Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 1

RUNNING HEAD: Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction

Love in a Time of SMS: Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction

Kelly Gooch

James Madison University

 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 2

Abstract

With the steady incline of SMS (Short Message Service), there are bound to be effects on those

who use it in regards to intimate interpersonal relationships. This study will examine several aspects of

text messaging and the qualities of satisfactory romantic relationships. It will look at the recent changes

in text message usage, why these changes have taken place, and the benefits and costs of using text

messaging. Through previous research it will review the qualities of a satisfying romantic relationship,

and will then discuss how text message usage can impact the presence of these qualities. A survey of

200 college students will then determine how text messaging affects young adults’ levels of romantic

relationship satisfaction. From there this study will attempt to determine whether or not text messaging

is beneficial in maintaining these romantic relationships.

 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 3

Introduction

Seemingly everyone is walking around with some sort of mobile device in their hand. Whether

it’s a smartphone, a dumbphone, a touch phone, an iPhone, or any other kind of phone, many possess

the revolutionary communication device known as a cellular phone. In 2010, the United Nations

reported that 4.6 billion people globally (67 percent of the world) held cellphone subscriptions (Engler,

2010). Before the early 1990s when the first text messages were sent, the sole purpose of cell phones

was to make calls without having to be at home, or inside for that matter (Grinter & Elridge, 2001). As

technology expands, however, cell phones are becoming useful for many other tasks.

In the 21st century, the calling feature of cell phones has been trumped in usage by another

feature: text messaging (The Nielsen Company, 2010). Otherwise known as Short Message Service

(SMS), text messaging has brought about a new era of communication capabilities. According to

research conducted by the consumer research company Nielsen Mobile, featured in a 2008 New York

Times article, a typical U.S mobile subscriber sent or received on average 357 texts per month, while

only an average of 204 calls were placed or received during that time (Steinhauer & Holson, 2008). The

preference of texting over calling has been linked to less developed social skills as exhibited by newer

generation users (Rettie, 2009). Text messaging among the younger generations is becoming the

preferred source of interactive technology (The Nielsen Company, 2010). The real question, however, is

whether or not the capabilities that SMS has to offer are used in our best interest. This study will delve

into how the increased usage of texting is affecting different aspects of relationships, particularly

romantic ones, and whether or not it is diminishing the importance of and desire for face-to-face

communication.
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 4

This paper first examines previous research done on characteristics of text messaging; what it is

used for, who its primary users are, and what benefits and costs come from using it. Further research

explaining the different qualities of romantic relationships that the texting generation looks for will be

addressed to see if an increased use of text messaging has an effect on romantic relationship

satisfaction.

Text Messaging

Initially the text messaging feature was developed for time-saving and information-sharing

purposes, however a recent study has found that the most commonly noted uses of SMS are to create,

develop and maintain relationships (Holtgraves, 2010). Of these relationship-related uses, an additional

study suggests that the maintenance and development of relationships are considered most common

(Rettie, 2009). Nevertheless, more specific reasons behind the use of text messaging vary among the

different types of SMS users.

Many nationalities, age groups and genders fall into this “user” category. Studies have been

conducted in multiple locations around the world, including the United States (Frasier, Reid, & Reid),

Great Britain (Holtgraves, 2010), China (Leung, 2007), Pacific Island locations (Grinter & Elridge 2001)

and African countries (Perry & Lee, 2007), all finding significant text messaging usage. Additionally, more

recent research done by Neilson Mobile suggests that India, Russia, Brazil, Spain, Italy and Germany are

SMS-savvy countries (The Neilson Company, 2010). As far as age groups go, teens and young adults are

the primary users. According to further information from the Neilson study, teens and young adults

ages thirteen to twenty-four use text messaging significantly more than any other age group, and it is

the primary reason for which they own mobile phones to begin with (The Neilson Company, 2010). This

is the age group this research study will address. While young adults show high usage of SMS,
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 5

differences have been found between males and females in this age group (Perry & Lee, 2007). One

study of young adults in the United Kingdom suggests that there are gendered dimensions to SMS with

females showing higher text message usage and males showing constraints (Henderson, Taylor, &

Thomson, 2002). The same results were found in study that was conducted on university students in a

developing nation off the coast of Africa (Perry & Lee, 2007).

The extensive usage of SMS among young adults is the result of the several benefits that come

with this feature (Reid & Reid, 2010). Research done on the expressive and conversational affordances

of text messaging suggests that it allows users to enrich their personal relationships in ways that might

otherwise be denied to them (Reid & Reid, 2010). These affordances include rapid conversation as well

as asynchrony. A study by Leung (2007) focusing on college students who use SMS on a daily basis

similarly states that texting enables users to say things that might be difficult to address in face-to-face

communication or even on the telephone and that SMS permits direct, immediate, casual mediated

contact. Leung (2007) also mentions that while users appreciate the rapidity of texting, they also take

advantage of the asynchrony, or ‘thinking time’ that this medium permits. Also, text messaging has been

described as quicker, cheaper and easier than other forms of communications media, thus its popularity

(Grinter & Eldridge, 2001).

Most forms of technology, despite any benefits they may have, also come with drawbacks. One

of the problems with text messaging includes the constantly evolving and often confusing form of

language involved, such as Textese, a texting language that uses abbreviations like “TTYL” (talk to you

later) or “LOL” (laughing out loud). Other problems include the inability to express intent or emotion,

and the risk of accidental sending messages to the wrong receivers (Grinter & Eldrige, 2001). The use of

SMS, although highly useful, presents several opportunities for misunderstandings and even conflict. As

text messaging becomes more common across the globe, its advantages and disadvantages are worth
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 6

looking at more intently. This study focuses specifically on how these advantages and disadvantages can

affect romantic relationship satisfaction.

Romantic Relationships

Romantic relationships among young adults are comprised of multiple factors. Factors such as

self-disclosure, certainty and uncertainty, relationship maintenance, expectations and attachment are all

important variables to examine.

Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) describe relationship satisfaction as “the degree to which an

individual is content and satisfied with his or her relationship”. They argue that it “is a strong indicator of

relationship length and success in traditional face-to-face intimate relationships. (Anderson & Emmers-

Sommers, 2006)” Our further research will delve into how text messaging in intimate relationships can

affect their length and success, or the relationship satisfaction felt between partners.

Communication and self-disclosure, or revealing information about oneself, is a vital component

of the ideal romantic relationship (Anderson & Emmers-Sommer, 2006). Critelli and Dupre (1978) note

that self-disclosure plays a causative role in producing the intense emotionality of romantic love (Critelli

& Dupre, 1978). Another study by Meeks, Hendrick and Hendrick (1998) suggests a positive correlation

between effective communication and relationship satisfaction. They also found that how we perceive

disclosure is more positively related to our relationship satisfaction than actual disclosure itself.

Disclosure (or how we perceive disclosure) is essential in successful romantic relationships.

Certainty in romantic relationships revolves around self-esteem, trust and confidence in the

relationship (Dion & Dion, 1975). According to Dion and Dion (1975), romantic certainty can also be

considered an important factor in relationship satisfaction. One study on self-esteem reports that those

with higher self esteem tend to experience romantic love more than those with low self-esteem (Dion &
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 7

Dion, 1975). Deception is often the source of a great deal of disagreement and conflict between

opposite sexes (Levine, McCornack, & Avery, 1992). When self-esteem and trust are both present in a

romantic relationship, each partner will likely be confident in the relationship. This in turn leads to a

collective form of certainty.

One way to build certainty in a relationship is through relationship maintenance. Relationship

maintenance is a behavior that is meant to keep a relationship in existence, in a specified state or

condition, in satisfactory condition, or in repair (Dindia & Canary, 1993). Romantic partners hold

expectations for their partner’s use of maintenance behaviors, and the more often these expectations

are fulfilled, the more relational satisfaction is experienced by each partner (Dainton, 2000). Therefore,

maintenance behaviors are crucial in making romantic progress. As far as expectations go, Hampel and

Vangelisti’s (2008) study on commitment expectations reports that these expectations are derived

through experiences of faithfulness, devotion and unconditional support. When individuals are exposed

to increased maintenance behaviors from their romantic partners, relational expectations will also

increase (Hampel & Vangelisti, 2008).

Attachment is another variable that can be closely related to the relationship maintenance process,

as well as avoidance and anxiety levels. Guerrero and Bachman (2006) define attachment styles as

“coherent and stable patterns of emotion that are exhibited in close relationships”. Certain types of

attachment can have negative effects on relationships, such as anxious attachment. Different people

have different attachment styles (i.e. secure, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful). Regardless of style,

the majority of people in romantic relationships are actively involved in maintaining these relationships

because of attachment (Guerrero & Bachman, 2006). A study on jealousy and attachment styles

suggests that jealousy-induction is positively related to both attachment anxiety and attachment

avoidance. It also states that because jealousy has a negative association with relationship satisfaction,
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 8

insecurely attached individuals’ behaviors can be counterproductive in maintaining satisfying

relationships (Whitson & Mattingly, 2010).

Texting and Romantic Relationships

Previous research has looked at some of the relationships between SMS use and romance (Jin &

Peña, 2010). One study found no significant relationship between text messaging and relational

uncertainty or love and commitment, and also reported that the longer individuals are in relationships,

the less they use text messaging (Jin & Peña, 2010). This suggests that text messaging is more useful in

the earlier stages of relationships (Jin & Peña, 2010). Pettigrew (2009) provides contradicting

information, stating that simply receiving short text messages throughout the day from one’s romantic

partner can enhance the relationship. Pettigrew also indicates that SMS can be used between romantic

partners to help them stay intimately connected to one another when apart, or to enhance face-to-face

communication. Autonomy and connection have also been connected to the usage of text messaging as

well (Duran, Kelly, & Rotaru, 2011). Problems with both lack of contact or too much contact via SMS

have been linked to difficulties in finding consistent connection between romantic partners (Duran, Kelly

& Rotaru, 2011). Additionally, once a romantic connection is established, texting facilitates the

performance of more assertive sexualities than might appear appropriate in person (Cupples &

Thompson, 2010). This information indicates that texting can facilitate the projection of alternate

personalities, which may have a negative effect on relationships.

The aforementioned research suggests that text messaging can enhance the quality of romantic

relationships. Other previously mentioned researchers argue that it can lead to anxiety-related

behaviors. The use of SMS has steadily inclined since it first started becoming popular in the early 1990s

in countries worldwide (The Nielsen Company, 2010). Teens and young adults have shown much higher
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 9

usage of texting than any other age group (The Nielsen Company, 2010), so it is important to look at

how this generation describes their satisfaction of the romantic relationships in which they have been

involved. The previous studies lack any specificity regarding the exact results of heavy text messaging

between romantic partners. The following research will help to answer the following research question,

and determine if the increased usage in text messaging will have an effect on relationship satisfaction

between romantic partners.

RQ: How is romantic relationship satisfaction affected by an increased amount of text message

usage?

Method

Participants and Procedures

Two hundred romantically involved college students of a south eastern public university will be

recruited via a university-wide email to take an online survey. The survey will be on both their text

messaging usage and their romantic satisfaction to determine whether frequent texting negatively or

positively affects romantic satisfaction. Participants will be limited to those who have been in a

romantic relationship for a minimum of three weeks.

Ideally the participants will be demographically diverse and about 50% will be male and 50% will

be female. The age of participants will range approximately from 18 to 22 years. The participants will

have access to a minimum of basic text messaging features.

Measures

Text Messaging Usage

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The frequency of text message use will be measured by a basic scale that asks the participant

“how many texts they send” and “receive” each individual day of the week, both in general and

from their romantic partner. For the sake of this study, the following scale grouping will be used.

100 or less texts sent/week: infrequent sender

100-300 texts sent/week: somewhat infrequent sender

300-500 texts sent/week: somewhat frequent sender

500 or more texts sent/week: frequent sender

100 or less texts received/week: infrequent receiver

100-300 texts received/week: somewhat infrequent receiver

300-500 texts received/week: somewhat frequent receiver

500 or more texts received/week: frequent receiver

Based on the participant responses, one can then assess whether or not each individual is an

active SMS user, and whether or not he or she is more textually active with his or her romantic

partner than with others.

Self Disclosure

The Interpersonal Communication Satisfaction Inventory (Hecht, 2006) will be used to assess

how able participants feel they are in regards to communicating with their significant other. The

assessment is made up of 17 questions which will be rated on a seven-point scale (strongly

agree-strongly disagree). According to the scoring sheet (see Appendix), the scores will then be

added. Each response will then be assessed in comparison to amount of text message usage.
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 11

Certainty

Level of certainty in the relationship will be measured through a derivation of the CL

Attributional Confidence Scale (Clatterbuck , 2006) and will be used to assess the amount of

certainty that the participant has in his or her relationship. This scale is made up of seven

questions, and will be rated on a scale of 1-10 (1= least confident, 10= most confident).

Therefore, the highest cumulative rating will suggest the highest level of certainty/confidence in

the relationship, and can then be related to amount of text messaging usage.

Maintenance/expectations

A derivation of a 5-part series of questions developed by Dainton (2000) will be used to

determine the expectations each participants has for his or her partner. This scale is somewhat

different than the standard 7-point Likert scale. In this particular scale, a 0 equals the

participant’s expectations.

Attachment

Questions from the Information on Love-experience Scale (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) will be used

to determine how much attachment each participants feels toward his or her partner. This scale

consists of 12 questions with four possible answers ranging from strongly disagree to strongly

agree.
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Limitations and Future Research

The purpose of this study is to expand on what the several aforementioned studies have found

about the correlation between texting and relationship satisfaction in their research. While the surveys

taken will aim to do this, there are some limitations to this research. The participant pool ideally will be

diverse and split evenly between males and females, however there is no way to control how many of

each demographic will take the survey because it will be distributed online. Additionally, this research

will only be conducted on students at one university, while the previous studies were conducted all over

the globe. Young adults on one side of the world might have completely different results than the south

eastern university students who will be taking this survey.

As far as further research goes, studies should be conducted on the age group below the young

adults featured in this study. While young adults (ages 18-22) are frequent users of text messaging,

according The Nielsen Company (2010), teens ages 13 to 18 are the primary users. Studies can also be

conducted on relationship satisfaction within other types of relationships such as familial or friendly

relationships. With the immense increase in text messaging usage over the past century, the different

types of affects it can have on any type of relationship is worth looking into.
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 13

References

Anderson, T. L., & Emmers-Sommers, T. M. (2006). Predictors of relationship satisfaction

in online romantic relationships. Communication Studies, 57(2), 153-172.
doi:10.1080/10510970600666834

Clatterbuck, G. W. (1979). Attributional confidence and uncertainty in initial interaction. Human

Communication Research, 5, 147-157.

Critelli, J. W., & Dupre, K. M. (1978). Self-disclosure and romantic attractions. Journal of
Social Psychology, 106(1), 127-128.

Cupples, J., & Thompson, L. (2010). Heterotextuality and digital foreplay. Feminist Media
Studies, 10(1), 1-17. doi:10.1080/14680770903457063

Dainton, M. (2000). Maintenance behaviors, expectations for maintenance and satisfaction:

Linking comparison levels to relational maintenance strategies. Journal of Social & Personal
Relationships, 17(6), 827-824.

Dindia, K., & Canary, D. J. (1993), Definitions and theoretical perspectives on maintaining
relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, 163-173.

Dion, K. K., & Dion, K. L. (1975). Self-esteem and romantic love. Journal of Personality, 43(1),
39-57. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.ep8970069

Duran, R. L., Kelly, L., & Rotaru, T. (2011). Mobile phones in romantic relationships and the
dialectic of autonomy versus connection. Communication Quarterly, 59(1), 19-36.
doi:10.1080/01463373.2011.541336

Grinter, R.E., & Eldridge, M.A. (2001), Y do tngrs luv 2 txt msg?, Proceedings of the Seventh
European Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work ECSCW ’01 Bonn, Germany.
219-238.

Guerrero, L. K., & Bachman, G. F. (2006). Associations among relational maintenance

behaviors, attachment-style categories, and attachment dimensions. Communication Studies,
57(3), 341-361.

Hampel, A. D., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2008). Commitment expectations in romantic

 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 14

relationships: Application of a prototype interaction-pattern model. Personal Relationships,

15(1), 81-102. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00186.x

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Interpersonal
Relations and Group Process, 52(3), 511-534. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511

Hect, M. L. (1978). The conceptualization and measurement of interpersonal communication

satisfaction. Human Communication Research, 4, 253- 264.

Henderson, S., Taylor, R., & Thomson, R. (2002). In touch: Young people,
communication and technologies. Information, Communication & Society, 5(4), 494-512.

Holtgraves, T. (2011). Text messaging, personality, and the social context. Journal of
Research in Personality, 45(1), 92-99. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.11.015

Jin, B., & Peña, J. F. (2010). Mobile communication in romantic relationships: Mobile phone
use, relational uncertainty, love, commitment, and attachment styles. Communication Reports,
23(1), 39-51. doi:10.1080/08934211003598742

Leung, L. (2007). Unwillingness-to-communicate and college students’ motives in SMS

mobile messaging. Telematics & Informatics, 24(2), 115-129. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2006.01.002

Levine, T. R., McCornack, S. A., & Avery, P. (1992). Sex differences in emotional reactions to
discovered deception. Communication Quarterly, 40(3), 289-296.

Meeks, B. S., Hendrick, S. S., & Hendrick, C. (1998). Communication, love and relationship
satisfaction. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships, 15(6), 755-773.

The Nielson Company (2010). Mobile youth around the world. The Nielsen Report. http://www.text-
board.com/marketing/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Nielsen-Mobile-Youth-Around-The-World-
Dec-2010.pdf

Perry, S. D., & Lee, K. C. (2007). Mobile phone text messaging overuse among developing
world university students. Communicatio: South African Journal for Communication Theory &
Research, 33(2), 63-79. doi:10.1080/02500160701685417

Pettigrew, J. (2009). Text messaging and connectedness within close interpersonal relationships.
Marriage & Family Review, 45(6-8), 697-716. doi:10.1080/01494920903224269
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 15

Reid, F. M., & Reid, D. J. (2010). The expressive and conversational affordances of mobile
messaging. Behaviour & Information Technology, 29(1), 3-22. doi:10.1080/01449290701497079

Rettie, R. (2009). SMS: Exploiting theinteractional characteristics of near-

synchrony. Information, Communication & Society, 12(8), 1131-1148.
doi:10.1080/13691180902786943

Steinhauer, J., & Holson, L. M. (2008) As text messages fly, danger lurks. The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/20/us/20messaging.html?ref=textmessaging&pagewanted=
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Appendix

Survey

Text Messaging

A. How many texts in general do you send on the average:

Sunday 
Monday 
Tuesday 
Wednesday 
Thursday 
Friday 
Saturday 

B. How many texts in general do you receive on the average:

Sunday 
Monday 
Tuesday 
Wednesday 
Thursday 
Friday 
Saturday 

C. How many texts do you send to your romantic partner on the average:

Sunday 
Monday 
Tuesday 
Wednesday 
Thursday 
Friday 
Saturday 

D. How many texts do you receive from your romantic partner on the average:

Sunday 
Monday 
Tuesday 
Wednesday 
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 17

Thursday 
Friday 
Saturday 

I. Relationship Satisfaction

A. Self- Disclosure

Think of your most recent text message conversation with your boyfriend or girlfriend.
Rate on a scale of 1-7 (1 being highly agree and 7 being highly disagree)

1. The other person let me know that I was communicating effectively.

2. Nothing was accomplished.
3. I would like to have another conversation like this one.
4. The other person genuinely wanted to get to know me.
5. I was very dissatisfied with the conversation.
6. I had something else to do.
7. I felt that during the conversation I was able to present myself as I
wanted the other person to view me.
8. The other person showed me that he/she understood what I said.
9. I was very satisfied with the conversation.
10. The other person expressed a lot of interest in what I had to say.
11. I did NOT enjoy the conversation.
12. The other person did NOT provide support for what he/she was saying.
13. I felt I could talk about anything with the other person.
14. We each got to say what we wanted.
15. I felt that we could laugh easily together.
16. The conversation flowed smoothly.
17. The other person changed the topic when his/her feelings were brought
into the conversation.
18. The other person frequently said things which added little t o the
conversation.
19. We talked about something I was NOT interested in.

B. Certainty

Rate the following on a scale of 1 (least certain/confident) to 10 (most

certain/confident) about your boyfriend/girlfriend.

1. How confident are you of your general ability to predict how he/she will behave?
2. How certain are you that he/she likes you?
3. How accurate are you at predicting the values he/she holds?
4. How accurate are you at predicting his/her attitude?
5. How well can you predict his/her feelings and emotions?
6. How much can you empathize with (share) the way he/she feels about
himself/herself?
7. How well do you know him/her?
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 18

C. Maintenance/ Expectations

Assume that zero (the midpoint of the scale) equals your expectations for the following
activities. With zero representing your expectation level, please indicate the extent to
which your relationship currently compares – favorably or unfavorably- to your
expectation level by writing the appropriate number. Remember that:

-3 = very much below expectations 1= slightly above expectations

-2 = moderately below expectations 2 = moderately above expectations
-1 = slightly below expectations 3 = very much above expectations
0 = your expectations

1. Positivity (behaving in a cheerful and optimistic manner)

2. Openness (self-disclosure and direct discussion of the relationship)
3. Assurances (messages stressing commitment to the partner and relationship)
4. Social networks (relying upon common friends and affiliations)
5. Sharing tasks (equal responsibility for accomplishing tasks that face the couple)

D. Attachment

Answer the following questions with SD (strongly disagree), D (disagree), A (agree), or

SA (strongly agree). The “__________” indicates the name of your romantic partner.

1. My relationship with _______ makes me very happy.

2. I consider ___________ one of my best friends.
3. I feel complete trust in ___________.
4. I sometimes I feel that getting too close to _________ could mean trouble.
5. I am well aware of ___________'s imperfections but it does not lessen my love.
6. I feel almost as much pain as joy in my relationship with ___________.
7. I love__________ so much that I often feel jealous.
8. Sometimes my thoughts are uncontrollably on __________.
9. I am very physically attracted to __________.
10. Sometimes I wish that ___________ and I were a single unit, a "we" without clear
boundaries.
11. More than anything, I want _________ to return my feelings.
12. Once I noticed ________, I was hooked.
 Text Messaging and Romantic Satisfaction 19

Survey Scoring

A. Self disclosure
Scoring Key:
For items 1, 3, 4, 7 , 8, 9, 10, 13, 1 4 , 15, 16: Strongly Agree = 7, Moderately
Agree = 6, Slightly Agree = 5, Neutral = 4, Slightly Disagree = 3, Moderately
Disagree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 1.
For Items 2 , 5, 6, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19: Strongly Agree = 1, Moderately Agree = 2,
Slightly Agree = 3, Neutral = 4, Slightly Disagree = 5, Moderately Disagree
= 6, Strongly Disagree = 7.