LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the effect of education, formal
and informal, on domestic violence, with a specific focus on the context of Northern Nigeria. We will
delve into the intricacies of domestic violence and will narrow down to the influence of education. This
review will synthesize and scrutinize existing literature related to the impact of education on domestic
violence. The type of education that will be analyzed is not limited to formal education only but will
consider all forms of education as is available related to domestic violence. This review will consider
informal education, in the various forms of community outreach and development programs, government
schemes and initiatives, community rehabilitation programmes, community-based education initiatives
etc. This review aims to contribute meaningfully to the existing body of knowledge. In a time
characterized by worldwide dedication to advancing gender equality and empowerment, and with a strong
emphasis on the Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations, n.d.), understanding the impact of
education on domestic is a means of fostering societal advancement.

Conceptual Framework
Education, from the perspective of Jadas and Daban as cited in Ibrahim. K et al (2019) is a structured
procedure for transferring knowledge and skills to individuals, empowering them to become valuable
both to themselves and to society. Education is described as an ongoing process of acquiring knowledge,
wherein individuals or groups learn through interaction with one another and through mobility from one
location to another (Princewiil, 2023). Education can either be formal or informal i.e., conducted in a
structured institution such as a school or knowledge acquired outside a formal learning institution.
Domestic/ Intimate Partner violence is a global health and societal issue. It transcends various cultural,
religious, gender, age and ethnic distinctions. It is a phenomenon that occurs within family relationships
and intimate relationships alike. It is important to note that domestic violence disproportionately affects
women, with men being predominantly responsible for perpetuating such violence. This encompasses
various forms of abuse as physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women within intimate
relationships including married couples, couples cohabiting or dating (United Nations, n.d; Violence
against Women, n.d.).
The United Nations reported the impact of domestic violence on global development. It results in broader
social and economic costs by undermining the capability of women which in turn slows economic growth
(United Nations, n.d.). In the United States, the cost of domestic violence is over $5.8 billion annually and
over $900 million of the cost is directly related to productivity losses (National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control, 2003). Research conducted by International Monetary Fund (IMF) staff on the
effects of domestic violence on economic development shows that women who are victims of domestic
abuse are likely to work fewer hours and show lower productivity levels at work. Over time, elevated
rates of domestic violence can reduce female workforce participation, hinder their education opportunities
and diminish public investments (Ouedraogo & Stenzel, 2021).

The transformative potential of education should not be undervalued. Education can be seen as a method
of intervention for women and girls who experience violence, including but not limited to domestic
violence. Education empowers individuals, particularly women, and alters societal attitudes toward
domestic violence (Fulu et al., 2014). The participation of women in education is considered a harbinger
of opportunities for professional work. Scholars such as Amartya Sen, establish a connection between
illiteracy and insecurity hence, the illiteracy of women affects their security (Sen, 1999 in Muhanguzi.
F.K, 2021 p 2378). It can be inferred that because of this, underprivileged women are vulnerable to threats
of insecurity. Such findings are the reason why women need to be educated, not only formally but about
the rights they possess, and given opportunities to seek and gain useful employment. This knowledge
could also be used as a foundation to develop advocacy, community outreach and development
programmes that help women who are experiencing violence within their household.

Domestic Violence and Education

It is estimated, according to a report by the American Medical Association, that around 2 million women
worldwide experience some form of abuse from their domestic partners annually (Marwick, 1998 in Ely
et al., 2007). This emphasizes that domestic violence is a phenomenon of serious concern with significant
global implications. Globally, several factors contribute to the nature of domestic violence. These factors
are influenced by social factors such as the tolerance of such abuse, the subjugated status of women,
religious doctrines and conflict. Domestic violence can also be linked to other factors such as limited
access to education, substance abuse, financial constraints, poverty, relationship dynamics, personality
profiles etc. (Ely et al., 2007; Fulu et al., 2014).

In the WHO’s (2005) classification, violence against women was categorized into four main types:
physical violence, sexual violence, psychological/emotional violence, and the prospect of physical or
sexual harm (WHO, 2005). According to Williams (2021), reports that scholars and researchers have
contended that violence against women serves as an expression of patriarchal dominance by men, deeply
rooted in gender and power disparities. Traditional gender roles outline the responsibilities of men and
women. Men are responsible for providing for their families while women are responsible for managing
the household and taking care of children. Any deviation from these roles or expectations can lead to
violence as a means of disciplining women (Umberson, 2001 in Williams, T. M 2021 p 972).

Education plays an important role in the dynamics of domestic violence. Numerous studies have
established a strong link between education and changes in behaviours related to domestic violence.
Kabeer (2005) observed that access to education can empower women and increase their cognitive
abilities which motivates them to gain access to knowledge, information and new ideas that can improve
their lives. She also recorded that women who were educated appeared less likely to suffer from domestic
violence. Through a study conducted on men's violence against women in Bangladesh, it was recorded
that women who have access to income-generating opportunities, awareness-raising programmes and
other types of empowerment programmes reduced the likelihood of women experiencing domestic
violence (Schuler et al., 1998). Fulu et al. (2014) also note different forms of education play a
fundamentally transformative role in challenging traditional gender norms and promoting gender equality,
which results in a decrease in acceptance of domestic violence for both victims and perpetrators.

Education can only make an impact if it is accessible to all individuals worldwide, regardless of gender,
social class or traditional beliefs which makes access to education a critical element in understanding and
measuring the potential effect it has on domestic violence. The United Nations SDGs have as part of their
goal ‘Quality Education’. The main goal is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. This includes formal education at basic and higher
education levels and technical and vocational skill acquisition. This is inclusive of individuals being able
to ‘acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among
others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender
equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship…’. (United Nations, n.d.).
This goal enforces the importance of improving access to quality of education which can be an effective
strategy in reducing and eliminating domestic violence. This view is particularly relevant in the Northern
Nigerian context, where access to education varies significantly among different groups and disparities in
access may influence domestic violence rates.

However, some scholars have reported that the education of women may not positively affect the rate at
which women experience domestic violence. They may be at a higher risk of experiencing this violence.
Williams (2021) outlined some studies to further analyze the diverse relationships between education and
domestic violence. Regassa (2012) and Garcia-Moreno (2002) found that women with a higher
educational level were at a higher risk of experiencing domestic violence.
Education as a means of Economic empowerment in Reduction of Domestic Violence
Education is widely recognized as a factor that influences various aspects of individual, social, economic,
and life outcomes. It is seen as a tool for advancing gender equality in numerous aspects. Education is
often regarded as one of the primary pathways to women's empowerment (Zhou et al., 2021). Female
education remains a challenge worldwide and this poses a significant barrier in terms of resources and
opportunities when it comes to escaping domestic violence (Nussbaum, 2004).
Research and data analysis conducted on the connection between education and domestic violence shows
that as the level of education increases, the likelihood of experiencing domestic violence decreases.
Ghimire, Axinn and Smith-Greenway (2015) noted that widespread education significantly decreased
instances of domestic violence among in Nepal.
Kabeer (2011) in a study, found education (mostly secondary education) a prominent catalyst for
facilitating economic development in women through increased access to formal employment as well as
having a positive effect on other aspects of a woman’s life.
A very early study by Richard Gelles (1976) reported that the scarcer a woman’s resources are, the lower
her likelihood of leaving an abusive relationship. Economists have established with supportive evidence,
the relationship between women's economic empowerment and domestic violence (Hidrobo and Fernald
2013; Audra Bowlus and Shannon Seitz 2006; Pierotti 2013)
Aizer (2010) observed in her study that the decrease in the wage gap accounted for at least 9% of the
reduction in violence against women which indicates that alongside more equitable development resource
distribution, policies specifically aimed at narrowing the wage gap can contribute to a decrease in
violence against women.
In Stromquist (2015) women empowerment theory, education remains a pivotal factor as its integration
with economic, political and psychological circumstances. She notes that formal education facilitates
women in securing high-paying positions which contributes to their economic empowerment, however,
formal education alone does foster social change on a large scale. She highlights the importance of non-
formal education, stating that gender awareness programs and initiatives should be made readily
accessible to women. Warner et al (2014), further support this emphasizing that these programs provide a
safe space, foster discussion and encourage women to think critically about gender norms. Eldred (2013)
also found that the literacy of women had positive outcomes in empowerment efforts by recognizing and
respecting their experiences and engaging in group education and discussions that allow them to make
more informed decisions and introduce aspects of gender awareness such as women's rights to protection
from domestic violence and sexual assault.
Gaps

In conducting a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the impact of education on domestic
violence in Northern Nigeria, there are several noticeable gaps in understanding this important issue. One
of the most significant challenges was the limited availability of research that specifically addressed the
intricate connection between education and domestic violence in this region. Instead, a large portion of
the literature emphasizes education as a means of economic empowerment, which, in some cases, was
linked to reduced instances of domestic violence. While economic empowerment is undoubtedly a critical
aspect, it offers just one perspective on the multifaceted problem of domestic violence. What seemed to
be missing was a deeper exploration of how education directly influences attitudes, behaviours, and the
prevalence of domestic violence globally and locally. This gap highlights the need for more research that
can provide a more comprehensive, human-centred understanding of this complex issue.

Conclusion

Education plays a vital role in reducing domestic violence, primarily through economic empowerment.
However, we've also discovered a substantial gap in our understanding of how education directly shapes
people's attitudes and behaviours concerning domestic violence in this region. This underscores the need
for deeper, more people-centric research to grasp the full impact of education on domestic violence
dynamics in Northern Nigeria. To effectively tackle this issue, policies and programs must consider not
just the economic dimension but also the broader influence of education on individuals, social norms, and
behaviours. By addressing this, we can better guide efforts to combat domestic violence and promote
safer, more equitable communities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Asiyanbola, A.R. (2005). Patriarchy, male dominance, the role and women empowerment in Nigeria.
http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/tours_2005/papers/iussp2005s50005.pdf

Bowlus, Audra and Shannon Seitz. 2006. “Domestic Violence, Employment and Divorce.” International
Economic Review, 47(4): 1113-1149.
http://qed.econ.queensu.ca/working_papers/papers/qed_wp_1075.pdf

Eldred, J. (2013). Literacy and women’s empowerment: Stories of success and inspiration. UNESCO
Institute for Lifelong Learning.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223466

Ely, G., Dulmus, C., & Wodarski, J. (2007). Domestic Violence: A Literature Review Reflecting an
International Crisis. Stress, Trauma, and Crisis: An International Journal, 7.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15434610490450860

Fulu, E., Kerr-Wilson, A., & Lang, J. (2014). What works to prevent violence against women and girls?
Evidence Review of interventions to prevent violence against women and girls.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089a8ed915d3cfd00037c/
What_Works_Inception_Report_June_2014_AnnexF_WG23_paper_prevention_interventions.pdf

Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Violence against women: Consolidating a public health agenda. In G. Sen, A.
George, & P. Ostilin (Eds.), Engendering international health: The challenge of equity (pp. 111–141).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7458323_Violence_Against_Women

Gelles, Richard. (1976). “Abused Wives: Why do They Stay?” Journal of Marriage and the Family,
38(4):659-668

https://www-jstor-org.prxy.lib.unbc.ca/stable/pdf/350685.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default
%3A78b13656af24e402ac89f51dde966015&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1

Ghimire, D. J., W. G. Axinn, and E. Smith-Greenaway. 2015. “Impact of the Spread of Mass Education
on Married Women’s Experience with Domestic Violence.” Social Science Research 54: 319–331.
doi:10.1016/j. ssresearch.2015.08.004.
Hidrobo, M., and L. Fernald. 2013. “Cash Transfers and Domestic Violence.” Journal of Health
Economics 32 (1): 304–319.

doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2012.11.002.

Kabeer, N. (2011), ‘Contextualising the Economic Pathways of Women’s Empowerment, Findings from a
Multi-country Research Program’, Pathways Policy Paper, Brighton: Pathways of Women’s
Empowerment.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/160483739.pdf

Muhanguzi, F. K (2021) Women and Girls’ Education in Africa: Changes and Continuities. The Palgrave
Handbook of African Women’s Studies. 2375-2392
https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-28099-4

National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2003). Costs of Intimate Partner Violence Against
Women in the United States: 721242007-001
https://doi.org/10.1037/e721242007-001

Nations, U. (n.d). What Is Domestic Abuse? United Nations;

https://www.un.org/en/coronavirus/what-is-domestic-abuse

Nussbaum, M. (2004). Women’s Education: A Global Challenge. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and
Society, 29(2), 325–335.
https://doi.org/10.1086/378571

Offiong, E. E., Eyo, E. I., Offiong, A, E. (2021). Patriarchy, Culture and the Social Development of
Women in Nigeria. Pinisi Journal of Art, Humanity and Social Studies, 1(4), 80-
https://ojs.unm.ac.id/PJAHSS/article/download/26708/13541

Ouedraogo, R., & Stenzel, D. (2021). How Domestic Violence is a Threat to Economic Development.
IMF.
https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2021/11/24/how-domestic-violence-is-a-threat-to-economic-
development
Pierotti, R. S. (2013). Increasing Rejection of Intimate Partner Violence: Evidence of Global Cultural
Diffusion.” American Sociological Review 78 (2), 240–265.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0003122413480363

Princewiil, C. (2023). The Role of Education, Culture and Religion on Domestic Violence on Women in
Nigeria. Global Journal of Human-Social Science, 23(1), 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.34257/LJRHSSVOL23IS1PG1

Regassa, N. (2012). Intimate partners violence in Southern Ethiopia: Examining the prevalence and risk
factors in the Sidama zone. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 4(1), 13-22.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267369718_Intimate_partners
%27_violence_in_Southern_Ethiopia_Examining_the_prevalence_and_risk_factors_in_the_Sidama_Zon
e

Schuler, S. R., Hashemi, S. M., & Badal, S. H. (1998). Men’s Violence against Women in Rural
Bangladesh: Undermined or Exacerbated by Microcredit Programmes. Development in Practice, 8(2),
148–157.
https://www-jstor-org.prxy.lib.unbc.ca/stable/pdf/4029300.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default
%3Af06c7b8f1071c770434da84e874568d8&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1

United Nations. (n.d.-a). Goal 4 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Department of Economic
and Social Affairs Sustainable Development. Retrieved October 24, 2023, from
https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4#targets_and_indicators

United Nations. (n.d.-b). Goal 5 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved October 23,
2023.
https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5#targets_and_indicators

United Nations, U. (n.d.-c). Examining Domestic Violence Around the World: The Cost of Doing Nothing.
United Nations. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/examining-domestic-violence-around-world-cost-doing-nothing

World Health Organization (WHO) (2021) Violence against women. Retrieved October 23, 2023.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women
 Warner, A., Stobenau, K., & Glinski, A. (2014). More Power to Her: How empowering Girls Can Help
End Child Marriage. International Center for Research on Women.
https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/More-Power-pages-Web.pdf

WHO. (2005). Integrating poverty and gender into health programmes: A sourcebook for health
professionals. Module on gender-based violence. Geneva: World Health Organization.
https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/207485/9290611944_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Williams, T. M (2021) Violence and Women's Health in Africa. In Yacob-Haliso, O & Falola, T. The
Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies (pp. 969-985)
https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-28099-4

Zhou, D., Li, X., & Su, Y. (2021). The Impacts of Education on Domestic Violence: Evidence from China.
Applied Economics, 53(58), 6702–6720.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2021.1937504

Topic: The Effects of Education on Domestic Violence in Northern Nigeria

Topic Search Terms
Education Education OR educate OR formal education OR informal education OR Learning,
adult education, OR teaching, OR schooling, OR education system, OR higher
education
Domestic violence Domestic Violence OR intimate partner violence OR violence against women OR
Gender-based violence OR oppression of women OR family violence, OR
relationship abuse, OR abusers, OR emotional abuse,
Effects Effects OR Connection OR Impact OR outcomes, OR influence, OR significance,
OR importance, OR gravity

Revised Research Questions

1. How does formal education, including primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, influence the prevalence
and dynamics of domestic violence in Northern Nigeria?

2. To what extent do informal educational initiatives, such as community outreach programs and
government schemes, contribute to changing attitudes and behaviors related to domestic violence in the
Northern Nigerian context?

3. In what ways does education, as a tool for economic empowerment, contribute to the reduction of
domestic violence in Northern Nigeria, and are there specific educational interventions that are more
effective in achieving this outcome?

4. Are there variations in the relationship between education and domestic violence based on cultural,
religious, or regional factors within Northern Nigeria, and how can these variations inform targeted
interventions and policies?