See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/246569634

Pain coping styles of ballet performers

Article in Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · November 1999

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199905001-01015

CITATIONS READS

36 129

4 authors, including:

Michael C. Meyers
Idaho State University
160 PUBLICATIONS 2,197 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Animal Science View project

Sports Medicine View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Michael C. Meyers on 15 March 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Pain Coping Styles of Ballet Performers
Maria L. G. Encarnacion
TexasChristianUniversity

MichaelC. Meyers
TexasA&M University

Noel D. Ryan,& Dale G. Pease

University of Houston

Although ballet is considereda major division of the performing arts, ballet dancers and
athletesexperiencesimilar levels of physical and mentalstressduring training andperfor-
mances(Heil, 1993; Tajet-Foxell& Rose,1995). Althoughthe high prevalence of injury in
ballet is well documented,no studieshavefocusedon how ballet performers addresspain.
Therefore,thepurpose of this studywas to quantifypain coping styles of ballet dancersand
to investigatepossible differencesin regard to skill level and gendel: Following written
informedconsent,theSportsInventoryfor Pain (SIP; Meyers,Bourgeois,Stewart,& LeUnes,
1992b)was administeredto 135 ballet dancers(meanage 19.2 j; 0.6 yrs; 114females,21
males). MANOVAand subsequentWilks's lambda criterion indicated no significant skill
effect,F( 14,250)= 1.662;P = 0.064,amongacademy,pre-professional,or professionallevel
dancers. Subtle differencesbetweengendersacross all subscalescollectively revealeda
morepositive overall pain copingstyle amongfemales as observedin the compositeHURT
and OUCH scores.In conclusion,ballet dancersdo not exhibitpain coping stylessimilar to
othersportperformers. Thenonsignificantdifferencesin responsestyles betweenskill levels
maysimply be attributed to greater psychological uniformity of individuals that are drawn
to this type of competitiveenvironment.

AddressCorrespondence To: Maria L. G. Encarnacion,Departmentof Kinesiology,TexasChris-

tian University,TCU Box 297730,Fort Worth, TX 76129.Telephone:(817)257-7489;Fax: (817)257-
7702;Emai1:m_1-.$,_e@yahoo.com

:!)
 Pain Coping Style in Ballet. ../21

Although ballet is considered a major division of the performing arts, ballet dancers and
athletes experience similar levels of physical and mental stress during training and perfor-
mances (Heil, 1993; Tajet-Foxell & Rose, 1995). Both dancers and athletes are also exposed to
extensive treatment and rehabilitation following injury (Micheli, Gillespie, & Walaszek, 1984;
Tajet-Foxell & Rose, 1995). In short, ballet dancers are considered an athletic group by the
sports medicine community (Harrington, Crichton, & Anderson, 1993; Patterson,Smith, Everett,
& Ptacek, 1998; Teitz, 1991).
Improper form, inattention to proper technique, overtraining, and unanticipated acci-
dents contribute to the remarkable number of injuries observed in ballet (Quirk, 1994), with
trauma occurring more frequently at the beginning and conclusion of a stage production
'ancersand (Arnheim, 1980). In order to maintain their position or status among their peers, dancers may
andpeifor- overlook or deny the presence of existing trauma. As the problems go unidentified and
of injury in untreated, injuries may progress from acute to chronic disorders (Ende & Wickstrom, 1982). In
rdresspain. addition, dancers may continue to exceed their normal joint range of motion resulting in further
lancersand ligamentous strain and subsequentmusculoskeletal trauma (Arnheim, 1980; Schon, Biddinger,
'ing written & Greenwood, 1994). In 1989, Bowling observed 47% of dancers with injuries had recurring
& LeUnes. trauma and 42% experienced an injury within the past six months that ultimately inhibited
females.21 performance (Ende & Wickstrom, 1982).
ificant skill The high prevalence of injury in ballet is well documented in the literature, and like many
sionallevel professional athletes, careers in ballet may be shortened due to severe trauma. Injuries range
revealeda from musculoskeletal strains, various forms of tendinitis, and impingement syndromes to
Jsite HURT degenerative joint disease (Om), subluxations, avulsions, and stress fractures (Bachrach,
s similar to 1987; Bowling, 1989;Ende&Wickstrom,1982;Hardaker, 1989; Khanetal., 1995; Milan, 1994;
! skill levels Miller, 1987; Quirk, 1994; Teitz, 1991). The subsequent trauma results in decreased perfor-
are drawn mance capacity, particularly when compounded by physical fatigue and excessive training.
As physical performance begins to deteriorate, psychological factors resulting in fear, lack of
attention, and low self-assurance typically arise (Pease,1991). In many cases,the dancer will
attempt to perform without seeking immediate medical attention. This may lead to continued
psychological impairment and further reinforce a cyclic decline in performance (Ende &
Wickstrom, 1982; Pease,1991).
Although limited research on the psychology of ballet exists, limited studies have ad-
dressed pain coping styles of ballet performers (Macchi & Crossman, 1996). With the ex-
tremely high prevalence of injury reported among ballet dancers, further research has been
TexasChris- strongly suggested(Lavallee & Flint, 1996; Schnitt & SchniU, 1987; Tajet-Foxell & Rose, 1995).
;: (817)257- Numerous studies have established a strong relationship between level of pain and physical!
psychological dysfunction (Kremer & Atkinson, 1981; Macchi & Crossman, 1996; Sternbach
 22/ Journal ofSport Behaviol;Vol. 23,No.1

& Timmermans, 1975; Sternbach, Wolf, Mundy, & Akeson, 1973). Jensenand Karoly (1991)
reported that strategies coping with pain (i.e., diverting attention, ignoring pain) were associ-
ated with the ability to function physically and psychologically. Therefore, an athlete's atti-
tude toward pain and the strategies used while experiencing pain may subsequently be re-
flected in his or her level of athletic performance and adherence to prescribed medical care
(Crossman, 1997; Meyers, Bourgeois, LeUnes, Erick, & Havelka, I 992a; Meyers, Bourgeois,
Murray, & LeUnes, 1993;Meyers, etal., I992b).
Efforts to address psychological indices of performance as they relate to injury have
increased in the last decadedue to an observed increase in athleticism and a concomitant rise
in the number of severe injuries (Blackwell & McCullagh, 1990; Heil, 1993; Kerr & Minden,
1988; Petrie, 1993). These efforts, however, have typically focused on psychological response
following injury. Taking a proactive approach to understanding an individual's response to
injury prior to actual trauma, rather than simply attributing physical trauma to the inherent
nature of performing, would enhance the opportunity to head off potential risk factors. Also,
with the growing interest in the performing arts, it may become increasingly important to have
a greater understanding of these nontraditional performers. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to quantify pain coping styles of ballet dancers and to investigate possible differ-
ences in regard to skill level and gender. It was hypothesized that participants with a high level
of talent and a long-standing exposure to rigorous training and injury would possess greater
pain coping skills than less experienced, lower-skilled participants.

Methods

Participants
Prior to the study, 45 directors from various ballet companies across the country were
contacted by investigators via phone to discuss the proposed study. Of the total number of
companies contacted. 15 (33.3%) agreed to participate. Efforts resulted in a total of 135 ballet
dancers (mean age 19.2 :to.6 yrs; 114females. 21 males) representing skill levels ranging from
academy to professional performers. and included distinguished ballet companies from coast
to coast.

Procedures
Packets containing written instructions and the Sports Inventory for Pain (SIP; Meyers
et al., 1992b) were mailed to each ballet director to administer to participants at the dance
studios before ballet practice. Directors were instructed to fully inform each participant of the
nature of the study and written informed consent was obtained in accordance with the Ameri-
 Pain CopingStyle in Ballet. ../23

Karoly (1991) can College of Sports Medicine (1997) guidelines. Based on feedback, total time to read and
n) were associ-
complete the infonned consent fonD and the SIP was approximately 15minutes. Directors were
n athlete's atti-
then instructed in writing to return SIP inventories in a self-addressed, stamped envelope that
:quently be re-
was also included in the packet. No incomplete inventories were returned, and all returned
d medical care
inventories were completed within a 90-day period during the winter season.
~rs,Bourgeois,
Ballet dancers were also asked in writing to rank their overall ability according to the
level they consistently and comfortably perfonn. Ratings were used in accordance with indus-
to injury have
try standards (Preston-Dunlop, 1995). In this system, the lowest level of skill is rated 1.0, while
mcomitant rise
the highest skill levels are rated 12.0. The ballet dancers who volunteered for this study were
:err & Minden,
academy (levels 1-6; n =46), pre-professional (levels 7-8; n = 38), and professional (level 9 or
>gicalresponse apprentice, 100rcorps, 11 or soloist, 12 or principal; n = 51) perfonners.
I's response to
to the inherent
Instrumentation
factors. Also,
Sports Inventory for Pain. The SIP is a 25-item sport specific instrument that measures
portant to have
five subscalesrelevant to competition: coping (COP), cognitive (COG), catastrophizing (CAT),
lurpose of this
avoidance (AVD), and body awareness (BOD). There are also two composite scores, HURT
lossible differ-
(COP + COG -CAT -AVD) and OUCH (COP + COG -CAT), which serve as overall indices of
ith a high level
lossess greater pain coping capabilities.
The coping and cognitive subscales were developed to reflect the positive dimensions
of an athlete's pain coping style. The coping subscale seems to measure the extent to which
an athlete utilizes "direct" coping strategies. High scorers tend to ignore pain, realize that pain
is part of competition, and in general, tend to "tough it out". A sample item is "When injured,
I tell myself to be tough and carryon despite the pain". The cognitive subscale appears to be
a measure of whether a person uses "mental" strategies such as imagery in attempting to deal
~country were
with pain. Individuals scoring high on the coping subscale might also score well on the
Ital number of
cognitive subscale. A sample item is "When hurt, I play mental games with myself to keep my
11of 135 ballet
mind off the pain".
s ranging from
The avoidance subscale was designed to be a measure of the extent to which a person
ies from coast
employs avoidant strategies to cope with pain. Thus, high scorers were thought to be less
competitive when injured. A sample item is "When in pain, I have to be careful not to make it
worse". Preliminary data suggests, however, that exemplary athletes may also score high on
this subscale since, if injured, they tend to reserve activity until actual competition, i.e., "when
(SIP;Meyers it counts". The catastrophizing subscale detects those who tend to despair when injured.
s at the dance
They dwell on the pain, feel that it is unbearable, and have essentially "given up". A sample
1icipant of the
item is "When injured, I feel pain is terrible and that it's never going to get better".
ith the Ameri-
The body subscale was intended to be a measure of whether a person is hyposensitive

'~I
24/ Journal ofSport Behaviol; Vol.23,No.1

or hypersensitive to painful stimuli. As such, it was designed to serve as a possible covariant

in pain studies with athletic populations. The subscale has emerged as a potent predictor of
pain response and athletic performance in some athletic populations. A sample item is "I
seldom notice minor injuries".
The difference between HURT and OUCH is the use of the AVD subscale. Whereas
some individuals may consider avoiding pain to be beneficial to a performer, others may deem
avoidance detrimental in order to successfully achieve a competitive level of accomplishment.
Hence, the choice of which composite to use is left to the individual.
The items, developed according to pre-defined scale construct techniques (Anastasi,
1989), are scored using a 5-point Likert format. The SIP has provided a reliable, predictive
indicator of pain-induced psychological distress and subsequent physical response. Ad-
equate internal consistency (a = .61 to .88), test-retest reliability (r = .69 to .86), and low social
desirability (r = -.28 to -.13) have been well established in a number of sport populations
(Meyers et al., I 992a; Raaum, Bourgeois, Meyers, & LeUnes, 1992; Reed, Bourgeois, & LeUnes,
1994; Tallman, Meyers, Skelly, LeUnes & Bourgeois, 1998).
More recent work utilizing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in a general undergradu-
ate collegiate population indicated reasonable coping and cognitive validity but poor good-
ness-of-fit concerning the catastrophizing, avoidance, and body awareness subscales of the
SIP (Bartholomew, Edwards, Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1998b). An additional study by
essentially the same group questioned the validity and inability of the SIP to predict sport-
specific, coping strategies (Bartholomew, Brewer, Van RaaIte, Linder, Cornelius, & Bart, 1998a).
These studies, however, utilized nonsport-specific, short-term pain stimulation tasks such as
tibial gross pressure and wall sit/phantom chair endurance, in a noncompetitive environment.
Of equal concern, is the CFA's restrictive nature that assumes multivariate normality and an
unrealistic model-fit (McCrae, Zonderman, Costa, Bond & Paunonen, 1996; Raykov, 1998).
The inflated Type I error and excessive statistical power associated with CFA may lead to the
rejection of the majority of personality inventories being used today that have been proven to
significantly delineate between successful and unsuccessful indices of sport behavior (Curran,
West,& Finch, 1996; Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992; McCrae et al., 1996). Therefore, it is strongly
suggested that studies that place too much emphasis on CFA may be premature in their
judgment and may wish to revisit the use of such a restrictive model in juxtaposition with real-
life situations.

Data Analyses
Data were grouped for analyses by skill level (academy, pre-professional, and profes-
sional) and gender. During the conceptualization of this study, the authors realized that ballet

.,
"""'I
 Pain CopingStylein Ballet. ../25

ble covariant is typically a female dominated activity and obtaining an adequate sample size on male per-
t predictor of formers would be difficult. It has been strongly indicated, however, that psychological inves-
Jle item is "1 tigation of gender differences/consequences is lacking in the literature (Duda, 1990, 1991;
Fasting, 1990), and that scientists should attempt to quantify and compare gender responseas
ue. Whereas it relates to actual physical competition and training techniques (Birrell, 1984; Duda & Allison,
~rsmay deem 1990). For these results, pain coping data on male performers are included for descriptive
)mplishment. purposes only.
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed using General Linear Model
es (Anastasi, procedures of SYSTAT (SYSTAT 6.0 for Windows, 1996) to determine significant skill effect.
Ie, predictive Least square means procedures were employed due to unequal number of observations upon
sponse. Ad- which to compare differences betweenvariables. Significance was determined at the 0.05 level
Ind low social of confidence.
t populations
is. & LeUnes, Results

lundergradu- Pain coping styles of ballet performers by skill level are shown in Table I. Interestingly,
It poor good- Wilks's Lambda criterion indicated no significant main effect, F(14,250) = 1.662; P = 0.064)
)scales of the among academy, pre-professional, or professional level dancers. There was a trend, however,
(}nal study by for professionals to score lower on cognitive and catastrophizing subscales but higher on
)redict sport- body awareness than less-skilled participants.
Bart, 1998a). Comparisons of pain coping styles of male and female performers are shown in Table 2.
tasks such as Although limited in the number of available participants, there was a trend for males to exhibit
environment. lower coping, cognitive, and catastrophizing responses than indicated in females. Interest-
nality and an ingly, males also scored higher on body awarenessthan female performers. Subtle differences
lykov, 1998). between gender across all subscales,however, collectively revealed more positive overall pain
ay lead to the coping styles among females as observed in the composite HURT and OUCH scores.
~enproven to
Lvior(Curran, Discussion
,it is strongly
lture in their Although psychometric testing has been successfully used in the assessmentof skill
ion with real- level, injury, and stress in prior studies with other athletic populations (May, Veach, Reed, &
Griffey, 1985; Meyers, LeUnes, & Bourgeois, 1996; Raglin, Morgan, & Luchsinger, 1990),no
studies to our knowledge have addressed pain coping responses in ballet. Therefore, this
study was conducted to quantify pain coping styles of ballet dancers and to investigate
t, and profes- possible differences in regard to skill level and gender.
:ed that ballet Although not statistically significant, pain coping differences were evident, especially

,:;.,
26/ Journal ofSportBehavior; Vol.23. No.1

Table 1
Pain Coping Styles of Ballet Dancersby Skill Level

Skill

Variable Academy Pre-professional Professional

Subjects ~ 38 51
Coping 24.9:tO.9 23.2:t0.9 24.5:t:O.8
Cognitive 13.8:tO.5 14.7:t0.6 12.5:t:O.5
Catastrophizing 12.7:tO.5 13.3:t0.6 11.9:t:O.5
Avoidance 14.5:tO.4 15.5:t0.4 14.8:t:O.4
Body Awareness 12.3:tO.4 12.0::1:0.4 12.8:t:O.4
HURT 11.6:tl.3 10.0::1:
1.4 IO.I:t:I.2
OUCH 26.0:t 1.2 25.4:t 1.3 25.0:t: 1.2

All valuesaremean:t SEM; HURT = coping + cognitive -catastrophizing-avoidance;

OUCH = coping + cognitive -catastrophizing.

between professional and academy ballet performers. The trend for the higher-skilled profes-
sionals to exhibit lower coping and cognitive scores than less-skilled or novice academy
performers agrees with prior research reporting similar responses among elite and subelite
college rodeo athletes (Meyers et al., 1992a) but in contrast to competitive versus recreational
runners (Reed, Bourgeois, & LeUnes, 1994). The lack of significant differences agrees with
prior studies on professional tennis and elite equestrians (Meyers et aI., 1993; Meyers, Ster-
ling, Treadwell, Bourgeois, & LeUnes, 1994) and may be indicative of the automaticity of
psychological response gained through additional experience required in reaching the top
level in this extremely competitive environment. In short, top-skilled dancers are simply sea-
soned to withstand the daily preparation and expectations that come with ballet. Mean coping
responses observed among the professionals in this study may also be attenuated by an
ephemeral response to injury and subsequent pain typically observed in top level athletes
participating in other traumatic sport environments (Fenz, 1975; Gould, Horn, & Spreeman,
1983; Meyers, Elledge, Sterling, & Tolson, 1990).
The lack of significance observed in this study between skilled groups could also be
attributed to other factors. The high variability within groups across SIP subscales may have

~
 Pain Coping Style in Ballet. ../27

Table2
Pain Coping Stylesof Ballet Dancersby Gender

Gender

Ifessional Variable Overall Male Female

51 135
Subjects 21 114
~.5:tO.8 Coping 24.3:tO.5 23.6:t 1.3 24.4:tO.5
2.5:tO.5 Cognitive 13.5:tO.3 11.8:tO.8 13.9:tO.3
1.9:tO.5 Catastrophizing 12.6:tO.3 11.8:tO.8 12.8:tO.3
~.8:tO.4 Avoidance 14.9:tO.2 15.1:to.5 14.8:tO.2
2.8:tO.4 Body Awareness 12.3:tO.2 13.1:to.6 12.2:tO.3
0.1 :t 1.2 HURf 10.6:tO.7 8.4:t 1.9 II.O:tO.8
5.0:t 1.2 OUCH 25.4:tO.7 23.5:t 1.8 25.8:tO.8
oidance; All valuesaremean:t SEM; HURT = coping+ cognitive -catastrophizing-avoidance;
OUCH = coping+ cognitive -catastrophizing.

influenced statistical findings. Lack of significant differences between skill level may also
-skilled profes- have been a function of sample size, prior performance levels, subject selection, and task
[}vice academy difficulty which influence present physiological and psychological outcome (Campbell &
.te and subelite Stanley, 1963; Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981; Landers, 1980; Meyerset al., 1994). Datain
;us recreational this study, however, represented a substantial cross section of ballet dancers from major
ces agrees with companies across the country. This should have optimized the opportunity for psychological
; Meyers, Ster- differences to occur independent of performance history and selection.
lutomaticity of Due to limited research addressing psychological differences in gender response, but
:aching the top hampered by the limited number of males participating in ballet, pain coping styles of male and
are simply sea- female performers were presented strictly from a descriptive standpoint. The higher responses
t. Mean coping in coping, cognitive, HURT, & OUCH observed among female dancers when compared to
enuated by an males, is in contrast to prior research citing either nonsignificant differences between gender
) level athletes (Meyers et al., 1993) or higher pain coping response among male competitors (Koltyn, Focht,
I, & Spreeman, Ancker, & Pasley, 1998; Meyers etal., 1992b).
Overall pain responses in this study were consistent with profiles reported in the general
) could also be collegiate population (Meyers et al., 1992a, 1992b). When comparing overall pain coping
cales may have styles of ballet performers to specific sport populations, however, ballet performers exhibited

,~
 28/ Journal ofSportBehavior,Vol.23,No.1

lower coping and cognitive skills and higher catastrophizing responses than recreational
runners (Reed, Bourgeois, & LeUnes, 1994), high school and collegiate intramural athletes
(Bartholomew et al., I 998b), elite equestrians (Meyers et al., 1993),and high school and colle-
giate rodeo performers (Meyers et al., 1992a; Tallman et al., 1998).
In the final analysis, the nonsignificant differences in pain coping styles between skill
levels may simply be attributed to greater psychological uniformity of individuals that are
drawn to this type of competitive environment. Also, top performers may place less emphasis
on the pain and subsequenttrauma associated with grueling practices and perfonnances on a
daily basis than less-skilled dancers regardless of the extensive number of injuries observed in
ballet. Of greater importance, however, is that this study provided a unique look at cognitive
response of a large cross-sectional profile of performers from both major and minor ballet
companies across the country. These findings may be used as a point of reference for future
research and could also be used to assessthe influence and efficacy of various ballet-training
programs on subsequentrate and severity of injury (Smith, 1980, 1989).
In conclusion, ballet dancers do not exhibit pain coping styles similar to other sport
performers. The high variability within and between skill and gender concur with highly
individualized responsivity noted in other cognitive, somatic, and behavioral studies in physi-
cal activity and sport. Additional multivariate research should focus on correlating perfor-
mance affects in ballet with subsequent performance outcome and physiological response.

References

American College of Sports Medicine. (1997). Policy statement regarding the use of
human subjects and informed consent. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 29, 5.
Anastasi, A. (] 989). Psychological testing. New York: Macmillan.
Arnheim, D. D. (]980). Dance injuries: Their prevention and care (pp. 3-9, ]25-128). St.
Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby.
Bachrach, R. M. (] 987). Injuries to the dancer's spine. In A. J. Ryan and R. E. Stephens
(Eds.), Dance medicine: A comprehensive guide (pp. 243-266). Chicago, IL: Pluribus Press.
Bartholomew, J. B., Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte,J. L., Linder, D. E., Cornelius, A. E., & Bart,
S. M. (1998a). A psychometric evaluation of the Sports Inventory for Pain. Sport Psycholo-
gist. 12,29-39.
Bartholomew, J. B., Edwards, S. M., Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Linder, D. E.
(1998b). The Sports Inventory for Pain: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly
for Exercise and Sport. 69,24-29.
Birrell, S. (] 984). Studying gender in sport: A feminist perspective. In N. Theberg & P.

c..)
 Pain Coping Stylein Ballet. ../29

an recreational Donnelly (Eds.), Sport and sociological imagination (pp. 125-135). Fort Worth, TX: Texas
amuralathletes Christian University Press.
:hoolandcolIe- Blackwell, B., & McCullagh, P. (1990). The relationship of athletic injury to life stress,
competitive anxiety, and coping resources. Journal of Athletic Training, 25,23-27.
s betweenskill Bowling, A. (1989). Injuries to dancers: Prevalence, treatment, and perceptions of
liduals that are causes. British Medical Journal, 298, 731-734.
elessemphasis Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs
formanceson a for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
ies observedin Crossman,J. (1997). Psychological rehabilitation from sports injuries. Sports Medicine,
ok at cognitive 23,333-339.
Id minor ballet Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (]996). The robustness of test statistics to
ence for future nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods,
ballet-training 1,16-29.
Duda, J. L. (] 990). The psychological dimension of women's participation in physical
, to other sport
activity: A critical review with suggestions for future research. In M. Raivio (Ed.), Movement
ur with hi~hly and sport in women's lives (pp. 287-298). Jyvaskyla, Finland: University of Jyvaskyla.
:udies in physi- Duda, J. L. (1991). Perspectives on gender roles in physical activity. Journal ofApplied
'elating perfor- Sport Psychology, 3, 1-6.
cal response. Duda, J. L., & Allison, M. T. (]990). Cross-cultural research in sport and exercise psy-
chology: A void in the field. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 3, ] 14-131.
Ende, L. S.,& Wickstrom, J. (1982). Ballet injuries. Physician and Sportsmedicine, 10,
]01-118.
:ling the use of Fasting, K. (1990). An analysis of research in sport psychology from a woman's per-
~ercise.29,5. spective. In M. Raivio (Ed.), Movement and sport in womens lives (pp. 253-267). Jyvaskyla,
Finland: University of Jyvaskyla.
',125-128).St. Fenz, W. D. (1975). Coping mechanisms and performance under stress. Psychology of
sport and motor behavior II. University Park, PA: Penn State HPER Series No. 10.
R. E. Stephens Gould, D., Horn, T., & Spreeman,J. (1983). Competitive anxiety in junior elite wrestlers.
luribus Press. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 58-71.
;,A.E.,&Bart, Gould, D., Weiss, M., & Weinberg, R. (1981). Psychological characteristics of success-
,ort Psycholo- ful and non-successful Big Ten Wrestlers. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, 69-81.
Hardaker, W. T. (1989). Foot and ankle injuries in classical ballet dancers. Orthopedic
~Linder, D. E. Clinics of North America, 20, 621-627.
Irch Quarterly Harrington, T., Crichton,K. J., & Anderson, I. F. (1993). Overuse ballet injury of the
second metatarsal: A diagnostic problem. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 21,591-598.
I. Theberg & P. Heil, J. (1993). Psychology of sport injury (pp. 73-87). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

..;:p
30/ Journal ofSport Behaviol; Vol.23. No.1

Hu, L. T., Bentler, P. M., & Kano, Y. (1992). Can test statistics in covariance structure
analysis be trusted? Psychological Bulletin, 112, 351-362.
Jensen,M. P., & Karoly, P. (1991). Control beliefs, coping effects, and adjustments to
chronic pain. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 431-438.
Kerr, G., & Minden, H. (1988). Psychological factors related to the occurrence of athletic
injuries. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1O,167-173.
Khan, K., Brown, J., Way, S., Vass,N., Crichton, K., Alexander, R., Baxter, A., Butler, M.,
& Wark, J. (1995). Overuse injuries in classical ballet. Sports Medicine, 19,341-356.
Koltyn, K. F., Focht, B.C., Ancker,J. M.,&Pasley,J. (1998). The effect of time of day and
gender on pain perception and selected psychobiological responses. Medicine and Science
in Sports and Exercise, 30, S5.
Kremer, E., & Atkinson, J. H. (1981). Pain measurement: Construct validity of the affec-
tive dimension of the McGill Pain Questionnaire with chronic benign pain patients. Pain, 11,
93-100.
Landers, D. M. (1980). The arousal-performance relationship revisited. Research Quar-
terly,51,77-90.
Lavallee, L., & Flint, F. (1996). The relationship of stress, competitive anxiety, mood
state, and social support to athletic injury. Journal of Athletic Training, 31,296-299.
Macchi, R., & Crossman,J. (1996). After the fall: Reflections of injured classical ballet
dancers. Journal of Sport Behaviol; 19,221-234.
May,J. R., Veach,T. L., Reed,M. W., & Griffey, M. S. (1985). A psychological study of
health, injury, and performance in athletes on the U.S. Alpine Ski Team. Physician and
Sportsmedicine, 13, 111-115.
McCrae, R. R., Zonderman, A. B., Costa, P. T.,Bond, M. H., & Paunonen, S. V. (1996).
Evaluating replicability of factors in the revised NEO Personality Inventory: Confirmatory
factor analysis versus Procrustes rotation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
70,552-566.
Meyers, M. C., Bourgeois,A. E., LeUnes, A., Erick, A., & HavelkaP. (1992a). Relation-
ship between pain coping styles & athletic performance in top versus bottom-ranked college
athletes. Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
Conference,Colorado Springs, CO. p.73.
Meyers, M. C., Bourgeois, A. E., Murray, N. G., & LeUnes, A. (1993). Comparison of
psychological characteristics and skills of elite and sub-elite equestrian athletes. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25 (5), S 154.
Meyers, M. C., Bourgeois, A. E., Stewart, S., & LeUnes, A. (1992b). Predicting pain
response in athletes: Development and assessmentof the Sports Inventory for Pain. Journal

'..::>
 Pain Coping Style in Ballet. ../3 J
lfiance structure
of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14,249-261.
I adjustments to Meyers, M. C., Elledge, J. R., Sterling, J. C., & Tolson, H. (1990). Injurjes in intercolle-
giate rodeo athletes. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 18,87-91.
l'enceof athletic Meyers, M. C., LeUnes, A., & Bourgeois, A. E. (1996). Psychological skjlls assessment
and athletic performance in collegiate rodeo athletes. Journal of Sport Behaviol; 19, 132-146.
r, A., Butler,M., Meyers, M. C., Sterling, J. C., Treadwell, S., Bourgeois, A. E., & LeUnes, A. (1994).
141-356. Mood and psychological skills of world-ranked female tennis players. Journal of Sport Be-
ftime of day and haviol; 12,156-165.
me and Science Micheli, L. J., Gillespie, W. J., & Walaszek, A. (1984). Physiologic profile of female
professional ballerinas. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 3, 199-209.
jity of theaffec- Milan, K. R. (1994). Injury in ballet: A review of relevant topics for the physical thera-
tients. Pain, 1J , pist. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 19, 12l-129.
Miller, A. P. (1987). Injuries to the neck and upper extremity. In A. J. Ryan and R. E.
ResearchQuar- Stephens (Eds.), Dance medicine: A comprehensive guide (pp. 267-273). Chicago, IL: Pluribus
Press.
~ anxiety, mood Patterson,E. L., Smith, R. E., Everett, J. J., & Ptacek,J. T. (1998). Psychosocial factors as
:96-299. predictors of ballet injuries: Interactive effects of life stress and social support. Journal of
I classical ballet Sport Behavio1; 21,101-112.
Pease,D. G. (1991). Psychologic factors of rehabilitation. In J. R. Andrews & G. L.
,logicalstudyof Harrelson (Eds.), Physical rehabilitation of the injured athlete (pp. 1-12). Philadelphia, PA:
Physician and W. B. Saunders.
Petrie, T. A. (1993). The moderating effects of social support and playing status on the
n, S. V. (1996). life stress-injury relationship. Journal ofApplied Sport Psychology, 5, 1-16.
: Confirmatory Preston-Dunlop, V. (1995). Dance words (pp. 74-82). Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Aca-
fal Psychology, demic Publishers.
Quirk, R. (1994). Common foot and ankle injuries in dance. Orthopedic Clinics of North
92a). Relation- America,25,123-133.
.rankedcollege Raaum, K., Bourgeois, A. E., Meyers, M. C., & LeUnes, A. (1992). The relationship of
ort PsychoLogy psychological response to pain to sex-role orientation and attitudes toward physical activity.
Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Confer-
Comparisonof ence,Colorado Springs, CO. p. 84.
~tes. Medicine Raglin, J. S., Morgan, W. P., & Luchsinger, A. E. (1990). Mood and self-motivation in
successful and unsuccessful female rowers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise.
Predictingpain 22,849-853.
.Pain. Journal Raykov, T. (1998). On the use of confirmatory factor analysis in personality research.
Personality and Individual Differences, 24, 291-293.

u
 32/ Journal of Sport Behaviol; Vol. 23, No.1 Gr
Reed,J., Bourgeois,A. E., & LeOnes,A. (1994). The paincoping strategiesutilized by
high and low level runners. Proceedings of the SoutheasternPsychologicalAssociation
Meeting.New Orleans,LA.
Schnitt,J. M., & Schnitt,D. (1987). Psychologicalissuesin a dancer'scareer. In A. J.
RyanandR. E. Stephens(Eds.),Dancemedicine: A comprehensive guide (pp.334-349). Chi-
cago,IL: PluribusPress.
Schon,L. C., Biddinger,K. R., & Greenwood,P. (1994). Dance screenprogramsand
developmentof danceclinics. Clinics in SportsMedicine,13,865-882.
Smith,R. E. (1980). A cognitive-affectiveapproachto stressmanagementtraining for
athletes.In C. H. Nadeau,W. Halliwell, K. M. Newell, & G. C. Roberts(Eds.),Psychologyof
motor behaviorandsport-1979(pp. 54-72). Champaign,IL: HumanKinetics. The purpost
Smith,R. E. (1989). Effects of coping skills training on generalizedself-efficacyand individual m
SD = 1.48)
locus of control. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology,56, 228-233.
Sternbach, R. A., & Timmermans,G. (1975). Personalitychangesassociatedwith reduc- questions re
behaviors. J
tionofpain. Pain. I, 177-181.
Sternbach, R. A., Wolf, S.,Mundy,R.,& Akeson,W. (1973). Traits of painpatients:The group injlut
low backpainloser. Psychosomatics, 14,226-229. group injlue
SYSTAT6.0.forWindows:Statistics.(1996). Chicago,IL: SPSS,Inc. of the athlel
Tallman,N., Meyers,M. C., Skelly,W. A., LeOnes,A. & Bourgeois,A. E. (1998). Pain teammates I
coping styles in injured and noninjured high schoolrodeoathletes. Medicine and Sciencein respect to e

Sportsand Exercise,30 (5),S122. negative grc

Tajet-Foxell, B., & Rose,F. D. (1995). Pain and pain tolerancein professionalballet
dancers. British Journal ofSports Medicine,29, 3.1-34.
Teitz,C. C. (1991). Gymnasticanddanceathletes.In F.O. Mueller & A. J. Ryan(Eds.),
Preventionofathletic injuries: The role of the sportsmedicineteam(pp. 135-158).Philadel-
phia,PA:F. A. Davies.

Addre~
Sciences.
PO
8205. Phone
Thefu
search Coun<

,.
 ,~

View publication stats