readings are independent of waveform and frequency.
• Unaffected by stray fields.

DISADVANTAGES –

• Sluggish response due to temperature dependent working.

• High power consumption.
• Mechanical shocks.
• They are fragile.
• Inability to withstand overloads.

These disadvantages have made this instrument commercially unsatisfactory. As such, they are now
obsolete and have been replaced by thermo-electric instruments.
Thermocouple Instrument
Definition: The instrument which uses the thermocouple forthe measurement of
the temperature, current and voltage such type of instrument is known as the thermocouple
instrument. It is used for both the AC and DC measurement.

The thermocouple is an electric device which uses two wires of the different metal. It’s work on the
principle that the heat energy is converted into an electric energy at the junction which is made of different
metals.

The current whose magnitude is used to be measured passes through the junction of the thermocouple.
The current produces the heat in the heater element, and the thermocouple induces the electromotive
force in the output terminals. This emf is measured through the PMMC instrument. The magnitude of the
emf is proportional to the temperature and the RMS value of the current.

The most significant advantage of the thermocouple instrument is that it is used for high-frequency
measurement of current and voltage. The instrument is more accurate for the frequency above 50Hz.

Principle of Operation of Thermoelectric Instrument

The circuit in which thermal emf generates is made of two dissimilar metals. The temperature at their
junction is written as

Where the a and b are constant, and their value depends on the properties of metal used in the
thermocouple. The approximate value of the a is 40 to 50 microvolt, and that of the b is a few tenths to
hundreds of microvolt/C2.

Let = Δθ temperature difference between hot and cold junction. Thus their temperature is expressed as
The heater produces the heat which is directly proportional to the I2R. Where I is the RMS value of
current and R is the resistance of the heating element. The rise in temperature is proportional to the heat
produces by the heating element.

The thermocouple instrument has two junctions cold and hot. The difference between these two junctions
is expressed as

The value of b is very small as compared to the a and hence it is neglected. The temperature at the
junction is expressed as

The deflection of PMMC instrument is directly proportional to the emf induces in the terminals. The
deflection of the moving coil instruments is expressed as

Where K3 – aK1K2R = a constant.

The instrument shows the square law response.

Construction of Thermoelectric Instrument

Thermoelectric element and the indicating instrument are the two main parts of the thermo-electric
instrument.

Thermoelectric elements

Four types of thermoelectric element are used in the thermocouple instrument. Their types are explained
below in details.

1. Contact Type – The contact type element uses the separate heater. The junction of the thermocouple
is contacted with the heater shown in the figure below.
The electric heating element is used for the following purposes.

1. The heater element converts the electrical energy into thermal energy.
2. The heat energy is converted into thermal energy with the help of Seebeck effect.
3. The output terminal of the thermocouple is connected to PMMC instrument. The smallest
amount of the electric energy is used for deflecting the pointer of PMMC instrument, and this
energy is stored in the spring of the instrument.

2. Non-contact type Instrument – In this instrument, there is no electrical contact between the heating
element and the thermocouple. It is separated by the electrical insulation. The insulation makes the
system less sensitive and slow as compared to the contact type instrument.

3. Vacuum Thermo-Element – In the vacuum tube instrument, the heater and the thermocouple are
placed in the evacuated glass tube. This vacuum tube increases the efficiency of the instruments
because heater remains hot for a long time.

4. Bridge Type – In the bridge type instrument, the current is directly passed through the thermocouple
and raises their temperature. The temperature of the thermocouple is directly proportional to the RMS
value of current.
Advantages of thermoelectric Instrument

The following are the advantages of thermoelectric Instrument.

1. It directly indicates the RMS value of voltage and current on the waveform.
2. Such type of instrument is free from the stray magnetic field.
3. The thermic electric element is used for a wide range of current measurement.
4. The instrument has a high sensitivity.
5. It is useful for the calibration of the potentiometer with the help of the standard cell.
6. The thermic element is free from the frequency error and hence used for the widest range of
frequency.

Disadvantages of thermoelectric Instrument

The only disadvantage of the thermoelectric instrument is that their overload capacity is less as
compared to the other element.