Breeder Signals, A Practical Guide To Optimal Management of Broiler Breeders (VetBooks - Ir)

BREEDER SIGNALS
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF BROILER BREEDERS

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Breeder Signals Photography

Main photographer: Marcel Berendsen
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fam. S. van den Borne, John Caeyers, Christophe Cazaban, 85, 87, 132); TSS (160); Van Eck Bedrijfshygiëne (24, 27); Veterinair
Centrum Someren (100, 112, 167, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 181,
Tim Engelen, Guillermo Gonzalez, fam. C. de Haas, 183, 184, 185, 186, 184); WLR/Gea Hogeveen photography (8, 14, 17,
Bernard van Harn, Marcel Kuijpers, Jean Leorat, Bertrand 18, 29, 45, 66, 69, 73, 75, 80, 81, 92, 94, 95, 96, 110, 119, 153); Wouter
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Le-Tallec, Gerrit van der Linde, Fernando Lozano, fam.
E. Meijerink, Frank van Merle, Koos van Middelkoop,
Stijn Peters, fam. J. van de Riet, fam. H. Salomons, Sources
The experience of many people mixed with expert knowledge and
Jaime Sarabia, Wouter Steenhuisen, Otto van Tuijl, fam. scientific papers are used to develop this publication. Graphs and
D. Wenker and the following companies: Aviagen Technical tables are adapted from a variety of sources indicated below:
and Marketing Teams, Vermeerderingsbedrijf Engelen, Development of production results: Aviagen 2016 (8), Difference
between broilers and breeders: Renema et al., 2007 (9), Influence of
Opfokbedrijf Engelen and Veterinair Centrum Someren genetics and nutrition: Havenstein et al., 2003 (9), Production pyra-
mid: Aviagen (9), Effect of unrestricted feeding; Heck et al., 2004 (11),
Design Activity of breeders and broilers: Van Emous, unpublished data (11),
Mating behaviour: Kruijt, 1964 (15), Aggressive behaviour: Kruijt, 1964
Studio Hiddink (16), Uniformity and production: Abbas et al., 2010 (28), Effect of beak
treatment: De Jong et al., 2013 (31), Effect of perches: Appleby et al.,
Illustrations 1988 (50), Effect of feed restrictions: De Beer and Coon, 2007 (52),
Trudy Michels, Jolanda Hiddink, Dick Rietveld, Heat production and feeding schedules: Leeson and Summers, 2009
(53), Dietary protein and body composition: Van Emous et al., 2015
Marinette Hoogendoorn (57), Grading and uniformity: Aviagen, 2018 (58), Effect of stocking
density: De Jong et al., 2011 (73), Separated and non-separated feed-
ing: Stappers and Vahl, 1991 (76), Effect of start of stimulation: Van
Emous, unpublished data (89), Effect of light stimulation: Robinson
et al., 1996 (89), Male feeding systems and floor eggs: Aviagen, 2015
(99), Feed intake targets: Aviagen, 2017 (100), Egg production and
Roodbont Publishers B.V. Wageningen Livestock Research feeding time: Aviagen, 2017 (101), Water consumption: Lemmens,
unpublished data (102), Feed adjustments: Van Emous, unpublished
P.O. Box 4103 P.O. Box 338 data (105), Characteristics of feed: Aviagen, 2017 (106), Development
7200 BC Zutphen 6700 AH Wageningen of egg weight: Aviagen, 2018 (109), Feeding moment and heat
The Netherlands The Netherlands stress: Aviagen, 2018 (114), Heat stress and production: Van Emous,
unpublished data (115), Laying, hatchability and number of chicks:
T +31 575 54 56 88 T +31 317 48 39 53 Aviagen, 2017 (117), Indicators for total production: Van Emous,
E info@roodbont.com I www.livestockresearch.nl 2018 (117), Dominance and mating results: Jones and Mench, 1990
I www.roodbont.com (119), Fertilisation and leg length: Van Merle, 2008 (120), Individual
male activity: Aviagen, unpublished data (124), Age-decreasing qual-
ity: Cobb, 2006/Duncan et al., 1990 (126), Mating pattern: Harris et
© Roodbont Publishers B.V., 2020 (second edition)
al., 1980 (126), Failed/successful matings: De Jong et al., 2005 (127),
ISBN 978-90-8740-332-4 Promiscuity of females: Aviagen (128), Observation frequency: Van
Emous, 2006 (131), Protein and embryonic mortality: Van Emous et
Breeder Signals is an edition in the Poultry Signals© series. al., 2015 (136), Energy requirement: various sources (136), Protein
and hatchability: Lopez and Leeson, 1995 (136), Spiking and male
No part of this publication may be reproduced and/or published in print, activity: Cobb/Casanovas, 2000 (138), Spiking and hatchability: Cobb/
photocopy or any other means whatsoever without the prior written permis- Casanovas, 2000 (138), Male presence in a flock: Van Emous, unpub-
sion of the publisher. lished data (138), Laying pattern and flock age: Zakeria et al., 2005
Authors and the publisher have composed the contents of this publication (140), Quality of eggs and flock ages: Aviagen, 2018 (140), Feather cover
with great care and to the best of their knowledge. However, the authors and and feed requirements: Van Emous, 2010 (141), Hatching egg quality:
the publisher shall accept no liability due to damage of any nature whatsoever, Pas Reform (147)
resulting from actions and/or decisions based on the information provided. For the chapter Health and diseases some information is derived from
The publisher has tried to trace the copyright holders of all the image mate- Diseases of Poultry, 13th edition (Editor in Chief: David E. Swayne)
rial. When a source has remained unmentioned, holders of rights may contact
the publisher. For more information please check www.breedersignals.com
Contents
1. Introduction 4 5. Puberty (17-22 weeks) 66 8. Peak production to end of lay 130

The broiler meat production chain 5 Types of production houses 66 Attention points in the house 131
Signals concept 6 Transfer 69 Clean laying nests 132
Structured observations 7 Loading reared birds 70 Maintaining litter quality 133
Arrival in the new house 71 Feeding after the peak 135
2. The broiler breeder 8 Stocking density 72 Adjust according to circumstances 136
Great progress 9 Feed around transfer 73 Protein in the feed 136
Breeding for meat or eggs 10 Separate feeding 74 Condition/conformation of males 137
Characteristics of lines 10 Getting used to systems 77 Spiking and intra-spiking 138
Breeder dilemma 11 Drinking water 79 Male persistency 139
Growth control 12 Feather sucking and feather pecking 80 Signals from egg weight 140
Phase feeding 13 Synchronous development 81 Feathering at end of lay 141
Natural behaviour 14 Maturity of males 82 Moulting 142
Mating behaviour 15 Separate male house 83 End of lay 143
Aggressive behaviour 16 Ratio of males to females 84
Ranking and pecking 17 Maturity of females 86 9. Egg handling and storage 144
Sounds 17 Pin (pelvic) bones spacing 87 Not suitable as a hatching egg 146
Importance of ventilation 18 Light programme 88 Hairline cracks 147
Negative pressure 19 Do not stimulate too soon 89 Large and small eggs 148
Biosecurity 20 Natural light 90 Shell quality 149
Entering a poultry farm 21 Light intensity and floor eggs 91 Drying and cooling 150
Personal hygiene 22 Cooling and nest type 150
Vermin 23 6. Onset of lay (up to 5% production) 92 Egg collection 151
Cleaning and disinfection 24 Laying nests 93 Egg grading 152
Dry cleaning 25 Egg laying behaviour 95 Packing eggs 153
Wet cleaning 26 Development of the reproductive tract 95 Cool down after collection 154
Disinfection 27 Floor eggs 96 Point setting 154
Preventing floor eggs 98 Storage 155
3. First weeks of rearing 28 Night-layers 99 Humidity 156
Sexing 29 Male feed during production period 100 Washing eggs 157
Treatments and interventions 30 Feeding time 101 Washing procedures 158
Feeding systems in rearing 33 Capacity of the feed/water system 102 Candling and breakout 159
Drinking systems 36 Growth and condition 103 On-farm transport 160
Preparation of the house 38 Transport of hatching eggs 160
The ideal temperature 39 7. Production towards peak 104 Preventing cracks and breakage 162
Transport to the rearing house 40 Eating behaviour 105 Climatic conditions 163
Arrival of day-old-chicks 41 Feeding management 106
Climatic requirements 43 Feeding early lay 106 10. Health and diseases 164
Chick distribution 44 Monitoring behaviour 107 A healthy chicken 165
Humidity 45 Signals of feed intake time 109 Vaccination 166
Poisonous gasses and dust 46 Signals of feeding errors 110 Efficacy of vaccination 167
Light in rearing 47 Monitoring the flock 111 Vaccination at the hatchery 168
Feed and water during rearing 48 Drinking water 112 Vaccination during rearing 169
Checklist crop filling 49 Heat stress 114 Other vaccination methods during rearing 170
Cooling in the house 116 Disease symptoms 172
4. Rearing from 3 to 17 weeks 50 Signals from the laying curve 117 Viral diseases 174
Controlled feeding 52 Male grading 118 Bacterial diseases 178
Monitoring weight 53 Male-female interaction 124 External parasites 182
A feed-less day 53 Influencing mating behaviour 125 Internal parasites 183
Reducing feed restriction stress 54 Sperm quality 126 Non-infectious diseases 186
Feeding management 55 Moment of mating 126
Water restriction 56 Deviating mating behaviour? 127 Index 187
Body development 57 Male aggression 128
Uniformity 58 Artificial insemination 129
Grading 59 Quality Time House 129
Feathering and feeding 60
Sexing errors 61
Recognising the sexes 62
Development of the female 63
CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
The aim of a broiler breeder farm is to produce as many hatching eggs as possible. These eggs are
meant to produce first-class healthy broilers with good growth, low feed conversion and a predictable
slaughter yield. In order to get such a broiler you need to have first-class parent stock.
If no artificial insemination method is applied,
♂♀
the males and females are housed intermingled
during the production period. That is quite a chal- Males and females
lenge. The challenge is to feed and manage the
males and females according to their own require-
ments as these birds have different needs and
characteristics. Managing this is essential if you
want good mating results; remember, the produc-
tion of healthy, good quality fertile eggs is the
final goal. It depends very much on which country/
system you produce for, because the requirements
Cockerels, roosters, cocks; a lot of terms can
of hatcheries or integrations differ. indicate the male chicken. In this book we mainly
In this book the focus is on natural mating (not use the neutral term ‘males’. We also generally
refer to the hens as ‘females’.
AI-systems), and rather large-scale operations with
a controlled environment.
4 Bre e d e r S i gnal s
The broiler meat production chain
The broiler breeder farm is an important link in houses, equipment and labour, the more often
broiler meat production. Broiler breeder produc- the decision will be made to separate rearing and
tion, whether owned by an integrated enterprise or production. The whole broiler meat chain consists
by individual farmers/companies, can be divided roughly of the following parts:
into rearing flocks (up to approx. 18-20 weeks) • Primary breeding companies - Selection of
and production flocks (18/20-60/65 weeks). This broiler breeds (pure lines) and production of
system is used in many European countries and great-grandparents, grandparents and parent
North America. In other regions, birds are often stock.
kept in one location from day-old to death. There • Broiler breeder farms - The production of
are hardly any specialised rearing farms in this hatching eggs from parent stock.
situation. The advantage is that there is no trans- - Rearing farms (pullets)
port over long distances, there are no differences - Production farms (broiler breeders)
in feeding or drinking systems and therefore the • Hatcheries - The hatching of fertile eggs into
performance can be better. On the other hand, the day-old chicks.
costs of housing young birds are relatively high: • Broiler farms - Rearing day-old chicks into
many small chicks in a large house. broilers.
The system chosen is often related to labour • Processing - Slaughtering the broilers and
costs and investment costs for land, buildings processing the poultry meat.
and equipment. The more expensive the poultry • Retail - Marketing meat and meat products.
1. Intro d u c t i o n 5
Use all your senses Signals concept
This book is not a handbook in which all the facts
look listen
can be found, but rather a practical reference book
with things that a poultry farmer encounters on a
daily basis and on which you can take immediate
action. In this book we use the signal concept and
always ask the same questions:
smell feel 1. What do I see (hear, feel, smell, taste)? What’s
the signal?
2. How did this happen? What’s the explanation?
3. What am I supposed to do? Is it okay or should
I take action?
And, last but not least, it is important to deter-
taste touch
mine what effect you can expect to have on the
behaviour of the birds and thus to evaluate it.
If you always look at your business processes in
this way, you can make rapid progress. A real
signal is repeated. Therefore, try to make the
link to the circumstances at your farm. Does it
happen often? At other times? With other birds?
Ask an expert if necessary and compare with other
farms. If you only look at technical indicators (daily
growth, feed and water use, floor eggs, etc.), you
can miss important signals from your birds and
their environment. So, always use all your senses.
For example, even before you are in the poultry
house, you can listen to the sound of the birds and
notice if there is anything special about it. In addi-
tion to your daily routine, you can also do a check-
up round without doing anything else. This allows
you to pick up signals better and more consciously.
Once you know what’s normal, you will be able to
recognise abnormalities. You learn what normal
behaviour is by looking at it as often and as objec-
tively as possible. Prevent operational blindness.
♂
♂
♀ ♀ ♀
1 day 3 weeks 10 weeks 20 weeks
Structured observations
This is how you observe in a structured way: LOOK-THINK-ACT
1. Look, also when you are not doing other work.
2. Look at the whole flock, at the individual birds
and again at the flock.
3. Look at averages and extremes.
4. Look at the front, the middle, and the end of
the poultry house.
5. Look at different times of the day and in
different circumstances.
6. Stop at regular intervals, stand still, and go
down to bird level.
7. Identify risk moments, risk birds, and risk
places and keep a close eye on them.
8. Pay particular attention to feed, water, laying
nests, and ventilation systems.
Look from flock to individual

The whole flock:
• How is the distribution in the house?
• Do the birds avoid certain places?
• Are there differences between the birds What causes swelling on the head?
(body weight, colour, etc.)?
For some reason, an air sac in the respiratory system ruptured,
• Whistle or clap your hands to assess the resulting in the air moving to other places under the skin. You can
reaction. separate the bird, carefully puncture the skin with a needle and push
the air out. If the bird is well developed, there is nothing wrong with
• What noise do you hear, quiet or excited? keeping it in the flock.
Individual birds:
• Randomly catch 10 females and 5 males.
• Look at the legs, the comb, the cloaca, etc.
• Feel the chest, legs, crop, etc.
• Listen.
♂ ♂
♂
♀ ♀ ♀
25 weeks 30 weeks 60 weeks
1. Intro d u c t i o n 7
CHAPTER 2:
The broiler breeder
In order to be able to manage broiler breeders properly, you first must understand them, in terms of
behaviour, physiological and physical characteristics and needs. The selection of the male line is mostly
based on broiler characteristics. Therefore, managing the males is more difficult than managing the
females. And when the hens are not managed properly, it immediately shows in lower egg production.
Development of production results The conventional broiler breeds are mainly derived
150 from two types of birds: The males are mainly
top 25%
145 descended from the White Cornish, which was
Chicks (#/hen at 60 weeks)
140 bred in Cornwall from Indian game breeds. The

135 average production female lines are mainly descended from the White
130 Plymouth Rock, originally developed in America.
125 bottom 25% Today’s broilers grow five times faster than in 1960
120 and that is largely due to selection. In the 1950s,
115 the selection was mainly based on growth, but the
110 breeding goals have become much more varied
105 over time. There are now two large primary breed-
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020
Year ing organisations that dominate the world market,
whereas there used to be 1,000. It has therefore
The difference between the worst-performing and best-performing breeder
farms is striking. This difference is due to management. For many breeder become a highly-specialised and concentrated
farms this means that there is still profit to be made. An improvement of branch of the industry.
10 chicks per breeder hen on a farm with 20,000 broiler breeders and a
hatching egg price of €0.20 means: €40,000 increase in profit per cycle!
pedigree
Great progress selection
The number of chicks per hen housed is increasing 1x10
every year. They’re getting more and more efficient. genetic
improvement year 1
In 1990, one female breeder produced an average
150 GGPs great grandparent year 2
of 115 broiler chicks, and in 2020 this has
increased to 140 chicks. From pure line (pedigree) 7500 GPs grandparentstock year 3
to broiler production it takes about 5 years, with
400,000 PS broiler breeders/parent stock year 4
10 pure line females and 1 male eventually
producing 50 million broilers (75,000 metric tonnes 50,000,000 broilers year 5
of meat). It is also obvious to see how many bad broilers
processing
broilers you would get from one bad grandparent 75,000 tons
hen, or if you would leave one wrongly sexed of meat consumers
male in a broiler breeder flock. These ‘details’ can The breeding pyramid. A small number of broiler breeders
have a huge influence. One breeder male that was provide an enormous amount of broilers.
not removed from the female line may mate with
10 females, producing 1,400 suboptimal broilers.
Because the development of a new pure line also
takes at least 5 years, the breeding company must
anticipate the market requirements 10-15 years ahead.
Not all genetics

Not everything is due to genetics. Other factors
at breeder level can affect broiler quality. The age
of breeders has an impact on the size and qua-
lity of the hatching eggs and chicks. Mortality in
the first week generally can be higher in broilers
from young and old parents. Stress or disease
during the laying period can also affect broiler
Relatively few broiler breeders are responsible for a lot of broilers and therefore
chick quality and its technical results.
each has a very high impact. For example, 10 parent stock females and
1 male together produce about 1,400 chicks, providing 2.100 kg of meat.
Increasing difference in body weight between Influence of genetics and nutrition

breeders and broilers at 6 weeks of age 6,000
breed 2001+ diet 2001
3,000
5,000
2,500
broilers
4,000
Body weight (g)
2,000
Body weight (g)
breed 2001+ diet 1957

x 3.6 3,000
1,500
2,000 breed 1957 + diet 2001

1,000 x 1.9
500 breeders 1,000

breed 1957 + diet 1957
0 0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 21 42 56 70 84
Year Age (days)
The gap between the target weight of the broiler and that Feed and management have improved tremendously. But even if you gave a
of the broiler breeders is becoming larger. The bigger this modern broiler the diet from 60 years ago, its growth would be much faster
gap, the harder it is to manage broiler breeders at low feed than the breeds of that era. Therefore, 85-90% of the progress in broiler
intake, since they share the genetic potential for growth with chickens can be attributed to breeding and selection and only 10-15% to feed
their offspring. This has a major impact on their reproductive and management.
characteristics, such as peak production, persistency and
hatchability.
9
Weight Profile Breeding for meat or eggs
Feathering
Chick quality From a breeding point of view, the selection for
Hatchability
Persistency one trait usually has consequences for other traits
Fertility
Egg quality as well. This is also the case with selection for
Egg weight
Rate of lay
growth and reproduction. In parent stock both
Age first egg characteristics are important, but if you want to
Robustness
Health improve the characteristics of broilers, then repro-
Welfare
Growth duction can be negatively affected.
FCR
Yields
Primary breeding companies need to focus on the
Meat quality right balance between breeder and broiler charac-
etc.
etc. teristics. However, the cost of a day-old chick is
only a fraction of the cost of a fully-grown broiler.
Around 1960, maximising growth (production) was the primary selection A 10% improvement in broiler characteristics is
criterion for broilers. At that time all broilers were sold as whole chickens. therefore worth much more money than a 10%
Cutting up and further processing called for another type of broiler. Nowadays
improvement in parent stock characteristics. After
more than 40 characteristics are determined for selection, including feed
efficiency, in addition to welfare and overall health of the birds. In 2025, all, the ultimate objective is the production of
growth as such will be even less important, but focus will continue to be broiler meat.
placed on traits such as sustainability, robustness, yields and meat quality traits.
Characteristics of lines
Female line Male line All genetic changes have an impact on which
management strategies can be applied. Broilers
are the final product of crossing different pure
lines with different characteristics.
Specific broiler characteristics mainly result from
the males. Due to the significant difference in
selection of male lines compared to female lines,
these males have to be managed differently in
rearing and during production.
In breeding and selection of the female lines more
attention is paid to reproductive characteristics
than to broiler characteristics.
Broiler breeder
Layer
Female and male lines are selected for different traits (reproduction versus broiler
characteristics) to get optimal results on parent stock and broiler level. The great-
grandparents are purebred. The grandparents are crossed to produce the parents
and the commercial broilers are a four-way cross, making use of the heterosis Broiler
effect between the different genetic lines used.
Dwarf breeders
In broiler breeds, sometimes dwarf females are used. The dwarf
factor is genetic and a recessive gene. The main reason for using
dwarf hens is that they require a lot less maintenance feed and are
therefore cheaper (about 20% less feed), and currently the majority of
the slow(er) growing breeder females are a dwarf-type. Dwarf females A broiler breeder is a hen with high growth potential
require little or no feed restriction, which is benficial from an animal which also has to produce quite a number of good
welfare point of view. The dwarf females are mated with ‘normal’ hatching eggs. A challenging combination. The more
males. The recessive dwarf factor does not express itself in the final selection has been focused on broiler characteristics the
broiler offspring. more challenging it is to manage the flock.
Breeder dilemma Selection for growth and feed efficiency
Broiler meat production requires good health,
High feed
welfare, and efficient growth characteristics of the intake capacity
broilers. At the same time, the goal of a breeder
flock is to collect as many fertile hatching eggs as
possible. These are two things that are not easy
to combine – either in the breeding process or in
daily management. restricted feeding unrestricted feeding
If you let the parent stock grow like a broiler, the

breeders will become too heavy. As a result mor-
tality, egg production and fertility will become a
problem.
In order to limit growth, the birds are fed in a
controlled manner and often only in the morning,
optimal poor laying
with much lower energy and protein content in the
reproduction stereotypic overweight, performance
feed than for broilers. This requires good manage- and health object pecking lameness, poor fertility
ment, because the difference between the urge of experiencing hunger? premature death high mortality
the chicken to eat a lot and what the chicken is
allowed to take in can lead to competition for feed
between the birds. This competition can lead to reduced welfare reduced welfare
reduced uniformity. However, some competition The management of conventional broiler breeders is to a large extent about
is required. If there is too much feeding space, the finding a balance between restricting growth during rearing and optimal hatching
egg production. With as little harm as possible to the welfare of the birds.
fast eaters will be able to consume too much feed,
also reducing uniformity.
The poultry farmer has to deal with this dilemma Fast, moderate or slow(er) growing
and find the balance between preventing fattening
of the birds, but maintaining reproduction charac-
teristics, especially during the rearing period when
the birds are fed well below satiation.
Effect of unrestricted feeding on performance

KPI Controlled Ad lib.
BW at 24 weeks (kg) 2.20 5.40
Feed intake (g/h/d) 167.00 184.00
Lay (%) 79.10 52.40
Egg weight (g) 63.70 63.70
Egg mass (g/d) 50.30 33.50
FCR (kg feed/kg egg) 3.33 5.80
Mortality (%) 6.10 31.10
This study showed that if you practice unrestricted
The majority of broiler breeders worldwide are so-called
feeding in fast growing breeds, mortality would go up
‘conventional’ parents of fast-growing broilers, which can reach a
from 6% to 31%. This is not valid for so-called dwarf
body weight of 2.5 kg in 40 days or less. Worldwide, only a small
female breeders.
proportion of broiler breeders are intended for slow(er) growing
broilers. In Europe this is around 5% of the total flocks. During recent
years in Europe and the US an increase in demand for chickens with
a lower growth rate (between 45 to 50 g/d average daily gain) can be
noticed, mainly pushed by ngo’s. For this market mainly the Hubbard
Premium or the Rowan Range females and males are being used.
For the more traditional and organic markets even slower growing
chicken breeds are used (27.5 to 40 g/d ADG).
2. Th e b ro i l e r b re e d e r 11
Broiler breeder
Growth control
Layer During the rearing period, the feed intake is con-
trolled by up to approximately 30% of the total
Broiler feed intake capacity. During the laying period feed
control is 50-90% of the total feed intake capacity.
The most severe feed restriction is between rough-
ly 7 and 16 weeks of age. The original reason for
this was to postpone maturity. With unrestricted
feeding the males would be mature at 14 weeks,
but would die too soon. Even with a controlled
feeding schedule you can easily over-feed the
While layers and broilers can always be satiated due to an almost unlimited birds due to competition between individual birds.
supply of feed, the conventional broiler breeder receives a restricted amount
Too much feed causes fat birds, too much res-
of feed during her entire life for better welfare and optimum production.
triction inhibits development. That is why regular
Activity of breeders and broilers monitoring of body weights and uniformity is very
90
Total important, especially during the rearing period.
80
broiler Follow the breeding organisation’s guidelines.
70 breeder
Time (% observations)
60
Spare time
50
In the wild, chickens forage for more than half
40
the day. In comparison, the female breeder pul-
30
lets consume their feed in less than one hour
20
from about five weeks of age. During the laying
10
period they eat the entire allotment of feed
0
(165 to 170 grams) in three to four hours. Dwarf
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females need more time to consume their feed.

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Water supply is often cut off two hours after the

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Bi
Lit
Activity feed is finished to avoid overconsumption of water

or spilling. So broiler breeders have a lot of spare
Broiler breeders are more active than broilers. If broilers don’t eat or drink, they
rest on the litter. You must give breeders something to do so that they don’t time. Especially from six weeks of age onwards,
develop abnormal behaviours stereotypic (pecking). this can lead to abnormal behaviour.
Some farmers do not turn off the water supply. If
the birds know they have sufficient time to drink,
they’ll be more comfortable. If they are going to
play with the water or overdrink, you can still turn
off the water. This is another good reason to keep
a close eye on behaviour, litter quality and the
water/feed ratio. Too little water is as bad as too
much. A water/feed ratio higher than 2.0 is normal.
If you provide feed later in the day you should not
give water in advance.
Two feed silos makes mixing possible. The box on the left contains a weighing
scale to dose the feeds correctly. The silos are clearly numbered 2A and 2B in
order to prevent errors during filling.
Phase feeding difference in energy levels is applied (grower feed
Nutritional requirements change with age, not only is often much lower in energy).
in quantity, but even more so in composition; that The underlying choice is often based on bird
is why phase feeding is used. This is even more welfare; by restricting the energy content you can
crucial in breeders than in laying hens because of allow the bird to eat more, giving them a longer
the risk of fattening and excessive growth. eating time.
In many countries, three types of feed are used In addition to the needs of the birds, there is also
during rearing, with energy content generally an influence of the availability of raw materials
remaining the same. If the hens are stimulated in various regions. For example, chickens are fed
by day length before 23 weeks of age, it may be relatively more wheat in Europe and more maize
better to provide four types of feed during rearing in the US, and the variation in protein sources in
in order to prepare them more quickly for produc- Europe is also greater. This is taken into account
tion. In that case, in addition to protein levels, a in the feeding strategies.
Examples of phase feeding programmes

Type of feed Characteristics When Purpose
For 3 types of feed during rearing
1. Starter feed Ground crumb. Day 0 to day 28 Early growth and physical development.
2. Grower feed Less crude protein and less amino acids (amino From day 28 Controlled increase in body weight.
acid pattern is very important). Optimal quality.
3. Pre-lay feed Energy to protein ratio is increased to encou- From week 17 until Good development of the reproductive
rage the bird to store energy as fat as energy start lay (approx. 5% organs.
reserve for the onset of lay. Calcium level is egg production)
increased to prepare for lay.
For 4 types of feed during rearing
1. Starter feed 1 Concentrated feed. 0-2/3 weeks Supports good early development,
especially for males.
2. Starter feed 2 Lower energy content 3-7/8 weeks Smoother transition to a less concentra-
ted growth feed.
3. Grower feed Less concentrated grower feed. 7/8-17 weeks Gain more control over body weight de-
velopment and increase feed intake.
4. Pre-lay feed Energy to protein ratio is increased to encou- From week 17 until Good development of the reproductive
rage the bird to store energy as fat as energy start lay (approx. 5% organs.
reserve for the onset of lay. Calcium level is egg production)
increased to prepare for lay.
For 3 types of feed during production
Breeder 1 Calcium level is 2.5 times higher than pre-lay for 5% lay-35 weeks Apart from development and maintenan-
good shell quality. Higher in energy and protein ce, production requires energy. High egg
(amino acids) for good production. Higher lin- weight is important due to the threshold
oleic acid and TSAA for higher initial egg weight. for hatching eggs (50 or 52 grams).
Breeder 2 Slightly lower protein and lower linoleic acid level 35-50 weeks Maintaining production without too much
and higher calcium. muscle development.
Breeder 3 High in calcium, low in protein. 50-60 weeks Maintaining shell quality with decreasing
egg production.
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
100% 0% 75% 25% 25% 75% 0% 100%

50% 50%
Feed A Feed B Feed A Feed B Feed A Feed B Feed A Feed B Feed A Feed B
Switch between different feeds gradually by mixing the feeds for at least five days, with the ratio gradually shifting.
This allows the intestine and intestinal flora to adapt better to the changes.
Natural behaviour
Knowledge of natural behaviour is important
to enable you to manage broiler breeders well.
Males and females are reared separately, but after
the rearing period, males and females must be
kept together to get fertile eggs. This is a chal-
lenge because they both require different types
of feed and management. In addition, there are
many more types of behaviour (e.g. mating) to
pay attention to than in a broiler or layer house.
Behaviour is largely genetically determined. Some
Scratching in the litter is part of foraging behaviour.
In a poultry house you can make use of this behaviour to things are instinctual and can’t be bred out.
keep the litter dry and loose. It can be encouraged
by scattering grains.
Chickens use dust baths to remove the old fat from their Preening is important to keep feathers in good condition.
feathers and thus any parasites. Birds apply preen gland oil to the feathers and remove
parasites and foreign objects.
Daily routine
Morning Noon Afternoon Evening
Preening
Roosting
Mating
Feeding
Feeding
Egg laying Dust bathing
Chickens synchronise their behaviour. They form groups to protect themselves from attacks. Patterns can also be observed
during the day. Align the management (feeding, lighting, activities in the poultry house) accordingly. Be aware that this
pattern is different at different phases in the chicken’s life cycle.
Mating behaviour Stages in mating behaviour
In ‘normal’ situations most mating takes place
1 2
about two hours before sunset. This is logical, since
it has to be done after the laying of an egg and
before a new one blocks the oviduct. In the wild,
the female approaches the male. The male will
attempt to mate all the time, but the female has to
allow him to by crouching in front of him. Natural
mating behaviour always follows a fixed pattern.
Courtship behaviour will make the mating process
easier. If you know and recognise this behaviour,
you can also use it to improve fertility results.
Successful mating requires space, the process
works better at 5 birds/m2 than for 8 birds/m2. 3
Did you know that?

• A male mates about 10-15 times a day,
40% of which are successful.
• Not all males do that, quite a number don’t
mate or not successfully.
• For a female, mating once a week is
sufficient for good hatchability results.
• Male/female ratio must be approx.
9% at the start of laying. The male closes with the female, displaying waltzing, tidbitting, high-step
• In most houses ‘over mating’ is an issue with advance, feather ruffling, crowing, wing movements.
negative effects on female willingness to mate
at progressing age.
4 5
If the female wants to allow mating, The male approaches the female
she will spontaneously take a crou- from behind and stands on the
ching position. back of the female.
6 7
This is usually accompanied by The male moves his tail down and
Normally, mating takes place in the litter (top). In litter the male taking the feathers on the to the side (the female moves her
systems, 90% of mating takes place on the litter. In the back of the female’s head or neck tail up and to the side) so that their
case of houses with full slats a slight decrease in fertility in his beak. cloacae can make contact.
can be observed.
Aggressive behaviour
Since there is social behaviour in a flock with
males and females, there will also be some
aggressive behaviour, especially between males
that might consider other males intruders in their
territory.
When a fight starts, two birds stand face to face,
opposite each other, in a threatening position. The
neck is stretched, in males usually horizontally
and in females more vertically. The feathers of the
neck are completely erect.
The fighting starts with leaping toward the oppo-
nent, pushing off both legs simultaneously,
accompanied by wing-flapping. During leaping,
The litter is normally the territory of the males. If there is less litter area in a the legs are thrown forward, kicking the opponent
house, you should therefore use fewer males. Otherwise there will be too much with a rapid ruffle of both feet. The legs move
competition between them, and that will be at the expense of fertility results.
alternately and with high frequency and amplitude
during kicking. Vigorous pecking at the opponent
is another element, often to the head.
Stages in aggressive behaviour
1 2
Hopping and threatening

Frontal threatening with neck feathers erect
3 4
Leaping Wing flapping
5 6
Kicking Aggressive pecking
Ranking and pecking
There is a hierarchy between chickens known as a
‘pecking order’. The birds recognise each other by
the head (colour, size and shape of the comb). In
very large flocks there is little aggression, because
the chickens can no longer recognise each other
when there are more than 50 birds walking around.
The rule becomes very simple: the largest chicken
with the largest comb is dominant. Feather Social hierarchy is shown by dominant and submissive interactions. The bird
pecking is not very common in broiler breeders. on the left shows an aggressive attitude full of self-confidence, while the bird
on the right shows submissive behaviour. This isn’t directly sex-linked. A bad
Do not confuse pecking with what is known as
male can sometimes be submissive to a dominant female.
feather sucking.
Sounds
Chickens have an extensive repertoire of 20 types
of sounds, for example for warning, contact, thre-
at, submission, feed call, or pain. The males have
a territorial defence call and can crow over a long
distance. The social dominance of a male is deter-
mined by the quality and quantity of this call.
Normally, an alarm signal will always come from
a male. In addition, the birds sometimes react
by ‘freezing’ and pushing themselves flat to the
ground. This may be due to a large bird flying
through the poultry house. Chickens are also able
If feather pecking does occur, you can take the following measures:
to recognise silhouettes. This is because their • red light, so that attractive red skin/blood is no longer visible (although this
bifocal vision gives them an upward view. makes it more difficult to check the colour of the comb and wattles)
• light dimming (risk: more floor eggs!)
•d istractions, e.g. in the form of a lucerne bale or pecking blocks
• s uppletion therapy via drinking water (liquid methionine, salt, etc.)
• offer diversionary equipment, such as CDs or plastic bottles half filled with water
Music
The birds get used to many
different stimuli so that they
are more resistant to stress
and are less likely to be
frightened. Think for example
of music in the house or dif-
ferent colours of overalls. As
a suggestion, place a ribbon
above the inlet valve during
the rearing period, so that the
birds become accustomed to
In a breeder house you can hear a cacophony of sounds.
movement from above.
Males crow and react to other males. This gives a picture
of male activity and the social order.
Effects of air quality on broiler parents Importance of ventilation
Substance Quality characteristics In case of housed animals, ventilation and climate
Ammonia • Ideal level < 10 ppm. control is very important. This is essential for
• > 10 ppm: damage to lung surface. each phase of production, both rearing and laying.
• > 20 ppm: increased susceptibility to respiratory
diseases.
Always look closely at the behaviour of the
• > 25 ppm: reduced growth rate. birds to check whether the ventilation is being car-
Carbon dioxide • Ideal level < 3,000 ppm. ried out correctly.
• > 3,500 ppm: ascites. Carbon dioxide is fatal at Good ventilation ensures:
high levels.
• Healthy respiratory systems
Carbon monoxide • Ideal level < 10 ppm.
• > 50 ppm: affects bird health. Carbon monoxide • Effective breathing
is fatal at low levels. • Good temperature regulation
Dust • Should be as low as possible. Damages • Good litter quality
respiratory tract lining.
• Good performance from the bird
Relative humidity • Ideal level: 50-60% after brooding.
• Effects vary with temperature.
• Disease prevention
As soon as you walk into the poultry house,

ask yourself the following questions:
• Do the birds sound happy?
• How are the birds distributed in the
poultry house?
• Does it feel muggy?
• Is the air quality acceptable?
• Is the humidity too high or too low for
young chicks?
• Is it cold? How does the temperature and
air movement feel?
• Is there a draught?
Image from monitoring system with temperatures, air pressure and ventilation Have the climate system checked each year by an
openings. expert. Your system settings may change due to wear or
unexplained deviations.
Humidity sensor at bird level. CO2 sensor at bird level. Temperature sensor at bird level.
Negative pressure
Fans draw air from the poultry house, causing
fresh outside air to enter the house evenly through
the inlet openings. The greater the low-pressure
area, the faster the air velocity of the incoming
air. This only works efficiently if the house is pro-
perly sealed. This is very important in the case of
minimum ventilation, because the influence of air
leakage is relatively greater in the case of low air
movement. With a smoke test you can see how the
air spreads through the house. It is best to carry
out a smoke test under the worst conditions: when
the house is at rearing temperature and the ambi-
ent temperature low. Hold the smoke generator Place ribbons on the ceiling at a distance of 1-1.5 meters apart. This shows you
about 5-10 cm (2-4 inches) below and away from the air movement, which should become less and less towards the top. This
means that the air just reaches the middle of the house, and slowly moves down.
the inlet to produce sufficient smoke. These ribbons are also a stimulus for the birds to make them feel more at ease.
These ventilators can be closed off to better control the

climate (no cold air entering, better negative pressure,
better air distribution).
In the absence of a smoke machine, your own perception is also very useful for
observing air movement and draughts. Moisten your skin a little and you will quickly
feel cold air currents in the house. Squat among the birds to experience the airflow
there. Tossing some down feathers and watching them fall is another option.
force
to open
air getting in,

decreasing
negative pressure
You have to apply some force to open the door of the poultry house, which is a signal that there is underpressure in the house.
Immediately after opening the negative pressure drops to zero. If too much force is required, the negative pressure may be too high.
Check the inlet openings and fan operation. With a sliding door you can leave the door ajar and feel air flow direction and speed.
Biosecurity All-in all-out
It is especially important for biosecurity measures An ‘all-in all-out’ policy with only one age group
to be implemented and followed up rigorously on of birds is preferred. Every delivery to the farm
broiler breeder farms, not only to prevent diseases or transport from the farm, especially with young
in the parent birds but also to prevent for problems chicks on a rearing farm, is a risk: it will cause a
in the progeny, e.g. vertically transmittable disea- break in biosecurity! Doors have to be opened,
ses. For grandparent stock, biosecurity measures persons and material are brought inside houses.
are even tighter: the higher up in the breeding pyra- Contact with ‘people from outside’ should be
mid, the higher the hygienic standards. Especially limited and all biosecurity measures should be
in the first days and weeks, chicks are very suscepti- followed by visitors. Preferably only the farm’s own
ble to specific diseases. If infectious agents are pre- equipment (for example vaccination equipment,
sent on the rearing farm when the chicks are delive- weighing and grading instruments) should be
red, or when the chicks are challenged by an early used. Flocks that are transported should always
introduction in the first days or weeks of their lives, be tested before transport to be sure that they
the immunity of the chicks is not yet well develo- are free from AI and ND (or: adequately protected
ped enough to prevent for infection. Specifically for against ND), M.g., M.s. and Salmonella.
Marek’s Disease and IB variant virus, the symptoms
can sometimes not be recognised earlier than at Dirty and clean road principle
the onset of lay! Practically this means a total separation of the
outside (‘dirty’) space from the inside (‘clean’)
space. There is always a possibility of introduction
of infectious agents via an airborne route because
houses must be ventilated properly. To prevent
the introduction of contaminants via air, special
filters are available for so called FAPP-ventilation:
Filtered Air Positive Pressure.
The dirty route is used by trucks to unload the feed, or to

load the hatching eggs.
feed silo filling pipe
DIRTY ZONE BUFFER ZONE
buffer zone CLEAN ZONE

access point poultry house
parking
external road
public road
clean zone poultry house

access point
dead bird vehicle hygienic lock fence around the

storage disinfection bath between ‘buffer’-zone operation indicates
and ‘clean’ zone the ‘buffer’-zone
The farm is divided into a clean part (the houses) where the birds are kept It is advisable to include a paved strip of at least one
and a dirty part with access to the outside world. The farms should be meter around the houses for rodent control. This strip
completely surrounded by a closed fence. hasn’t been cleaned recently and the grass is too high.
Entering a poultry farm
Farms (houses) should not be located directly A minimum requirement to reduce pathogen
near to other poultry farms, especially not near transfer by any person entering the house (without
farms with layers, broilers and turkeys (farms with showering) is: wearing a coverall, hair net, boot
‘final products’). Not only because of airborne covers or rubber boots and preferably gloves and a
germs but also because of possible spread of mouth mask. It is advisable to record each visitor
diseases by vermin. (defined as a person not working on site on a daily
Since outbreaks of AI are seen in the neighbour- base): name, date, declaration of being ‘clean’ and
hood of ‘open water’ it is recommended to avoid healthy, reason and duration of the visit, signa-
any pools, ponds, rivers, or lakes in the neighbour- ture, and preferably the location and time of the
hood of poultry houses, because of the attractive- last visit to another poultry farm.
ness for waterfowl. Also, after rainfall no pools of
water should remain on the pavement.
At the entrance of the farm there should be a buil-
ding containing at the very least clean coveralls
and rubber boots which should be worn before
entering the farm.
It is advisable to have a disinfection bath at the entrance ‘Shower in-shower out’ policy: all personal clothing and
of the farm where the truck has to drive through to items must be stored on the external site of the shower.
disinfect the wheels. The truck for dead birds is a big After showering every person entering the farm must
risk: this truck should not pass the hygiene barrier: dead wear clothing from the farm.
birds (stored in special containers) should be loaded
outside the fence.
Dead birds are a potential source of infection. They should be removed from the house as soon as possible: collect dead
birds at least 2 times per day. Store them (not too long) in well-closed containers, preferably refrigerated. After they are
emptied, clean and disinfect (left) them so they are ready for use (right).
Personal hygiene
Boots/shoes or boot covers should be changed
before entering a house; for that reason also in
front of each house (in the ‘ante-room’) there
should be a separation between dirty (coming
from outside) and clean (coming in contact with
the birds inside the house) zone.
Foot baths with disinfectants may be useful pro-
vided that the boots or boot covers are clean, the
disinfectant is clean and at the correct concentra-
tion. As soon as the foot bath gets contaminated
with dust, faeces, etcetera the effectiveness of dis-
infection will quickly be reduced.
Equipment (like the basket and the gripper arm to
collect floor eggs) should be separated per house.
Equipment to repair defects of e.g. feeding system,
drinking water system, lighting, etcetera should be
clean and disinfected before taking it inside the
house. Also the equipment that is delivered from
the hatchery to collect hatching eggs on and in
must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
Use separate equipment and clothing for each poultry
house, to prevent the spread of infections.
Using disposable latex or nitrile gloves is the best option,

but hand washing and disinfection between houses is
acceptable. Have basins with running water and soap
next to each entrance.
When footwear per poultry house is used, a ‘step-over partition

barrier’ should be set up at the entrance. When you pass this barrier
you put on a new pair of shoes/boots or boot covers and the other
way around on leaving the poultry house. On the bottom picture you
Where water is not available, at least a hand sanitiser
even have an extra step: coming from outside, you put on temporary
dispenser should be in place for use on entrance and
slippers before putting on clean boots.
exit to disinfect your hands every time you enter a new
poultry house.
Vermin
Besides people, wild birds pose an extremely A good pest control has three elements:
potent risk to biosecurity. Where you have poultry, 1. Prevention: make the house inaccessible or
you have vermin; there is feed, places to hide and less attractive to vermin.
a suitable climate for multiplication. In addition to 2. Monitoring: look for signs of vermin such as
the risk they pose to your biosecurity programme, traces of feeding, droppings, foot-prints.
rodents can also cause direct damage to your poul- 3. Eradication: use pesticides to stop them
try house and equipment! At minimum, every oper- from multiplying. It has to be executed by
ation should have a written programme addressing professionals.
the control methods for: wild birds, rodents, flies,
lice, mites, fleas and darkling beetles. Records
Pest control
should be kept of procedures and chemicals used.
Sufficient down-time is ideal for eliminating ver- The purpose of ‘clean’ insect-control (in between
min: bait becomes more attractive when feed is flocks) is to prevent the return of the insects,
which managed to escape or survive the ‘dirty’
scarce, there are fewer places for the vermin to eradication (during production), from their shel-
hide, and the risk of birds being inadvertently con- ters to the clean and warmed up house with the
fresh feed in the feeders. DO NOT apply insec-
taminated with pesticides is small.
ticides together with the disinfectants. Properly
dry the house before applying the insecticide.
Flies
• Risk: spread pathogens such as Campylobacter and Salmonella.
• Prevention: fly screens on air inlets and outlets, remove waste
quickly, remove manure from the farm.
• Control: long-acting insecticide at point of contact, or an insect
killer lamp (the UV light attracts flies which are electrocuted by the
electric wire grids).
Darkling beetle
• Risk: spreads pathogens, damages insulation.
• Prevention: use insulation with a solid top layer, smooth profile on
house wall, remove manure from farm.
• Control: insecticide during down-time, but a smooth metal strip
or metal sheet against the wall can also be effective in preventing
further spread. Important to use insecticides on the walls just before
taking the birds out and heating up the house before placing the
new flock (before the house cools down and warms up again).
Rodents
• Risk: spread disease organisms such as Salmonella or AI, damage
to infrastructure e.g. short circuiting caused by gnawing through
electricity cables, loss of feed.
• Prevention: clean up waste or feed sources around the poultry
house, maintaining a clear-cut buffer zone around the house,
properly closing doors and narrow ventilation openings.
• Control: bait traps, e.g. containing anticoagulants. However, many
rats are resistant to this.
Cleaning and disinfection
During production Good biosecurity protocols to keep diseases out only
work if the diseases are not on the farm to start with.
In addition to the cleaning/disinfection procedures after emptying
the houses, cleaning, disinfection and biosecurity in general should Thorough cleaning and disinfection between flocks
always have your attention. is the key to keeping diseases out and breaking
• The buffer zone should be cleaned when necessary, but at least disease cycles. Include buildings/rooms adjacent
twice a year.
• Don’t store cleaning materials in or around the houses before to the poultry house and the pavement around the
cleaning takes place. poultry house. Clean the feeding system between
• Do not take materials into the clean area of the farm without
every flock (prevent diseases and feed spoilage by
first thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting them (hatchery trolleys,
tools, wood shavings, spare parts, etc.) moulds and other contaminants). The new feed
for the new flock must be delivered in a clean
silo; skipping this step is risking your next flock
at their most vulnerable point. In case of specific
diseases (Histomonas, Coccidiosis, Salmonella,
M.g./M.s.) during production, the process of wet
cleaning should be executed twice. In case of
Salmonella and M.g./M.s. during the preceding
flock, dry disinfection should be done a second
time. In case of Histomonas/Coccidiosis/Worms or
leg problems caused by Staphylococcus during the
preceding flock, a second wet disinfection should
be performed.
Downtime reduces infection pressure

Downtime is the time between disinfection and
placement of the new flock. Turn-around time the
The paved part in front of the entrance to the house is heavily contaminated time between depletion/transfer and the next place-
with manure when loading birds and removing manure. If you don’t clean and ment. For biosecurity downtime is of greater sig-
disinfect this surface properly, dangerous pathogens are brought back inside
when litter or new birds are delivered. nificance for reducing disease pressure. The longer
the downtime, the more pathogens will die from
lack of moisture, lack of food and the absence of
hosts. At least one week is recommended. However,
some pathogens, such as coccidian oocysts, can
survive for long periods of time without a chicken
host. A short turn-around time may be economi-
cally attractive but this must not be at the expense
of thorough cleaning, disinfecting, and drying out of
the house. Use the downtime to carry out repairs,
and to check floors for cracks and open joints and
seal them all thoroughly. Replace all pest control
measures before the new flock arrives.
Remember
• The quicker the house is emptied and
cleaned, the longer the downtime, the higher
the pathogen-load reduction.
• Cleaning, washing, and disinfection are three
separate steps!
• Clean/disinfect feed and water lines after
Cleaning and disinfection are essential not only between flocks, but also
every flock, and again before the new flock
during production. Showers should be cleaned after every use. The hygiene
is placed.
lock must be cleaned daily and disinfected once a week.
24
Dry cleaning
Remove any excess feed from the whole feeding Not just the building
system. Remove the old litter with a loader/tractor.
Once the house is empty, dry clean the ventilation
and heating systems equipment with a leaf blo-
wer: fans, wall inlets, heaters, air filters etc. Brush
the remaining dust and debris from all surfaces
and don’t forget hard-to-reach places; a pathogen
lurking there might cost you your next flock.
Clean and cover-up all non-washable equipment
with waterproof protection: electric motors, sen-
sors, heating equipment.
Points of attention:
• Remove manure and litter and dispose of it
directly, away from the premises. Clear the
immediate vicinity of the poultry houses of
manure residues, feathers, etc.
• Remove all loose materials/installations from • Equipment and inventory. All equipment and inventory must
the poultry house (feeding system, hoppers, undergo a thorough wet cleaning and disinfection. Don’t leave
drinkers, fans, stoves, etc.). disinfected parts outside for unnecessarily long periods of time
• First lower the winchable parts in order to in order to prevent recontamination. Don’t put clean, disinfected
clean them with compressor and/or piston materials on the floor or on pallets that have not yet been cleaned
before hoisting them in anticipation of wet and disinfected.
cleaning. • Silos. After wet cleaning, the silos must dry completely to
• Clean the house before working with water prevent mould formation.
and remove loose dirt, preferably with an • Drinking water system. Dirt is deposited in the drinking water
industrial vacuum cleaner. system during use, which is a breeding ground for bacteria and
• Replace all pest control points in order to moulds. To remove this, the drinking water system must be filled
control any moving pests during cleaning! with a high dosage of detergent (hydrogen-peroxide based). After
soaking, the pipe(s) must be flushed thoroughly to completely
remove loose dirt and detergent residues. No later than 24 hours
before the birds arrive, flush the pipes with plenty of clean water
to remove any detergent residue.
• Egg collection. Remove all loose parts (cups, drawers, brushes)
from egg belts and the packer and leave to soak for a long time.
Thoroughly remove all egg residue, especially in case of an
M.g./M.s. infection in the most recent flock. Cover and tape the
electronic parts well after manual cleaning and disinfection.
Before driving into the house with a loader to remove the old litter make sure all safety measures are observed: switch off
the heat generators and raise or remove the feeding and drinking lines.
Wet cleaning Drying the house
Cleaning should be done thoroughly, since After washing and before disinfection, drying the
disinfection after a bad clean will not have any house is necessary. Using heating and ventilation
effect. Wash the house internally and externally with systems will speed up the process. It is not always
a pressure cleaner (minimum 100 bar/1500 psi), possible to see how clean the surfaces are until
preferably with hot water (> 40°C). For the interior they are dry. Complete the final inspection after
of the house, wash in the correct sequence: clean drying, and revisit the cleaning process if necessary;
ceiling and walls first. Always work from top to the loss of time is better than risking the health
bottom. And, start at the rear of the house and of a flock. Maintenance and repairs should be
move to the front. Wash off the detergent from done prior to final disinfection, otherwise you
the entire house and all equipment surfaces as it might reinfect the equipment (gas/electrics, lights,
may later react with the disinfectant and reduce its feeders/drinkers, leaking nipples, cracked and
efficiency. Scrape/sweep the water from the floor. damaged concrete floors and wall surfaces).
Be certain that all dirt and debris (organic matter)
is removed in the end. Pay attention to cracks and
Points of attention
joints.
You can kill as many as 80% of pathogens by first • All parts to be cleaned should first be
cleaning with water and a cleaning agent. This foamed with detergent (soap/gel) and
soaked for a sufficient length of time (at least
loosens and rinses away oil, grease and particles. 3-4 hours).
By disinfecting after a thorough clean, you can • Any ventilation shafts in the ridge must
reduce the number of pathogens by 99%. Give be thoroughly cleaned using a scaffold or
approach it from the roof side. If possible,
cleaning agents and disinfectants enough time to remove fans first.
take effect, use the correct dose and make sure the • Clean ventilation inlets/outlets in the wall
temperature is high enough. When using cleaning thoroughly from the inside to the outside as
well as vice versa.
agents and disinfectants, use adequate protection: • Lower equipment (drinkers/feeders) for wet
gloves, a liquid-proof overall and a full face mask cleaning. After cleaning, hoist them up as
high as possible to prevent contamination
with filter. And, provide sufficient ventilation
with dirty water.
so that you are not working in unhealthy air • Clean the floor with sufficient pressure and
afterwards. plenty of water.
The first step in wet cleaning is soaking the house for A detergent ensures the dirt will be removed. Rinse it off
some time to loosen the dirt. After this, cleaning with a properly in order to optimise the effect of the disinfection.
detergent takes place.
Disinfection
The disinfection of the farm consists of two pha- Wet or dry disinfecting? Preferably both
ses: wet and dry disinfection.
Wet disinfection
The first course of disinfection is wet disinfection
by spraying disinfectant onto all surfaces and
parts of the poultry house. This can be done with
a high-pressure cleaner. This also applies to the
installation/materials on the outside of the poultry
house. All pavement within a ten-metre distance
of the house must be disinfected.
Dry disinfection Wet disinfecting/spraying Dry disinfecting/fogging

Wet disinfection is always followed by the (dry) A longer contact time or The disinfectant reaches
room disinfection. If performed with formalin exposure time is key for a good everywhere and the surface
effect, but the disinfectant does range is maximised due to the
(formaldehyde solution), this disinfection works not reach everywhere. small droplets. However, contact
best if there still is some residual moisture from time is shorter.
the wet disinfection in the house. The agents
used may vary, but always follow the advice on
dosage and conditions (T, %RH) to increase the
effectiveness of the disinfection. Some agents
need a minimum temperature and a certain
humidity to be effective (formaldehyde: 20°C,
many other agents 15°C).
In order to optimise darkling beetle control, extra
heating of the poultry house can be beneficial
for the activation of the beetles. Include all loose
equipment in the disinfection. Disinfect the litter
materials (wood shavings) including the bales for
additional use later in the production cycle. Clean every little surface thoroughly, including places that are difficult to reach.
Wherever there is manure or dust, there may still be live pathogens, even
after disinfection. Check the disinfection action by taking samples. Good flock
health starts with a clean environment for the day-old chicks.
Types of disinfectants and their effects

Kills fungal
Product Kills bacteria Kills mould Kills viruses Toxicity
spores/ coccidia
Alcohol +++ +++ +++ - ++
Chlorine compound +++ ++ ++ + ++
Formaldehyde +++ +++ +++ + +++
Glutaraldehyde +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Hydrogen peroxide +/- (against Entero- and Staphylococci) ++ ++ + +
Iodophors ++ + ++ - ++
Peracetic acid +++ ++ ++ ++ +++
Phenol derivatives +++ +++ + - +++
Quaternary ammonia +/- (against gram-negative bacteria) + + - +
Sodium hydroxide ++ ++ + + +++
Ammonia ++ - - +++ -
CHAPTER 3:
First weeks of rearing
Young chicks need a draught-free, warm and safe environment. Since the chicks are lacking a mother hen
(imprinting), they must learn survival skills from you and each other: eating, drinking, searching for
feed, resting and sleeping. Your attention during rearing sets the foundation for their future production.
Uniformity and production Chick behaviour, body weight and flock uniform-
100 ity are important management indicators during
80% uniformity rearing. A uniform flock is a must to manage the
80 breeder flock successfully and to achieve synchro-
nised peak production. The rearing period can be
Hen-day production
60 divided into three phases:

1. Development (week 0-2). This is the basis for a
40 70-75% uniformity
good flock. At this stage, there is a minimum level
of feed control, birds must be allowed to develop
20 freely. Skeleton, heart and blood vessels, feathers,
and their immune systems develop during this
0 period, and uniformity is stimulated.
24 30 36 42 48 54 60 2. The rearing period (week 3-15). The emphasis
Age (weeks)
is on controlled growth of the birds by
The lower the uniformity, the more birds are not managed in synch with their carefully controlling the amount of feed.
requirements, resulting in lower performance and fitness. In cases of reduced
uniformity, the young individual birds are in very different stages of sexual
3. Preparation for the production period (week
development when they go to the production house. The light comes too late 16-22). Rapid growth, including physiological
for some birds and too early for others. The same is valid for feeding. This all composition and hormonal changes of the
results in a lower production and fertility.
reproductive organs (puberty).
Sexing
Sexing is essential in broiler breeders, since you colour sexing. For the male lines often vent sexing
combine lines with specific traits. If sexing errors is applied. The sex of an individual is determined
remain in the flock and start to mate, this will result by the sex chromosomes. In mammals the presence
in broilers with poorer broiler characteristics, but of the male-specific Y chromosome confers male-
also in a more uneven broiler flock. There are 3 ness: males XY, females XX. For birds it is the other
sexing methods: vent sexing, feather sexing and way around: males ZZ, females ZW.
♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂
♂
♀ ♀
Feather sexing Colour sexing Vent sexing

The sex-linked slow-feathering gene (Kk) The sex-linked silver gene (Ss) or domi- Vent sexing is based on the appearance
codes for wing feathers length of day-old- nant white gene (Ii) can be used to sex difference in the form of the cloaca of
chicks. A cross of a fast-feathering male newly hatched coloured parent chicks, males and females. However, this is very
with a slow-feathering female, results in which are often slow-growing breeds. It is difficult to see and requires a great deal of
slow-feathering male and fast-feathering fe- based on the principle that the male and training and expertise.
male chicks. Look at the outer wing section. female lines can have genetically different 1. The first faeces (meconium) is gently
The bottom row of feathers are the base colours. pushed out of the chick.
feathers, the top row the cover feathers. If This gives the females the colour of the 2. This will open the cloaca slightly.
the base feathers are longer than the cover father and the males the colour of the 3. If there is a small lump in the cloaca,
feathers, the chick is female. If the base mother. the chick is male.
feathers are the same length or shorter than
the cover feathers, it’s a male.
Genetic scheme for colour sexing Female line Male line

A B C D
Colour sexing scheme for feather colour
white (I). But the same principle applies for
Grandparents I- ii II II
dominant silver (S) and slow growing wing
feathers (K). In this scheme you can also
see why additionally for the male parent
stock line vent sexing or feather sexing is
required (since both males and females are
white). All broilers will be white feathered.
Parent stock
In practice, the various primary breeding Broiler breeders i- Ii II II
companies and brands on the market apply
different sexing methods.
I = dominant for white Ii I- Ii I- Ii I-

i = recessive for white
3. F ir s t w e e k s o f re a r i ng 29
Treatments and interventions Beak Treatment
Treatments of birds vary from country to coun- Beak treatment is applied to prevent serious inju-
try based on regional legislation and customer ries due to pecking and damage to the female’s
demands. The treatments are carried out to pre- head during mating. However, feather pecking is
vent serious injury to birds in later life. In several rare in broiler breeders. It is largely genetically
countries beak treatment of females is forbidden, determined, and has been decreased by selection.
but in most cases, it is still permitted for males. A negative effect of beak treatment is that the
The need for treatment differs between breeds. initial uniformity of the chicks may be worse.
Spurs may no longer be removed in the EU (since The shortened beak may make eating and preening
2015). The following applies to all these interven- more difficult resulting in reduced performance.
tions: ensure good feathering through feed and If not well executed, wounds pose a health risk
management in order to prevent negative side and increased mortality.
effects as much as possible. If beak treatment is not applied at the hatchery,
and if you want to do it, ensure that this is done
before the age of five days. This way the procedure
is the least painful and the risk of permanent pain
(phantom pain) is low. Do not remove more than
LOOK-THINK-ACT one-third of the beak between nostril and beak tip.
Hot blade
Treatment with a hot blade at the hatchery or at
the rearing farm on days 3 or 4.
Advantages and disadvantages:
+ Individual customisation possible.
– Risk of physical damage due to handling.
– Open wound at risk of infection and blood
loss.
– Treatment that has made the beak too short
can interfere with the function of the beak.
– Mild treatment can result in regrowth.
– It requires skill and the result is highly
What’s going on here? variable.
These chicks are pecking at the wall and on empty feeders. This is
caused by the phantom pain that is a result of beak treatment.
Consider whether beak treatment is really necessary.
Hot-blade treatment imposes a health risk. When chicks’ Hot-blade beak treatment in the poultry house.
beaks have not been treated properly, make a note of
these observations, discuss this with the hatchery in
order to improve it in the future.
IR Effect of beak treatment on grading and mortality
Infrared beak treatment for chicks is often carried 1.2
Grading and mortality/week (%)

out at the hatchery just after hatching. In addition grading moments
1
to the beak treatment, vaccinations can be
administered at this time. 0.8
Advantages and disadvantages:
+ Very precise work can be carried out and there 0.6
is no open wound. untreated
0.4
+ Little chance of infection and blood loss.
+ Little pain to the bird. 0.2
– Settings per flock, no individual customisation.
treated
– Insufficient treatment results in regrowth of 0
the beak tip. 5 10 15 20
Age (weeks)
– Dark pigment in the beak can lead to uneven
penetration of the infrared beam, resulting in Research shows that females with intact beaks have a better uniformity and
are therefore easier to raise than females with treated beaks (IR). Each bird
an increased risk of split beaks. experiences the treatment differently, leading to less uniformity after treatment.
A day-old-chick before and after IR beak treatment.
Hot blade treatment gone At a later age, such a badly Infrared beak treatment and vaccination for Marek’s disease in the hatchery.
wrong: not cut straight. IR treated beak could lead to
treatment is more accurate. problems in feed intake.
IR beak treatment over time: at day 1 of treatment, after 15 days and at 57 weeks. The beak tip will fall off or crumble after a few weeks due to
natural exploratory pecking behaviour.
Alternatives for beak treatment
There are alternative ways to make the beak point
blunt, like offering a rough bottom in the feeding
system. The birds eat normally and wear their
beaks at the same time. After 11 weeks of age
there is no difference in shape between infrared
trimmed beaks and this natural wear of the beaks.
It reduces stress and the risk of infections, and the
birds are not put off feed in the first few days as
Beaks points are more likely to wear using a metal chain feeding they can be with other interventions. As a result,
system than with plastic feeding pans. Plastic pans could fitted the birds are more uniform and perform better.
with a ‘wear ring’ to facilitate smoothening of the beaks.
There are several beak smoothing systems, based on natural wear of the beak by pecking at surfaces. In this case a rough metal plate in the feeder.
Toe treatment in males

Treatment of the 4th toe (dew claw) is executed
in males to decrease skin damage of the female
during mating. Mortality during rearing increases
slightly, since every treatment will cause stress and
- depending on the method used - infection risks.
Advantages and disadvantages
+ Less damage to the skin and feathers in the
females due to mating behaviour.
+ Less fear in the females.
– Wounds can be a health hazard.
– Phantom pain.
Untreated (left) and treated toe (right) of a chick.
– Stress.
No treatment Microwave treatment Hot-blade treatment
Day 1, no treatment. Day 1, microwave treatment. Day 2, hot-blade treatment.
Day 18, no treatment. Day 18, microwave treatment. Day 23, hot-blade treatment.
32
Feeding systems in rearing Chain feeder
Each feeding system requires different manage- Intended for mash or crumb feed. The feed should be
ment, but it is important that rearing is in the distributed all over the house and birds have access
service of production. Feed and water systems to it within 3 minutes. Place additional hoppers half-
should be as similar as possible to those used in way along the length of the house for better and fas-
production. An extra feed line in the house pro- ter distribution. If houses are longer than 50 metres,
vides more space and therefore less competition the system must be filled from the centre of the
during feeding. If feeding and water systems in the house, in both directions. After the feed has been
production house are not similar, then the weaker distributed, you can run the chain slowly to maintain
birds have adaptation problems. If there are dif- a good distribution of feed. Make sure that the feed
ferences, the transition could be made easier with augers have a sufficient flow rate so that the capacity
temporary measures, like putting in similar drin- is never limited. Provide sufficient feeding space so
kers for a while. Or show some chickens how to that all birds can eat at the same time. A feed chain
eat and drink and the others in their turn will learn sometimes has to go through the whole house first,
it from them. unless you can lift it up and then lower it when fil-
led. Preferably run or lower in the dark, which creates
more peace and quiet and lowers flock stress.
This feeding trough is too high, the young birds can hardly This feed trough is too high, difficult to access for chicks.
reach the feed. They should not have to reach for it. Place the trough on the ground with litter around it.
Males and females housed separately
The birds have to be reared with separate water and feeding sys-
tems. Preferably also in separate houses in order to control light and
climate by sex. Their behaviour and requirements are different; males
eat faster, and their growth has to be controlled differently from that of
The amount of feed in this feeding chain system is the females. Also the light schedule can be different. If you rear them
too little. This will lead to a bad feed distribution and in the same house together with the hens it is very hard to get good
separation (or segregation) of feed ingredients. rearing results. If you don’t have this option, more feeder space and
drinkers are needed to minimise the feed and water competition.
Feeding pans
Not all pan feeder systems are suitable for broi-
ler breeders. A simultaneous distribution of the
feed per pan is essential. For rearing, the pans
must also be easily accessible to small chicks.
Regularly increase the feeding height to the cor-
rect level for the birds as they age. With feeding
pans, all birds can eat at the same time. Pans take
up more space and it is better to lift them up after
feeding. Preferably use the same system in rearing
and during production. In the case of integrated
systems, this is easier than in the case of chain
During the first few days, some feed is often provided on organisations.
chick paper in order to give the chicks a good start. This
triggers the immune system of young chicks at the same
time.
At first the feeding pans are place on the litter for optimal After some weeks the pans are lifted up to a higher level.
access for the young chicks. This decreases the incidence of spilling and droppings
ending up in the pans.
Peace and quiet during feeding, no birds are still looking

Too little feeding space around a feeding pan. The birds
for a position...
are crawling over each other to get to the feed.
Spin feeders
Spin feeders (floor feeding) promote scratching,
this will improve litter quality and leg health. The
natural foraging behaviour provides a distraction.
A disadvantage is that the birds may learn to
eat litter. Up to 14 days you feed crumb on
supplementary feed trays on the floor. Then, mix
crumbs and pellets on the floor trays for 2 days.
Following this, you can switch to 100% pellets
around 16 days of age via spin feeding. If the
birds are restless, the litter layer might be too
thick (> 1.5 cm), which makes it difficult to find
the pellets. Make sure that the litter depth is at
the recommended thickness for spin feeding to
work properly. A good pellet is not easy to make:
it should stay intact in the litter, but should fall
apart in the crop. That is a big disadvantage of When the spin feeder is running all birds will be picking up the pellets. Birds
that don’t join in like these against the wall, need special attention: coccidiosis
the spin feeder. Transferring to a different feeding victims?
system (mostly trough
or pans) and thereby
difficulty to find
the feed in the
production
house is
a second
disadvantage.
From above you can see the birds are grouped in circles: the area when grain
or pellets are sprinkled. In the middle of the circle you see small area without
birds, just underneath the spin feeder. Fine particles precipitate here and the
birds don’t like that. Once the dust settles, they will occupy this part as well...
When large, hard pellets are provided with a spin feeder, Scan this QR-code to
you might see this problem. Birds eat too fast and too watch the video of this
much, causing dry feed to get stuck in the crop. This animal with a blocked crop.
full crop presses against the trachea causing the bird to
gasp for air (soundless).
Drinking systems
The young birds should always have access to
cool drinking water. However, water restriction
is often required to keep the litter dry. And, with
young birds, consumption is still low, causing the
water in the lines to heat up in the warm poultry
house. A farmer has to find the optimum balance
between litter quality and water availability.
Provide sufficient drinking space per bird.
If there is not enough drinking space or the supply
The drinkers are placed above the elevated slatted platforms to stimulate is inadequate, you can see that birds are still ‘drin-
these birds using elevated areas. king’ without water for a long time. If, for example,
four hours after feeding they are still busy with the
drinkers, something is wrong.
Drinkers are made, not born that way! Signals of poor water distribution:
• There are no birds in the last 10 meters of the
Most breeder pullets are reared with water restriction. Roughly two
hours after feed clean up the water system is closed. Rearing farmers line.
are afraid that continuous water availability will lead to over-drinking • Wet necks due to unrest and competition.
and wet litter. But obsessive drinkers mainly occur when water intake
time is severely restricted and the birds are in a hurry.
Providing water almost all day long results in a much calmer flock
during the entire life.
Remember: ‘obsessive drinkers are made, not born that way!’
Advantages and disadvantages of drinking systems

Bell drinkers (open) Drinking nipples (closed) Drinking cups (open)
70-80 birds/drinker 8-12 birds/nipple 20-30 birds/cup
Pros Pros Pros

• Water is readily available • Less contamination • Water is readily available
• Very little spillage (when replacing leaking • Easy to check for blockages
nipples promptly) • Water level and height line easy to
• Lots of space to walk around regulate
• Water level and height line easy to
regulate
• Easy to clean during production
• In combination with drip cups!
Cons Cons Cons
• Costs labour (cleaning) • Higher investment costs • Higher investment costs
• Water not always fresh • Water delivery harder to control • More chance (vs nipples) of
• More risk of contamination • Increased risk of biofilm, requires high contamination
• Spillage, wet litter water quality management • Less space to walk around
• Water level and height drinker less easy • Drinking water vaccination difficult to
to regulate apply (can’t be emptied completely)
The correct drinking height
75 - 85°
35 - 45°
Until one week of age One week and older
Adjusting the drinking height of nipple drinkers during The adjustment of the correct drinking height for a bell
rearing. drinker. The bottom of the bell drinker must be the same
height as the back of the bird. The water level in the bell
drinkers must not exceed 1 centimetre in depth.
week 6
week 4
week 2
Use the pressure regulator and make sure that the Adjust the water pressure for nipple drinkers. Often lower
standpipe with the ball is clearly visible. Start small chicks the pressure at first, later in the round the pressure can
with the lower ring, so that a drop can be seen and the be increased again. There should always be a drop of
chick can easily find the water. Increase every week water on the nipple at the start. This attracts the attention
by 1-2 rings to about 6 weeks of age to prevent water of the chicks and causes investigative behaviour. This
wastage and leaks. allows them to become familiar with the nipples quickly.
Regularly check the flow speed of the drinking nipples to A 360° nipple gives a high water yield and is easy
assure the birds can drink properly. Preferably while birds for chicks to operate. The birds may drink too much
are drinking and at the end of a drinking line. (compensatory behaviour during feed control) resulting
in wet droppings/litter. When using normal nipples, the
chicks must really press the nipples. These provide less
water and are too difficult for young birds to operate.
Cage nipples are therefore not suitable for broiler breeders.
Preparation of the house
Day-old-chicks are very vulnerable. Besides this,
there is a big difference between breeders and
broilers. Breeders are sexed, vaccinated in the
hatchery, have undergone other treatments, and
the transport distance is often greater. Because
of these stress factors, the new chicks need a lot
of attention. Especially during the first days and
weeks of life, hygiene is very important for the
chicks. Young chicks are very susceptible because
their intestinal flora is not yet properly developed,
Do not distribute the litter until the floor temperature is
28-30°C. The less bedding during heating, the earlier the and the specific immunity is still lacking. There
temperature of the floor will be reached. are many risks from their immediate environment,
such as IB, salmonella, and Marek. Housing and
equipment have to be cleaned, disinfected and
bacteriologically tested before litter and chicks
arrive. Vehicles, materials and people’s clothing
also need to be clean. Do not drag materials from
one poultry house to another.
Heating up the house decreases relative humidity. Day-old-

chicks require a high humidity. Create wet patches and let
this water evaporate by the heaters to increase RH.
✓ X
Checking the floor temperature with an infrared thermometer is a good objective method. Make sure you check the floor
and not the litter, so move the litter away from the spot you are measuring. The litter temperature itself is often higher.
Just feeling the floor is useful to get an idea of its temperature. The back of your hand is even more sensitive than the palm
of your hand!
The ideal temperature
At least 24 hours before the chicks arrive, the
house must be at the desired temperature: the
floor 28-30°C (concrete floor: 2-4 days before the
litter is distributed), the house 34-36°C. The ideal
'Cold-blooded', Transition around 'Warm-blooded', chicks can
litter temperature upon receipt is 30-32°C. Check
environment crucial 5 days old regulate their own body temperature
this before the chicks arrive! Maintain a relative
humidity of 50-60%. At the beginning, give them 0 21/0 5 10 age
access to a small part of the house (25-30% of the (days)
total area). Keep them close to feed and water by
adjusting the lighting or by placing a fence. Do hatchery rearing house
not reduce the room temperature until the body The chicks can’t regulate their own body temperature yet. They are ‘cold-
temperature of the chicks is 40.5°C on average. blooded’ for the first 5 days and their temperature is regulated by the
environment. The air temperature must be 33-35°C for the first few days, both
In the end, the decrease in house temperature day and night! The temperature must be even higher if the chicks are very small.
should be based on chick temperature, not on the
calendar! Check the body temperature of the chicks
regularly, especially during the first 2 days. If it is
not within 40-40.5°C, adjust the temperature.
Taking body temperature is a good way to check whether the ambient

temperature is right for the chicks. It should be 40-40.5°C. Measure the
temperature, preferably rectally or with an infrared thermometer on the vent,
at least of 10 chicks from 5 different places in the house.
Place extra drinking places for the first few days. Rule
of thumb: the distance from a chick to feed and water
should not be more than 1 metre.
Gas stoves create warm areas in the house. Chicks that The chicks are grouped around the gas heater to keep warm. But not directly
are cold, can warm up under the stove. underneath it, since that area seems too hot for them. The chicks can choose
their own area of comfort.
Transport to the rearing house
Day-old-chicks to be raised as broiler breeders are
more vulnerable than broiler chicks. Mortality of
broiler chicks is close to zero (0-0.1%), whereas
normal transport mortality of broiler breeders
is 0.2-0.4%. In order to limit losses, prevent too
many shocks during transport and secure suf-
ficient air movement between the boxes/crates.
Make a good loading plan for the truck. Once at
the poultry house, unload the truck immediately.
But, if you have to wait and the closed truck has
a ventilation system it is better to leave them in
the truck, instead of having them stacked up in the
poultry house with little air movement. Within an
Preferably use closed trucks for transport, since this ensures better climate hour the chicks will get overheated. If they are not
control. stacked up, it is no problem to leave them in the
crates/boxes for a short time in the poultry house.
Take out dead and very weak chicks immediately and count them in order to assess Make sure the crates with chicks are properly secured.
whether it is within acceptable limits. It is an indication of the new flock’s quality. The trip already causes enough stress in itself...
Cardboard boxes are hygienic for single use, but ventilation is not optimal Don’t leave chicks in stacked up crates/boxes longer
because of the relatively small ventilation openings. This, together with the than necessary. This may cause them to overheat
insulating quality of cardboard, compares unfavourably with plastic crates. and dry out quickly, resulting in reduced welfare, poor
Heat stress is an important cause of mortality. uniformity, and poor growth. This thermographic image
shows that the chicks at the top are getting too hot.
40
Arrival of day-old-chicks
Place the chicks carefully and smoothly in the (grand)parents. Chicks of old grandparent flocks
brooding area and clean up the crates/boxes can regulate their own body temperature 5 days
immediately after emptying. Carefully release after hatching. In chicks of young grandparents
the chicks by keeping the crates just above the this often comes two days later. Keep chicks from
ground, and then gently tilt them. The reception of different origins as separate as possible. With
chicks is the same whether they are broilers, laying broiler breeders there is a greater chance of mul-
hens or breeders. Only the temperature schedule tiple origins. If you need to combine, mix with the
needs to be adjusted. There is a big difference same age group or a maximum of one age group
between chicks of young (grand)parents and old difference.
Disinfect the floor outside the poultry house before arrival A temperature logger from the transport truck provides
of the delivery truck. This prevents diseases from entering information about the start of the new flock. Take this into
the clean house. account when assessing the flock the first few days.
✓
Do not throw the day-old-chicks from a height (left), but just turn the box gently (right).
After unstacking the boxes spray vaccination is often After spray vaccination chicks are wet, which makes
applied. them vulnerable for cold (evaporative cooling). Leave
them in the boxes for a short while and make sure
temperature and relative humidity are OK in the house.
Small chicks?
Chicks from young grandparent stock are smaller (smaller eggs mean
smaller chicks) and have a relatively larger body surface (they cool
faster). That is why there are often more failures in the first week than
in chicks from grandparent flocks older than 30 weeks. The higher
mortality can be prevented by increasing the room temperature
during placement (plus 1-2°C) and taking extra care to ensure that
they eat and drink quickly. Always ask the hatchery the age of the
parents and if the supplied flock of chicks comes from different farms.
Then you can take this into account with your management.
Take samples from chick paper or transport box lining to

be checked for Salmonella, ESBL, etc.
A hole in the feeder allows feed fall on chick paper Take a sample of some chicks out of the boxes to assess
(together with dextrose for extra energy = white powder). the quality more specifically.
Using a thermographic camera clearly shows nice warm legs (left) and a chick with cold legs (right). In fact,
the colour of the legs should be lighter than the colour of the hand.
Feel the legs of chicks against your cheek, or even better: your sensitive lips. If they feel cold, this is not good. If the chick’s
temperature falls below 38.5°C, the soles of the feet will cool down and the activity of the chicks will decrease (hypothermic).
The bowel function comes to a standstill and the chicks go into survival mode. Increase the room temperature!
42
Climatic requirements
A combination of local heating and space heating
is ideal. If you have to choose, local heating (spot
brooders/pancake brooders) is preferable to space
heating. As the chicks grow older, their absolute
daily growth increases rapidly. Approximately a
quarter of all energy absorbed is used to move,
grow, breathe and maintain body temperature.
The rest is released as heat. However, chicks can-
not sweat. The most important way to get rid of By using transport crates as barriers you create an
excess heat is through convection and conduction environment where day-old-chicks can get accustomed to
the new environment. It offers the option for coarse spray
(through the floor), and by panting!
vaccination and feed is provided on the chick paper.
After spraying, the chicks are still close together and stay warm. After removing the crates and lowering the drinking lines,
As there is no water supply yet, they will ingest the droplets from the chicks disperse, explore and start drinking. The chick
each other and the floor for optimal vaccination result. paper still indicates where the initial enclosure was.
Brooding rings provide a micro climate that can easily be A drop of water hanging down from the nipple will
controlled. It also provides the option to keep chicks of stimulate the chicks to drink immediately.
different origin (different grandparent stocks) together.
Additional feeding plates give day-old-chicks a good start. Additional heaters can be placed to provide extra heating
the first few days. 43
Chick distribution
The layout of rearing houses doesn’t differ very
much. In most cases, during rearing, broiler bree-
ders are housed on complete litter floors, with the
type of litter varying from region to region depen-
ding on availability. In Europe, wood shavings,
peat, chopped straw or straw pellets are mainly
used. In Asia often rice hulls are used.
Layer management A complete litter floor also means thatLayer management
the chicks
can move freely. Signals from their group beha-
viour can help you to create the optimal climatic
conditions.
During the first week, checking on the birds is essential. Check the climate
conditions while you are walking through the flock.
Temperature signals of chick distribution in a brooding ring

Layer management Layer management
Temperature too high Correct temperature Temperature too low Draft
• Chicks pant, head and • Chicks are evenly distributed. • Chicks crowd under brooder. • Chicks huddle in one area.
wings droop. • Noise level indicates • Chicks are noisy,
• Chicks are quiet. satisfaction. distress-calling.
• Chicks away from brooder.
✓
The chicks are clustered and a lot of them at the end of the house: Here the chicks are more evenly distributed.
they are feeling too cold!
Humidity
The chicks come from a hatchery with high humi-
dity. During the first three days the RH must LOOK-THINK-ACT
therefore be between 50 and 60% to prevent dehy-
dration and respiratory tract problems, and to
guarantee a better and more uniform start. Poultry
houses with a fired stove and/or a heat exchanger
easily drop to a RH of 30%. Extra attention has to
be paid particularly with these systems. Check this
every day with a hygrometer.
How did this litter get so damp?

In the 2nd week you notice that the litter is very moist, while it was dry
the week before. This is because there is condensation in the deeper
layers and the litter absorbs the moisture like a sponge.
It is caused by insufficient heating of the floor before the litter was
spread. Always heat the floor first and then after that, a thin layer is
sufficient. New concrete floors also increase the risk of condensation.
You can raise the RH by using nebulisers or portable

sprayers. If the air humidity is too low, the chicks develop
dry throats with a high risk of health problems.
If your glasses fog up immediately after entering the house, the High humidity close to the wall. The house was probably not heated
moisture content of the air might be too high due to insufficient up sufficiently. You can see the chicks are feeling cold (huddling).
ventilation. Is it cold or humid outside? Then make sure that there is
sufficient ventilation and heating to maintain the correct temperature.
Poisonous gasses and dust
Next to temperature and humidity, poisonous gas-
ses and dust should get due attention, since these
are a health risks for the young birds. You can’t
see it directly, but you can measure it.
Start ventilating at arrival of the first chicks. CO2 sinks to Chickens can become blind from too much ammonia in
the bottom, because it’s heavier than air. CO2 can kill the the air. A first signals is an irritated rim around the eyes.
chicks and must be less than 3,000 PPM at chick height. When severely affected, you will see an almost circular,
If it is too high, then the behaviour of chicks is different: grey-white, opaque, rough looking area in the middle of
much less agile and virtually no feed and water intake. the cornea.
Dust from litter, dry faeces, feed, skin and feathers is bad for people and chickens, and can cause irritation of the
respiratory tract and carry large numbers of germs. You might think it’s not too bad, but if you take a picture with a
direct flash, you can see how much dust is floating around (image right). The dangerous fine dust (particles < 10
μg), isn’t visible. A lot of dust is also a signal that the RH is below 50%.
Light in rearing
For the first 24 hours, the light must be turned Light intensity
on almost continuously. Then, reduce every 2nd
day by 2 hours to 16 hours a day, depending on
development. If they are not at the target weight,
they need longer feeding time, so keep the light
period constant or increase it slightly. In the case
of closed housing, the day length must then be
reduced to 8 hours at the age of about 29 days.
The light intensity should be high during the first
few days so that the birds can find feed and water
well.
Guidelines:
• 0-5 days; 80-100 lux
• 6-10 days: 30-60 lux (60-80 lux in open sided
houses)
• > 10 days: 10-20 lux.
Lower light intensities can be used when pecking
or feather sucking occurs, or to reduce the activity
of the birds. Limiting day length is also an indirect
way of feed restriction. After about 8 hours all feed
is digested. With a longer night the birds would Chicks can see well at 1-2 lux, but if they are
like to eat, but don’t eat in the dark and there- transported to a new environment, they need
fore use their fat reserves. Broiler breeders do more light in order to be able to explore the
environment properly. Watch out for abnormal
not naturally react positively to a stimulating day pecking behaviour and dim the light if you see
length (more than 11 hours of light). To do this, this. A luxmeter is a useful tool in this respect.
they must first be exposed to a period of neutral
or short length (8 hours), for 18 weeks. In closed
housing, avoid day lengths of more than 11 hours
during the rearing period, as this slows down
sexual development, reduces the number of eggs
and increases egg weight.
Always take behaviour into account. If chicks are For mobile phones, luxmeter apps are available. These
grouped against the wall, this could be a signal of are not as accurate as a professional luxmeter, but give
the house climate, but it could also be caused by the you a good idea. Your own eyes adapt to the light in the
light distribution. Chickens are forest birds that protect house, so the human eye is not reliable to assess light
themselves by hiding under bushes in the shade. Make intensity.
sure you draw the correct conclusion when you see this!
Feed and water during rearing
The first few days, water and feed are of utmost for body composition (more fat, less breast meat),
importance. Monitor the water and feed intake bird activity (more feeding time) and behaviour. It
and the birds daily. Rations with a lower protein also has a positive impact on reproduction results.
content during the rearing period offer benefits However, the feathering is negatively affected.
Checklist feed and water

Feed Drinking water
• Is the feed and water available within a metre of • Are there any additional manually refillable drinkers?
every chick for the first week? • Does the drinking line hang rather low during the
• Does the feed consist of crumbs or mini pellets first few days, so that the chicks can easily reach it?
(2 mm)? • Are there enough nipples/drinking space?
• Have additional feed trays been installed? (1 per 12 chicks per nipple or 8 drinking bowls/12 mini
80 chicks) drinkers (or plastic trays) per 1,000 chicks.
• Is chick paper used to put feed on? • Is the water temperature between 15 and 20°C?
• Is the chick paper placed under and/or next to the • Is the drinking water fresh and clean?
waterlines? • Was the water supply flushed 1-2 hours before
• Can each chick absorb at least 30 grams of starter receiving the chicks? This must be repeated at
feed on the chick paper? Allow the chicks to eat least twice a day during the first week.
unlimited feed for 2-3 weeks until the desired body • Is the maximum distance to drinking water 1 meter?
weight is reached. • When using nipples, is the water pressure low
• If the target weight is not achieved at 21 days, give enough in order to have a visible drop on the nipple
them an extra week of free feed intake. and still have water at the end of the line?
A low uniformity at the start translates into uneven levels of Don’t just look at the weight of the chicks, but also take
maturity in later life and therefore a flock that’s more difficult liveliness into account. The chick at the right is not as
to manage (= production losses). The chick on the right is lively as the one at the left.
underdeveloped and has an unhealthy appearance.
This three-weeks-old male is too small and will not be This one-week-old chick in typical ‘penguin position’ (left)
able to catch up. Remove this bird from the flock. is not feeling well. And a dirty cloaca (right) is often seen
around this age, more with males than with females. This
is no cause for alarm, unless excessive.
Checklist crop filling
Check the crop filling daily. If the crop filling is LOOK-THINK-ACT
below the normal value, check the following:
• Was the poultry house sufficiently warmed up
for placement?
• Was the air temperature, bedding temperature,
and relative air humidity okay at the time of
placement?
• Is the light intensity optimal for the chicks?
• Are the ventilation values correct and are they
evenly distributed throughout the house?
• Do the chicks have unlimited access to feed
and water?
• Was the drinking water clean (no detergents,
disinfectants or other residues)?
• Are the feeding and drinking areas correct and
is the water pressure not too high?
• Have small amounts of feed been provided on
Asses the crop filling after 24 hours. What
does this tell you?
a regular basis?
The chick has a filled, soft, round crop. If the crop is full, but you can
still feel the original texture of the crumb, then the chick hasn’t drunk
enough water yet. Check the filling of the waterline for the first 48
hours, and especially the first 24 hours, regularly. Check 30-40 chicks
from 3 different places in the house. Feel the crop carefully.
Normal values for crop filling

Time after placement Chicks with a full crop
2 hours 75%
8 hours More than 80%
Four chicks of one week old that lag behind. They still have 12 hours More than 85%
a yellow down, are balled up and less developed than their
24 hours More than 95%
flock mates and sit against the wall, away from the rest of
the flock. They probably suffer from intestinal problems. 48 hours 100%
Crop filling assessment

Check the crop firmness of at least 20 birds per house daily, a few hours after feeding. With sufficient water intake, this is flexible and
malleable. Insufficient water consumption makes it feel hard and grainy. If they have taken up too much water, you can easily squeeze it
in. You could compare this with the ‘feel’ of rice in various forms.
X ~ ✓ X
Uncooked rice = Dry boiled rice = Rice pudding = OK Milky = too much water intake
not enough water water intake still too little
CHAPTER 4:
Rearing from 3 to 17 weeks
After the first few weeks, the period of feed restriction starts in order to regulate the weight and body
development of the birds. Grading birds and removing sexing errors to maintain or improve flock uniformity
is a very important task in this period.
In the wild, a chick sleeps under the wings of its Effect of perches in rearing on floor eggs
mother during the first weeks, and under trees and
bushes up to an age of 8 weeks. Then a chicken
starts sleeping in a tree to be safe from dangers
Floor eggs (%)
(snakes, foxes). During the day a chicken expects

reared without perches
danger from above (birds of prey) and will hide
under trees. So from about 6 weeks onwards you
should offer elevated resting places, like slats or reared with perches
A-shaped racks. This helps them to prepare for easy from 8 weeks
entry of the laying nest during the production period
and increase leg strength. It is also a management
tool: birds sitting high up during daytime are often 25 26 27 28 29 30
frightened birds. At night it’s the other way around: Age (weeks)
the dominant birds rest high up and the frightened By placing jumping platforms or perches, the percentage
birds are chased away to the litter. So pay attention of floor eggs in the laying period is 3-5% lower. The
quality of the legs is improved by less contact with
what birds are where and why. A good size per plat- litter and more movement by jumping. Use the jumping
form is 240 cm x 60 cm surface and 50 cm height. platforms from the age of 6 weeks.
500 chicks require 1 m2 (slats). Never place an elec-
tric wire near the jumping platforms: this will stop
the birds from ever trying to jump again.
The first few days, jumping platforms and bell drinkers are To make the jumping platforms extra attractive, you can
still up against the roof. The day-old chicks have to use offer drinking water above it. Preferably with a separate
the drinking nipples. After a few days the bell drinkers are connection so that you can use them separately from
lowered. From 6 weeks onwards the platforms are lowered. other drinking water supplies (training).
Monitoring is also paying attention to general behaviour. If you Healthy inquisitive behaviour. If you stand still, the birds
clap your hands all birds should raise their heads, like here. should come to you and start pecking at your boots.
With a normal stocking density of 9 birds per m2 the birds look very well (left). With a high stocking density of 12 birds
per m2 the feather cover is clearly damaged (right). The number of feeding places per bird was the same in this case,
so this is just because they are closer together. As a result, the birds rub more against each other, especially during
feeding, which is at the expense of the feather cover. This will not recover.
Females have a habit of scratching away from the light. You can use this knowledge to keep the litter layer in good
condition, by switching on the lights alternately (first even, then odd rows of light). This causes the birds to scratch the litter
back and forth, preventing the development of areas without litter.
4. R ea r i n g f ro m 3 t o 1 7 weeks 51
Controlled feeding
During the first 2 to 3 weeks of rearing, the feed
is usually offered freely (ad libitum) for female
pullets, the feed is only limited after that. Males
can be fed freely for up to 3-4 weeks until the
target weight is reached. Then you feed according
to body weight. If the males do not reach their
desired weight at 14 days, do not adjust the num-
ber of hours of light for a week. After that, the ligh-
ting scheme is reduced to 8 hours of light if pos-
sible. Feeding every day gives the best production
and lower feed intake (more efficient). In general,
it is also easier for a flock to get into production.
Skip-a-day or other feeding programmes with feed-less days are often This can go hand in hand with good uniformity
required to compensate for inadequate feeding systems in rearing. In the
past, it was not possible to get small amounts of feed properly and quickly and good production during the laying phase. The
distributed (within 3 minutes) into the house/feed system, leading to loss of biggest restriction takes place between 6-7 weeks
uniformity in the flock. With modern systems this should not be a problem and and lasts until 15-16 weeks of age. At the end of
these are therefore suitable for daily feeding.
the rearing period after 16 weeks, the daily feed
quantity is increased to prepare the females for
the production period.
The effect of the different feed programmes on feed conversion
Every day Skip a day 4-3 5-2 Abnormal behaviours
FCR at 21 weeks 3.7 3.9 4.0 4.0 Controlled feeding of breeders provokes some
Settable eggs/hen 94 90 87 91 stress and frustration and can lead to stereotypical
up to 45 weeks object pecking, drinking too much water, hyperac-
Every day feeding gives the best production results. Total feed intake is 5 to tivity, stereotypical walking, increased aggression,
10% lower during the rearing period when birds are fed daily. and increased feeding motivation. Parameters
in the blood can also indicate stress. Hunger or
stress, both are undesirable for good welfare.
Various feeding programmes
Feeding
Abbreviation for Remarks
programme
FED Feed Every Day In Europe, daily feeding is usually applied 200
because legislation does not allow to skip 100
0
one day’s feed. 300
mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
SAD Skip A Day (1/0) On feeding days a double portion of the 200
100
advised daily intake is given to compensate
0
for non-feeding days. Outside Europe, mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
skip-a-day is often applied to improve flock

uniformity. Stress levels with skip-a-day are
higher than with daily feeding. Higher risk of
abnormal liver conditions.
SAOD Skip An Other Day (1/1/0) On the feeding days a larger portion 200
100
(+50%). 0
mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
6-1 6 days feed, 1 day no feed On the feeding days a larger portion 200
(+17%). Not so much different from Feed 100
0
Every Day. mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
5-2 5 days feed, 2 days no feed On the feeding days a larger portion 200
(+40%). Similar to skip-another-day, but 100
0
every week the same schedule. mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
4-3 4 days feed, 3 days no feed On the feeding days a larger portion 200
100
(+75%). Similar to Skip-a-day, but every 0
week the same schedule. mon tue wed thu fri sat sun mon tue wed thu fri sat sun
If you use feeding programmes, don’t forget to convert this to the programme you’re using. So, for example, if you want to feed 70 grams per
day with a 5-2 programme, then you give 98 grams per day (7 * 70 = 490 : 5 = 98 grams).
Monitoring weight A feed-less day
Between 5 and 10 weeks the females can grow very On days with feed, the bird stores nutrients in the
fast. That’s why you have to keep checking body body. On feed-less days, the bird’s body reser-
weight and uniformity. Start with weekly weighing ves are broken down again in order to obtain
after the first week. Between 10 and 15 weeks, the nutrients. It’s not 100% efficient. Extra energy
amount of feed is slightly increased and there is (= feed) is required to compensate for these los-
room to adjust the daily feed quantity to achieve ses to eventually reach the same weight. A daily
the target weight at 20 weeks. feeding programme can save 5 to 10% of the feed
Weighing during rearing 0 to 6 weeks: over the entire rearing period. This means that
• Weigh a fixed number of chicks on arrival. with feed-less days, you will incur higher feed
• Regularly review the filling of the crop to get costs. Feeding every day or a 6-day feed regime -
an idea of the appetite development. 1 day without feed is much more efficient in terms
• Weigh 2% in groups or at least 50 chicks from of feed consumption. Often birds are weighed on
each group at 7 and 14 days of age. feed-less days, because then the measurement
• Start between 14 and 21 days with individual for the body weight is more accurate. If you don’t
weighing of birds. This allows you to check the have a feed-less day, weigh in the morning before
uniformity of the body weight (= CV%). feeding!
• Weigh males and females weekly to adjust the
feed dosage to the weighing results.
Automatic weighing gives a better weight profile than When weighing manually, always weigh the birds at the
manual weighing, because it is not limited by time or same time and place before feeding. Once the birds
preference. With young chicks it is difficult to get a have ingested feed and water, deviations of 6 or 7% in
correct picture of the weights, because feed and water body weight can occur. The body weights indicated by
consumption have a relatively large effect. Therefore, the breeding company are prior to feeding.
always check manually for calibration purposes.
12
Heat production and feeding schedules
11
Heat production (kcal/hour/bird)
10
5-2 4-3 skip-a-day daily feed
9
8 skip-a-day, for feed day
6 daily fed birds

skip-a-day,
5 for off-feed day
dark period
4
-2 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Time after feeding (hours)
The livers of 4-3 are clearly paler (liver degeneration) and Digestion of feed produces heat. On off-feed days, they produce less heat.
enlarged. The birds that are fed daily provide the most Therefore, raise the house temperature on days without feed. You can actually
uniform image with a normal liver colour. feel that the feet are colder on off-feed days.
Reducing feed restriction stress Dilution of feed
Feeding broiler breeders during rearing with an Diluting feed with raw materials with little nutri-
adjusted feed (low energy and protein), low protein, tional value (e.g. alfalfa, oat hulls, wheat bran)
or fibre-rich feed can reduce the stress of controlled also increases feed intake time and thus provides
feeding. However, this is not yet widely applied. improved well-being. In addition, it makes good
feed distribution and good uniformity easier.
Feed with a lower protein content The body weight of the chicks of young parents fed
For feeds with lower protein levels, more feed with this practice is therefore higher.
should be provided, and the birds spend approx. It also has a positive effect on the laying percen-
25% more time eating. This results in more fresh tage and mortality of the offspring around peak
droppings and therefore more litter. However, due production and at the end of the laying period.
to the lower protein level of the feed, the birds
take up less water, which means that the fresh Points of attention concerning controlled
droppings are drier, the litter remains drier and feeding
does not clog up as quickly. So the amount of • In general, it is better to use mash feed instead
droppings increases, but the litter doesn’t get wetter. of pellets to extend the feeding time. However,
the mash feed must be sufficiently homogeneous
to prevent the birds from eating selectively.
• Make sure all birds can eat at the same time,
otherwise it will be at the expense of the
smaller birds. You can achieve this with a good
feed distribution in the house and a good
water distribution.
• Provide sufficient space in the feeding systems
to prevent aggressive behaviour around
feeding, as unrest around feeding can lead to
more feather and skin damage.
• The speed with which the feed is distributed
is very important to ensure that all birds
can eat the same amount at the same time.
This improves flock uniformity and prevents
aggression around feeding between the birds.
All birds must be able to eat within three
With controlled feeding this is what you want to see once the feeding starts:
all birds are eating. minutes after the start of feeding.
Connecting to natural foraging

behaviour
In the wild, chickens eat mainly seeds, herbs,
worms and insects. That is feed with a low
energy content so consequently, the birds spend
more than 50% of the day foraging. They put
together their own ration. Chickens prefer small
feed particles of 2-3 millimetres. Red and yellow
coloured particles are particularly attractive.
They prefer to forage with bright lighting (more
than 200 lux). By aligning more with the natural
foraging behaviour by spreading grain and/or of-
fering less concentrated feed, you reduce stress
and improve well-being.
After some time there is a shift from eating to drinking and then it becomes
busy around the drinkers.
Feeding management
Make sure that you are regularly present during Slow growing breeds during
feeding to recognise a normal situation and pick rearing
out any abnormalities. That way it’s easier to rec- Dwarf females for slow growing broilers require
ognise a signal when something’s not right. Some less feed for maintenance. The dwarf females
females might not allow other birds to eat, even should be taught to eat sufficiently during rearing,
so they have enough eating capacity towards
after they have eaten enough themselves (hier- peak production.
archical behaviour). That is also a good reason
to walk through the house to distract the birds.
Chickens can be trained by switching on a light
or making a certain sound shortly before feed-
ing. They get conditioned to this and stay calmer
because they are never surprised by the feed. This
prevents stress and preserves the peace and quiet
in the poultry house.
Feathers in the litter

Offer chicken grit on a regular basis from six weeks of
This is a good signal, because the birds do age. This is necessary for good crop development and
not seem to have the urge to eat the feathers. gizzard function.
In broiler breeder farming, the cause of down
feathers in the litter is usually not pecking, but
the normal loss of (down) feathers. If you see no
feathers in the litter, that would be a bad signal.
They have probably been eaten: a lack of crude
fibre or a signal of general discomfort?
If the birds are used to you being present when they are
eating (in this case: activating a spin feeder), they will not
deviate from their normal behaviour. You can then more
easily pick out birds that show abnormalities.
By feeding in the dark, the birds stay calmer and the birds won’t eat immediately (image left). It is then easier to distribute
the feed well through the house and when the birds are ready, the feed is ready. After the lights have been switched on it
takes about 5 minutes before the birds are uniformly distributed (image right).
Water restriction
Often water restriction is applied during the
rearing (from a few weeks of age) and production
period. It is used to prevent feed-restricted pullets
and breeders from drinking much more than they
need in an attempt to satiate themselves. This can
help to prevent wet litter.
When water control is applied, water is usually
offered around feeding till a few hours after fee-
ding. This is dependent on the climate and condi-
tions in the poultry house; there is no perfect rule
of thumb. Water restrictions are usually conside-
red undesirable with a negative impact on welfare
and are therefore prohibited in some countries.
This bell drinker is not adjusted properly and causes wet litter. Make sure that A flock can sometimes contain birds that drink a
water is always available until at least two hours after feeding, so there is no lot of water (drinkers). Often this is compensatory
fight for water resulting in spilling.
behaviour on the feed restriction. It’s a sign of
stress. So-called ‘drinkers’ are not born that way.
The critical period is around six weeks. The farmer
then tends to shorten the water period in order to
avoid wet litter. As a result, birds may drink more
quickly, especially if the water is severely control-
led.
Checking the water intake of the birds themselves
LOOK-THINK-ACT is paramount (not water-feed ratio). A good accu-

rate water meter can be a very useful tool. The
water capacity and supply must be sufficient.
Tip
Especially at higher temperatures you must in-
crease the amount of water. If the poultry house
temperature is above 28°C, you must provide
more water. There’s no risk in this. In very hot
weather you can sometimes stop water flow for
a short time, so that the new water is fresh and
cool again.
Undigested feed in droppings?

If the birds are offered unlimited water, the passage rate of the feed
through the gut increases. As a result, parts of the feed remain
undigested (see photo). Providing unlimited water therefore requires
appropriate management. It is good for the welfare of the birds, but
must be managed carefully.
Body development Dietary protein and body composition
One of the problems in breeder production is that, High Low
at the end of the laying period, egg production protein protein
sometimes decreases too rapidly (bad lay persis- Breast meat (% of BW) 20.2 17.4
tency). At the end of rearing, therefore, the body Abdominal fat (% of BW) 0.7 1.3
composition should be adjusted to more body The amount of protein in the diet during rearing affects
fat and less breast meat. Sufficient abdominal fat the breast meat and abdominal fat %. You don’t want too
much body protein, because this must be maintained.
seems to be related to good laying persistency. This Nor do you want big females that have trouble mating, so
means that the females must have a higher energy keep the protein content low.
intake and a lower protein intake during rearing on
a daily basis. Diets with less crude protein results
in a higher percentage of body fat and a lower
percentage of breast meat. These birds turned out
to be more persistent after 45 weeks of age than
those that were given a high percentage of crude
protein in their diet (= standard feed).
Uniformity and quality of the birds is not only determined by the weight, but also by their development. The couch potato
has the same weight as the weight lifter, but they certainly have different body development/composition.
Development of birds at 13 weeks of age

The birds must be at the same stage of development so that they have equal needs in terms of feed, lighting, care
and so on, and become sexually mature simultaneously.
Underdeveloped Reasonably developed Well developed
♀
Uniformity
Management in general aims at the average bird, Good uniformity is essential for good egg produc-
but that bird doesn’t exist. So you have to deal tion and fertility. With a less uniform flock there
with variation in a flock. The less uniform the are big differences in the development of the birds
flock, the fewer birds are in the range defined by within the flock and it is also a signal that some-
your management goal. The result is then that thing went wrong in the rearing management.
more birds are not managed in an optimal way Uniformity can be endangered by things such as
and problems become larger over time. You can too little feeding space, high stocking density,
start grading from an age of 2-3 weeks. poor feed distribution, bad health, et cetera.
Natural variation is about 5-7%, so you could A uniform flock is easier to manage because the
reduce a CV of 12% to 6%, but below that is birds are at the same stage of development.
impossible. If your starting material is already The older the birds get, the more variation occurs
variable, then you have to adjust your goals. (individual reactions, vaccinations, diseases, etc).
Regular grading in which the smaller birds are set
aside is necessary; this is a continuous process.
Without grading After 12-14 weeks this no longer makes any sense,
Average weight Average weight Average weight the skeleton is then almost completely formed.
Small birds will stay small and with extra feed they
will only put on more fat. It is precisely these fat
birds that cause problems at the start of produc-
Day 1 - CV% 8-9 Day 21 - CV% 10-13 POL - CV% >15 tion (prolapse).
With grading at 28 days of age

Average weight Average weight Average weight
Day 1 - CV% 8-9 Day 21 - CV% 10-13 POL - CV% 8-10

By dividing the birds into equal groups (light, normal, heavy), the birds will also
be more uniform later. You can therefore adjust the feed supply per group in
order to achieve the desired growth curve. Uniformity and variation
If you only calculate the average weight of a
flock, this does not give you any information
about the quality of the flock. After all, you want
to have as many birds as possible that have a
body weight that is as close to the average as
possible. That’s why you determine the degree
of uniformity. In certain European countries, the
percentage of birds that are between 10-15%
below and 10-15% above average at a certain
age is calculated manually.
Example: Average weight is 1500 grams. 65
of the 80 birds weigh between 1350 and 1650
grams (+/- 10%). Then the uniformity is: 65 : 80
= 81.3%.
Internationally, the CV% (coefficient of variation)
is generally used. The percentage refers to the
calculated standard deviations divided by the
average. In the case of electronic weighing, the
unit calculates this value.
A good rule is that between 4 and 12 weeks
of age 90% of the birds should have a weight
that differs no more than 15% from the average.
From 12 to 20 weeks, this is 85%.
A very small hen in a 14-week-old flock. This bird must be graded; it is too far
behind. Or, it must be put in a separate group to catch up.
Grading
Larger birds are more dominant and these birds
have the best access to feed, so differences
increase. The solution is keeping birds in uniform
groups (grading). You can feed the groups differ-
ently in order to improve uniformity.
At four weeks you start grading among the females.
In Europe, only birds that are too small are set
aside in order to get them on track to reach the tar-
get weight for 10 weeks of age, with some attention
and specific feed and water control. Usually this
involves about 5 to 10% of the females that you
put in a separate compartment. After all, you want
the flock to be uniform at the time of transfer, and
in the case of light stimulation, all birds must be
ready for this in terms of development. Then you’ll You start grading as soon as you start the feed control, or just before. The
have better production. After reaching the target birds select themselves by the difference in speed of feed intake.
weight for 10 weeks, you put them back in the
group. Small males are graded around 5-6 weeks if
they weigh less than 1.2 times the average weight
Point of no return 15 weeks of age
of females. Often, 4 different sections are used in a
rearing house: 1 for light birds, 2 for normal birds Puberty, i.e. the period of sexual development, is mainly between
16 and 20 weeks of age. It is very important that the females grow
and 1 for heavy birds. If you take 1 light bird from
sufficiently during this period, otherwise the start of production will be
box 2 and put it in box 1, you have to replace it delayed. We aim for a weight gain of at least 1/3 of the body weight
with a heavy bird from box 1, so that the stocking in this period. When the females are far too light or too heavy around
14 weeks of age compared to the norm, it is too late to correct it. It
density continues to meet the standards. Rearing
is better to make a new growth curve parallel to the recommended
problems often become obvious only during the curve and to adjust the feed ration accordingly. Forcing birds at this
production phase; so, the rearing farmer doesn’t age to reach the target weight will cause problems with production.
experience these problems. Sometimes a rear-
ing farmer doesn’t want to feed too much (costs
money); but, during the last four weeks before
transfer, a bit of extra feed is often a good choice
for optimal production results.
light animals average weight heavy animals
no dominant heavy birds normal feed intake no weaker smaller birds

= less competition = can’t steel extra feed
= higher feed intake = lower feed intake
By creating different compartments in a rearing pen, you can easily sort the birds from light to heavy. This is an excellent method when
labour is not too expensive, and feed and water can be provided separately for each compartment.
Feathering and feeding Feather eating
A rough feather cover can be caused by poor feed Eating down feathers is done to compensate for
distribution, and by feed segregation. This means a possible protein deficiency (especially sulphur
that different feed is offered in the front of the amino acids), shortage of fibre in the feed or as a
house than in the back of the house, while your result of an intestinal disorder.
goal is to give all birds the same feed and the You could see birds that are bald around the
same quantity. Especially for self-mixers, this is an preen gland. The preen gland contains oil with
important point of attention. minerals in it, with which the chickens normally
The protein level in the diet from early rearing keep their feather cover in good condition. In situ-
between 2 and 8 weeks of age is very important to ations where there is a lack of salt, eating feathers
provide a good feather cover later. around the preen gland can meet their need for
This is important for: salt. Increase the salt content in the feed.
• Protection against damage (obstacles, during
mating, feed competition, pecking).
• Regulating body temperature.
• Effect on fertility (mating behaviour).
• Grip for the males during mating.
• Health status indicator.
Amino acids important for feather development:
• TSAA (Total Sulphur Amino Acids
= methionine and cystine)
Stripes in the flag of the feathers are a signal of moments
• Arginine of malfunction during development. These include
• Valine vaccinations, nutritional deficiencies and so on. Evaluate
• Lysine the past period if you see this in several birds in the flock.
On these feathers you can see stress lines in the shaft of the feather. Seen from the side, you see a ribbed shaft. These are
also known as bamboo feathers. The feed is not providing the required amino acids; this could be a formulation problem or
birds may be selecting in the feed. This has a long-term impact on the feathering, which continues into the laying period.
The amino acids arginine, leucine and valine are also important for feather development. Make sure that the feed contains a
sufficient amount of these amino acids, especially at a young age (before 6 weeks of age).
Feathers sticking out?

Feathers seem to be sticking out of this bird’s feather cover. It’s a signal of feeding deficiencies or malabsorption.
Check and evaluate the feed formulation if this occurs in several birds.
Sexing errors
In the final stage of the rearing process, sexing LOOK-THINK-ACT
errors become more visible as a result of sexual
development. Remove these sexing errors as
soon as you see them, as they cost extra feed
(and therefore money). In addition, in the case of
sexual maturity, they can provide offspring with a
different genetic make-up than the one you want.
In that sense, one male in a female group will
have more effect than one female in a male group.
Since one male creates many more offspring.
Besides: a male in a female line results in smal-
ler broilers, but a female in a male line may lay
somewhat fewer less eggs, but the broilers will be
even larger. Around four weeks of age the males A brown bird in a white broiler flock?
already show a red comb, in the females the comb This can be a sexing error in a slow growing breeder flock of con-
is hardly developed yet. After that, this difference ventional white males mated with coloured females. Normally all their
progeny should be predominantly white; when a broiler is fully brown
is more difficult to see, until puberty. Sexing errors
it is most likely the result of a brown male and brown female. You can
of about 0.5% is normal, 2% is way too much. also see that the broiler did not inherit the specific meat characteris-
tics from its father.
In a broiler flock originating from conventional white parent females
and males it is hard to identify the results of sexing errors.
A sexing error at 20 weeks age. The larger comb of this Leg length is a good indicator of sexing errors. Here a leg of a male (top)
male in a female flock is a clear indication. and female (bottom) at 13 weeks of age. Use your index finger to check the
length.
Recognising the sexes
Male Female
Males are almost bald under their
wings from 16-18 weeks onwards,
whereas females still have some small
feathers.
Comb and wattles 105 days (15

weeks)
More developed and redder in males
Hock joints 140 days (20 weeks)

Thicker and broader in males.
Narrower and smoother in females.
Feathering around the neck 140 days

(20 weeks)
Long-fringed, spear-shaped feathers
in males. Denser, paddle-shaped
feathers in females.
Body shape 140 days (20 weeks).

Males longer and narrower. Females
more compact and broader around
pelvis.
Development of the female
From 15 weeks – about 7 weeks before first ovi- fit enough to be able to lay large hatching eggs
position – the female undergoes a substantial right from the start. For this purpose the feed sup-
physiological change. The age of 15 weeks is seen ply should increase from 90 to 125 grams per day.
as the point-of-no-return, mistakes made previ- In the pre-laying period you feed by bodyweight
ously must now be accepted and you should focus until a daily egg production of 5% is reached. Aim
on the future growth of the birds. Every mistake to achieve the desired weight at 23 weeks. You
made here will be paid for later. The reproductive can control the egg weight by providing sufficient
organs are developing rapidly. A weight increase linoleic acid, methionine and cystine, preferably
of approximately 35% between 15 and 22 weeks before production even starts. However, make sure
of age is required in this phase as insufficient not to provide too much lysine, as this will cause
growth in puberty will delay the start of produc- breast meat yield to increase considerably.
tion. It is important for the birds to be healthy and
Assessment of body development

The body condition provides useful information about the (sexual) maturity of the female.
From the top to the bottom you assess:
• Breast meat
• Breast bone
• Abdomen
• Pelvic bones (pin bones)
Feeling the breast muscles. Feeling the breast bone.
Feeling the abdomen. Feeling the pin bones.
Different weights
When overweight after 16 weeks (> 100 grams
above target weight): this flock must be managed
very precisely in order to minimise damage (loss
of production and reduced uniformity). If you
bring the birds to their target weight by keeping
the amount of feed constant, you will interfere
with the development of the females and the birds
will come into production later. Therefore, fol-
low the growth curve parallel to the target weight
curve. Never let the birds drop to the target weight
because then they will lose condition. This has a
larger negative effect on egg production than sim-
ply being off of the ideal curve.
When underweight after 16 weeks (> 100 grams
below target weight): do not try to force the birds
to reach the target weight. Also in this case growth
No fat reserve at the extremities of the pin bones, prior to must take place parallel to the normal growth
light stimulation. If there is no fat tissue to be felt then this
indicates that the female is not yet ready to be stimulated curve, so production will just start a little later.
with light. This is done by increasing the feed supply slightly,
so that the birds gain a little more weight per day.
Both situations are undesirable and are a signal of
bad rearing management.
Failure to achieve the desired

daily growth
If the daily growth between 15 weeks of age and
the moment of light stimulation is not achieved,
the production will be disappointing:
• A delayed onset of lay
• Small eggs at onset of lay
• Increased percentage of deformed eggs
• Increased number of infertile eggs
• Increased broodiness of the females
• Reduced uniformity of body weights and
sexual development
• Reduced peak production
• No synchronised sexual development of
males and females
If the birds have grown too fast between

15 weeks of age and the moment of light stimu-
lation, other problems will occur:
• Too early onset of lay
A thin layer of fat over the pin bones indicates that the • Increased number of double yolks
females are storing fat in the abdominal cavity to prepare • Reduced number of hatching eggs
for the start of the laying. Adequate fat cover on the pin • Increased feed requirement during
(pelvic) bones before moving. production
• Reduced peak production, laying
persistency and number of eggs
• Reduced fertility during entire lifespan
(applies to both females and males)
• Increased incidence of peritonitis and
prolapse
• No synchronised sexual development of
males and females
Fleshing condition scoring in females
Age Fleshing score 2 Fleshing
Fleshing
Fleshing
Fleshing score
condition
condition
condition 3 in
scoring
scoring
scoringinin Fleshing score 4
females
females
females Pelvic fat
12 weeks 111 222

70% 333
30% 444 555
16 weeks 40% 60% 0% pelvic fat
19 weeks < 10% 60% 30% > 65% pelvic fat
20 weeks < 5% 60% 35% > 85% pelvic fat
21 weeks 60% 40% > 90% pelvic fat
In rearing, not only is weight important, but also the development of muscles and fat. For this reason, the development of the muscles must be
monitored at regular intervals: If the feed control is too strict, the female has less fat (reserves) in the abdominal cavity. Adequate fat reserves are
necessary for good laying persistency.
✓ X
The ‘fat vein’ at the edge of the breast indicates the reserves a female has (top images). This fat gives the birds a good
start of production, serves as reserve after week 45, and they are more resilient in facing challenges and stress, such as an
IB infection. In that case production doesn’t drop and the bird recovers faster. A pronounced fat vein (bottom left) is a good
sign. The fat vein on the right is hardly present.
CHAPTER 5:
Puberty (17-22 weeks)
The period between 17 and 22 weeks is considered to be the pre-laying period. This is a very critical period.
The birds become sexually mature and are often transferred from the rearing house to the production house.
If somebody else rears the flock, always visit the rearing flock to align the rearing and laying period as good
as possible. Look at light intensity, light period, water period, feed quantity, feed composition, and so on.
At the end of the rearing period the birds are often Types of production houses
transferred to the production house. Do you know Worldwide, there are still many manual egg col-
all the limitations and possibilities of the new envi- lection systems. The proportions of the floor areas
ronment? After all, every house is different. Adapt vary from country to country. In the US you often
your management in order to achieve the best pos- see slats on both sides and 1/3 of the house com-
sible production. In Europe and North America, prised of litter (centre of the house). In Western
for example, labour is expensive. For this reason, Europe you often see roughly 50% slats (centre of
automatic feeding, water supply, egg collection and the house) and 50% litter (on both sides).This is
climate control are used. In some countries, such just the result of differences between continents
as China, Indonesia and South America, the rear- in the development of management and housing
ing and laying periods often take place in the same systems. The houses can be artificially lit, with or
poultry house: there, labour is relatively cheap and without windows or open sided with a windbreak
manual egg collection is used. net. Water is available on the slatted floors close
In combined rearing/production houses, the laying to the nest boxes and feed is often on both litter
nests must be removed or covered during rearing. and slats. If the water is also offered on the litter,
there is a greater risk for floor eggs (the area under ted floor are that the male feeders can be placed
the water line feels like a safe zone for the females: against the side walls and there is no strict sepa-
no need to go up the ‘tree’). Rarely, breeders are ration between male and females. This improves
housed in groups in colony cages. These cages are mating behaviour and results in higher fertility and
equipped with laying nests, perches and a small hatchability. Another advantage is a lower number
litter surface. Breeders may also be housed in of floor eggs. With a central litter floor, the females
conventional cages where artificial insemination is tend to ‘hide’ in the area behindFemale
the feeders
laying nests.
Male Drinkers Manual nests
used. This is not common in Europe, but it is com- feeding different eleva-
Slats are installed in order to create
mon in some other parts of the world with relatively tions in the house. These slats are often made of
low labour costs. Advantages of a central slat- plastic, but wooden slats are used as well.
Female feeders
100% litter floor and manual egg collection Central
Male litter floor Manual
and slatted
nests floor on both Central slatted floor and litter on both sides
Drinkers
sides
feeding with manual or mechanical egg col- with mechanical egg collection
lection
Mating area
Female feeders
Male Drinkers Manual nests
feeding
Mating area Mating area Mating area
Mating area
Mating area Mating area
Mating area Mating area
Characteristics of materials for slats

Advantages Disadvantages
+ Easy to clean – More manure on the slat surface
Plastic slats + Long service life for some types of slats
+ No damage to the foot pads – It is more difficult to combat red
+ Some types of slats with larger mites and get the agent in all small
openings have good manure corners
passage and a clean surface. – Plastic remains moist
+ Manure falls through more easily – Danger of red mites in the T-profile
Wooden slats
+ Wood dries faster – Shorter service life
(but moisture absorbing) – Can damage the foot pads (older
+ Red mite infestation is easier to slats, and depending on wood
treat quality)
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 67
Height of slats
Chickens prefer to rest off the ground. A full-litter floor does not offer this possibility. By placing 20-50-centimetre-high slats, you can meet this
requirement. High slats may improve leg strength because of the jumping exercise, but they can also increase the risk of accidents, such as
bruising, fractures and ruptured tendons, especially if the birds are scared. If you have a high slatted floor it is wise to place an intermediate step
or an inclined platform/grid to facilitate access. Higher slats increase the risk of floor eggs.
Dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers are smaller than conventional breeders. So, make sure the slats are not too high!
Daylight houses
Daylight house with mechanical (communal type) nests. Water and Daylight house with drinkers on the slats and manual nest boxes
one feed line on the slats. Another line of feed and feeders for the along the walls. For the females there is a chain feeder with grill.
males is found in the litter area (Cameroon). The feeding pans for the males are located in the middle of the
house (Cameroon).
Husbandry system with various levels and the laying nests relatively This poultry house is too wide. The long distance to the laying nests
high in the system. will lead to more floor eggs.
Transfer
The age at transfer depends on the type of
house, and the applied management strategy. For
dark-out production houses pullets are usually
transferred no later than 21 weeks. In open-sided
houses you have to deal with natural day length.
This means that you might have to transfer the
birds later than at 21 weeks, depending on the
season and the natural day length, in order to pre-
vent early light exposure. Delaying the transition
always causes extra stress and should never be
done later than 23 weeks of age. In addition, never
transfer the birds before 18 weeks, at this time
they are still in full development and the stress of
Make sure that the house layout and climate are as similar as possible to
the transfer can seriously harm future production. the rearing house. Feeding system, water system, lighting programme and
Ideally, move the males before the females (the biosecurity should also be as similar as possible. The light intensity should
day before) so that they can easily find the feed certainly not be lower as this will cause problems as the birds acclimatise to
their new environment.
and water system. However, many producers add
the males later, making it more difficult for them
to find their place in the house.
When planning your transfer, consider this: pro-
portionally your males have much less body fat.
This means that, especially in the winter, the
house must be preheated well before they are
placed to prevent stress.
Transfer always causes stress and as a producer
it is your task to mitigate this as much as pos-
sible. Consider that, even if you are only moving
the birds across the yard, to them it is a whole
different world; as the trip becomes further it only
becomes more stressful.
Prevent feed transitions around the transfer. Check the birds for worms in the rearing house, and deworm before
Minimising change is the aim at this period. A transfer. Doing this, the chickens are transported free of worms and cannot
single moment of stress can often be taken care contaminate the new facility; the worm eggs are left behind and dewormed
birds arrive in a clean house.
of by the bird, but multiple moments of stress will
be difficult. As stress increases, disease resistance
plummets and intestinal disorders appear. Usually
the same pre-lay diet is given for week 16-22.
Unload the birds, only where water is immediately available. Finding water is
of utmost priority for the stressed birds, followed by feed. Ensure that the flock
has adapted to any new feeding system within the first 24 hours after transfer.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 69
Loading reared birds
When loading reared birds to go to a production
house, load them carefully. This is also a good
moment to remove unfit birds. Fence off a part of
the house and load the birds in batches.
The birds are not as vulnerable as day-old-chicks.
These birds are often transported in open trucks,
but increasingly in closed trucks in order to con-
trol the climate. Especially in extreme climates
(hot or cold geographic regions).
Often males and females are transported at the
A net drives the birds towards the exit where a second,
smaller fence is made to actually catch the birds. same time. So similar to day-old-chicks: make
a good loading plan for the truck. First load the
females, since the males have to be unloaded first
in the new poultry house. Sometimes in a separate
section of the house.
Chickens are fenced off in a small area at the end of the

poultry house where they are put in transport crates.
The transport crates serve as a wall for birds to walk out

of the house. As soon as a trolley is full, a new trolley
with empty crates replaces the full one.
This is considered an open truck, since there is no More than 80% of the birds will jump out when you put
climate control. The tarpaulin prevents direct air flow them on or near the slats with the doors open. Avoiding
when driving. But when standing still, the temperature the additional stress of grabbing them and pulling them
can rise very fast. So unload directly after arrival. out gives them a step up.
Arrival in the new house
If you use crates, open them and tip them over. The hens will get After an hour or so the crates can be taken away and litter can be
out by themselves and find the water. The crates form a wall to added. Slowly but surely the birds will enter the litter area.
keep the birds on the slats for a while.
For the reception of birds in the production house, red light could The red light is created by red foils that are gradually removed.
be used to keep the birds quiet. This should not routinely be done, Nowadays with multicoloured LEDs you can easily mix your own
but only in case of problem flocks. colours.
After the birds have become accustomed, the light intensity can In this house litter pellets are used. After a few days they fall apart
be increased, so the birds can investigate the surroundings, thus and create a thin layer of litter.
preventing floor eggs in the future. The feeding lines are lowered.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 71
Stocking density
LOOK-THINK-ACT A correct stocking density helps to keep the flock
uniform, reduces differences in sexual maturation
rate and helps to achieve good physical condition
and overall reproduction. After 140 days (20 weeks
of age) the stocking density should be reduced
and the feed/water space increased as the birds
become larger.
In Europe, stocking density is 6.5-7.7 birds (males
and females) per m2. In the rest of the world this
is often lower at 3.5-6 birds per m2. The stocking
density depends on:
• Welfare legislation
• Economics
• Environment (climate)
• House type
• Equipment (water system, feeding system,
Drinking without water? laying nests, ventilation)
If the birds are very thirsty, they will drink en masse and press the
edge of the drinker. Because the filling valve of the drinker reacts to
the weight of the water, it seems as if there is enough water and the
Effect of stocking density on fertility
100
water flow stops. Ensure sufficient supply capacity (limit competition
around the water system).
Fertile eggs (%) 95
90
Low stocking density (< 6 birds per m2) 85

Advantages Disadvantages
80
+ Improved mutual recognition of – Inefficient use of expensive
males and females poultry house.
75
+ More successful mating, more – More energy necessary 26 29 32 39 44 53
mating behaviour, and more for maintaining standard Age (weeks)
voluntary mating. temperature.
+ Females try to escape less often – Lower output per square meter stocking density 8.8 birds/m2
during mating. (eggs, chicks). stocking density 5.2 birds/m2
+ Higher fertility -> more day-old
A lower stocking density results in a higher percentage of
chicks per breeder.
fertile eggs, but from an economic point of view this is not a
+ Lower mortality.
direct trade-off.
+ More hatching eggs.
+ Positive effect on the profit/bird.
Slow growing breeds and stocking density

Since dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers are smaller, they re-
quire less space. Therefore, when allowed by legislation, the stocking
density could be increased with about 10%.
Houses with relatively low stocking density create

sufficient room for mating behaviour.
Feed around transfer
In some countries the birds are only given half a
portion of feed, or even nothing at the day before
transport. This is in the interest of the transporter,
because the crates remain cleaner. However, this
must really be less important than the welfare
of the birds. In order to prevent the birds from
experiencing too much stress, they should be
given a full day’s supply of feed before transport.
By giving a normal amount of feed the day before
and on the day of transport, the birds are better
able to cope with the transport challenges. The
birds should not be fed on the morning of the
transport itself, but the feeding facilities in the
production house should be fully filled so that the After transfer, check the crop fill of both males and females to see if they are
birds have immediate access to feed on arrival. It able to find feed and water. Do this on the day of transfer, 30 minutes after the
first feeding period and then again after 24 hours. Check at least 50 males and
is only on the first or second day after arrival that 50 females. The bird on the left has an empty crop and the bird on the right a
the feeding level must be brought back to normal. full crop. Determine the cause if not all birds have a full crop (insufficient feeding
The amount of extra feed you give depends on the space, insufficient feed distribution or insufficient availability of feed).
season, ambient temperature and the duration of
the transport. If the birds have to wait a while in
the new house before getting fed (because more
birds have to be brought), switch off the lights or
dim them. Keep a close eye on the birds. They are
stressed and hungry, so they might start pecking
at each other.
The feed intake of the females should increase
from 130 grams to 150/160 grams per day at 25 or
27 weeks of age (depending on age of stimulation:
21 or 23 weeks of age), to the peak feed supply of
165-170 grams around 27 to 29 weeks of age.
Check the time it takes for the water to get to the back of the house. A good
rule of thumb: the water should be in the back before you can walk there at a
normal pace.
After about two hours to get accustomed the feeders are let down.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 73
Separate feeding
Tip Males and females are fed separately, as both
their needs and genetics differ greatly. Males have
Feed in the dark or immediately after the light
is turned on. This prevents unrest, because the
a lower requirement for protein and calcium than
birds are used to this during the rearing period. females, and often get a lower energy value in the
feed as well. Sometimes males get more vitamin E
and selenium to support fertility.
By feeding separately during the laying period
there is better overall control of body weight and
uniformity of both sexes. This has a positive effect
on fertility, especially after week 50.
Around week 26, no male should be able to eat
from the females’ feeding system, since males
tend to overeat, especially at the start. This increa-
ses the weight considerably, which affects general
condition and fertility. This can also lead to leg
problems, especially after week 50.
One possibility is to first turn on the lights for 5
minutes in order to give the birds the opportunity
to spread through the house. Then switch the
Females are fed separately by excluding the males using lights off and fill up the feeding system.
a grill or roll above the females’ feeding system. The If you feed directly after turning on the lights, the
height of the roller tube is adjustable between 40 and 50
mm above the trough, so that the males cannot reach
birds have a tendency to sleep close to the fee-
the females’ feed. ders, creating a barrier for the birds on the slats.
The feeding system for females can be placed in high When distributing the feed, the high speed of a chain feeder
traffic areas of the house (slats, litter area). (30 m per minute) prevents the feed from being eaten. The
birds cannot eat selectively in a spiral feed system and the
feed does not accumulate. This stimulates uniformity.
The males are usually fed far away from the laying nests; this ensures that the area around the nest boxes remains
peaceful. So either at the side of the house (left) or in the centre (right), depending on the system used.
Excluding males
At the age of 20 weeks you must exclude the are grills that you can adjust, but be diligent with
males from the female feeders. Reducing the fee- your maintenance; old metal grills are often rusted
der opening to 45-47 mm width x 60 mm height is up because they weren’t adjusted frequently which
then necessary. It is not a problem if the females makes them useless. Don’t choose a grill that’s
can still eat from the male feeding system in the too narrow, otherwise you might even rule out the
first few weeks and vice versa. Early in the cycle females at some point.
smaller males could use some extra feed. There
♂ ♀
The main distinction between sexes for feeding purposes When using separate feeding systems, both males (right)
is based on the differences in comb size and/or head and females (middle) must be able to eat all at the same
width and the difference in body height. The male’s larger time. If they don’t eat at the same time, the males can
comb prevents him from accessing the female feeder. cause a lot of unrest amongst the females.
This male feeder hangs too low, the females can reach it Exclusion system with a roll bar. The females can put their
as well. heads under the roll bar, the males can’t.
The main differences in the feeding systems. For males, there is an exclusion system (left: a grill) and the males are fed at a
certain height (50-55 cm, right), which the females can’t easily reach.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 75
The males must be able to eat from the feeding system with their feet flat on
the ground. So this is the image you want!
Use the male feeding system right from the start. Adjust
the height of the male feed system after 3 weeks, so that
the females can no longer eat with them.
Slow growing breeds and male

exclusion
Dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers have
access to feed almost the whole day. They
actually need to be stimulated to eat enough by
providing several meals during the day and to let
them completely clean-and-empty the feeding
system once a day.
The fact that there is feed all day in the feeders
of the females allows the males to steal feed the
whole day. This means that a good male exclu-
Another way of excluding males is by using a peg through the nostrils so they
ding system is even more important.
can’t stick their heads through the grill. In a lot of countries this is forbidden
because of bird welfare and is certainly not a recommended method.
Heavier males are less effective Difference between separated feeding and non-separated feeding
Males eating the females ration should not be- 6,000 96

come commonplace. This takes feed allocated 94
5,000
Body weight (g)
Fertile eggs (%)
to the females; your calculated ration then be- 92

comes meaningless. You’ll see reduced growth 4,000 90
and production without showing any indication of 3,000 88
a lack of feed intake. This isn’t any better for the 86
males; this extra feed will push them to become 2,000
84
overweight. Heavier males have more problems 1,000 82
with their balance during mating, due to heavier
0 80
breast muscles, causing more mating failures. 31-40 41-50 51-60
Age of males (weeks)
separated sex feeding line = fertile eggs
non separated sex feeding bar = body weight
If fed together with the females, males will grow too much, with the result that
fertility will decrease significantly after week 50.
Getting used to systems
It has been mentioned before, but be careful when
the systems in the rearing house are different from
systems in the production house. For example,
if the birds have to switch from spin-feeding in
rearing to chain feeding systems during laying,
the new feeding system should be placed very low
at first so that the birds can look into the system
and see the feed easily for 1 or 2 days. Crop filling
indicates whether the birds have indeed been able
to find the feed.
Head width of females and males (mm)

Age (weeks) Females Males
5 26 28
10 30 36
15 42 44
20 43 46
25 44 47
30 45 50
35 46 55
Adjustable feeding pan. The width and height of the

openings can be adjusted according to the head size
of the birds to ensure separate feeding of males and
females.
In order to prevent males stealing from the females, the Males stealing the female feed. The chain feeder should
final part of the grill is covered with a metal plate. be covered at this point.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 77
✓
Incorrect position of the roller bar. Too high, so no excluding effect. Correct position of the roller bar. The females can reach the feed,
males cannot.
These male feeding pans are all pushed sideways. Make sure the If males try to eat from the hens’ feeders (through the small grill)
pans are properly installed and if they are pushed out of position, they may damage their heads leading to infections. The reason is
try to find the cause. It may be due to a fight for feed (poor feed probably that this is a submissive male that is not allowed to eat
distribution, too little feeding space, too little feed?). with the other males and therefore tries to get feed from the female
feeders.
A simple solution if the chain is moving too slow. Cover it, let it fill up and lift up the PVC pipe. There are also commercial systems that
use this principle.
Drinking water
Check the water intake of the birds every day LOOK-THINK-ACT
(water meter). A short period of water shortage
can quickly manifest itself in a sharp drop in
production. Too little water over a longer period
of time or too much water restriction will have a
negative influence on the egg size, among other
things. Some breeders are relatively slow eaters
and therefore relatively slow drinkers as well. If
you control the water intake too strictly, this can
have an adverse effect on certain physiological
processes. Birds normally drink after eating, so
make sure the capacity of the drinking system
is adequate for this peak. Even if you have suf-
ficient water available for a day, if you can’t meet
the demand at the peak it will still have negative
effects. A rule of thumb is that capacity should be
80 to 100 ml/minute for nipples.
Why does this bird have a black beak?
The black beak is caused by pecking at manure. This bird pecks at
caecal manure because it can’t find any water. In cases like these, it
often helps to push the bird’s beak into/against the water system. It’s
also a good idea to check that the drinking system is working properly.
If chicks can’t drink enough, they might push and turn the The birds drink too eagerly as they are afraid of missing out. This results in
bell drinker. You see that the drinkers are not nicely lined more spillage, resulting in a wet neck/breast. This often happens when the
up anymore. Try to reduce drinking stress. period of water supply is too short.
Newly arrived birds sometimes can’t find the drinkers and will look for alternatives. Like here condensation at the edge of
the house and moisture under the slats... you have to actively pick these birds up and teach them how to drink.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 79
Feather sucking and feather pecking
In broiler breeders you often see that the birds suck
their (tail) feathers between 15 and 25 weeks of age,
which does no harm. The fat from the preen gland
with which the birds rub their feathers is a bit salty
and the females like the taste. Another explanation
is that 90% of the dust in a poultry house consists
of protein, precipitating on the feathers. So feather
sucking (or feather stripping) may indicate a nutri-
ent deficiency. Feather sucking may lead to feather
pecking, pulling or a general deterioration of the
plumage! Broiler breeders are much less aggres-
sive than laying hens. Feather pecking is therefore
much less of a problem in breeders. Pecking can
Females not only strip their own feathers, but also tail feathers of other birds. be caused by boredom and stress, and is abnor-
With controlled feeding you see more feather sucking. Usually sucking stops mal behaviour that is difficult to unlearn. From the
when feed supply is increased to around 140 grams.
beginning, take steps to prevent abnormal beha-
viours from developing. If you can’t feed immedia-
tely after unloading, turn off the lights. In the dark,
the birds are calmer. By making the lights dimma-
ble you have a backup system in the rare case of
pecking. With untreated beaks, dimming the light
helps to keep the birds calm.
This female has soaked tail feathers caused by obsessive sucking. Obsessive
sucking is deviant behaviour. See if it occurs in more than one bird, because
in that case it is a flock problem.
Distraction materials keep the birds busy and

have value in themselves: fibre from straw (left)
and minerals from a pecking stone (right).
Pecking is often directed at the tail feathers and cloaca. This could be the
start of cloaca damage or even cannibalism.
Synchronous development
Postpone mixing for 7 to 14 days if the sexual
maturity has not yet been reached, or if the birds
have been moved from a dark house to a house
with an open side. The best fertility results are
achieved when the males and the females become
sexually mature at the same time.
If the males are sexually mature sooner, their
attempts to mate may cause the females to beco-
me afraid of the males. Males who mature later,
run the risk of being bullied by the older females
resulting in males that don’t dare to mate. They
The females sit on the slats and avoid mating; they do not mix with the males in
won’t recover from such ‘psychological castration’.
the litter area. There are too many aggressive males or the males were sexually
If the males are more mature than the females, mature much sooner than the females. If this is the case just before the light goes
you place fewer males in the beginning. out, when mating should take place, intervene by reducing the number of males.
For example, 1 male per 20 females. Gradually
add more males after 14-21 days. If the males are
not properly uniform, only place the mature adult
males. This can be judged by the size of the comb
and the colour around the eyes: the redder the
better. Add the other males as soon as they mature.
Separate housing for males is therefore a basic
requirement of a professional breeder farm!
Observe the behaviour of the males and females
constantly.
Aggressive dominant males tend to mate much more roughly. When mating,
the males grab the females with their beaks firmly by the neck feathers. They
can cause damage very quickly. With their legs they can also damage the
feathers and the skin on the body. In that case, feather damage is caused by
rough mating and not by pecking.
When males mature a little later than the females, the males are sometimes frightened by the females in the beginning. On the other hand, if the
males are too far along in development compared to the females, the males are then too dominant (in development or wrong ratio). Males and
females must be mixed and be in the same stage of maturity.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 81
Maturity of males
Importance of males Monitor the maturity of the males carefully.
Besides physically fit, the birds have to be
There often is too little attention given to the
males. Although less than 10% of the birds, they
mentally fit in the sense that they should have
are responsible for 50% of the result in each a dominant attitude. To ensure that the males
broiler chick! Even more if you realise that one function optimally and produce good sperm,
hen might produce 175 eggs, but one male is
responsible for 2,000 hatchable eggs, so you the following is important:
could say that a male is 10 times more important • Good weight control
than a female. • Select regularly
• A dominant attitude
Immature male with an underdeveloped comb and

wattles that are pale in colour.
This male has been attacked, probably because the

females don’t respect him. This male was sexually mature
too late and the females are in charge. This male will be
A sexually mature male has a well-developed comb and afraid to mate. Remove this male from the flock.
wattles that are nice red in colour.
The colour of the comb and around the eyes is a good indicator of the quality of the males. On the left a non-active male, on the right a good male.
Separate male house
Males normally come directly from the rearing
farm (at the age of 20 weeks) and are mixed with
females. But the males are never all mature at the
same time. There are always males that are in the
lead and males that develop more slowly. By pla-
cing 20-50% of the males in a separate male house
for some weeks, you can add the more mature
males to the females in stages. Introduce the
males to the production house within 10 weeks or
keep them separate as spiking males.
When you have the option of gradually introdu-
cing males you can start off with a relatively low
percentage. At first 6-7% is more than sufficient.
Later on, relatively more males die than females Separate male house, make sure the equipment is similar to the production house.
(competition and aggression among males), or
males are taken out (grading). Roughly 30-40% of
the males don’t make it till the end. Of these, one
third is due to grading/selection and two-thirds
due to mortality. In females it is much less: about
7-8% mortality and 1-2% due to selection (so total
cull rate 8-10%). LOOK-THINK-ACT
So you have to add males in order to have suf-
ficient numbers remaining towards the end of the
production period. However, this can be counter-
productive if not managed properly. Males might
fight each other after introduction, females get
frightened of the males. Take behaviour and com-
petition of males as a reference and adjust your
management to that.
It is labour-intensive to select the mature males
to be moved to the production house, but it has
many advantages. The mature males, for example,
can no longer eat with the females because they
have grown sufficiently. The remaining males in
the male house are also more likely to develop
when the dominant males are gone.
Percentage of males per age group

Age Percentage of males
18 weeks 10% Which male would you prefer?
20 weeks 9%
30 weeks 8% Two males of the same age. They look quite similar, but the one in the
back is still white around the eyes. This male is not fully mature yet.
The percentage of males depends on age and quality. The other one is nice and red. But you don’t necessarily have to take
You start with 10% males. If at the age of 30 weeks there the less developed male out of the flock, he might still develop further
are 8% good males in the flock, you still have plenty of and be very useful. Don’t be to picky!
opportunities not to have to add extra males.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 83
Ratio of males to females
If you don’t have a separate male house, you often
start with 100 males for 1,000 females, and this
can gradually be reduced.
At the beginning of the laying period, poultry
farmers sometimes keep a ratio of more than 1
male to 10 females. Too many males can lead to
more fighting, more aggressive behaviour towards
females and can have a negative effect on fertility.
Often the ratio of males to females is used as a
guideline, but in fact it is all about the density
of males. So the number of males per square
meter, since males are territorial. The higher the
number of females, the lower the actual percent-
It is not easy to assess whether the ratio in a production house is correct. The age of males. After feeding time you are able to
best way is by simple counting. If you know exactly how many birds you have assess this, that is the time for mating and at that
put in, and keep records of changes of both the males and females (mortality,
selection, etc), you should know the exact ratio.
moment you might see aggression.
Rough mating
If there are too many competitive males, mating damage on the females will become more of a problem. Males with untreated toes,
because of sexing errors or missed at the toe treatment, will aggravate this.
The nail on the back toe of the male is removed to prevent Damage to the flanks of a female caused by insufficient feeder
damage to the females. In some countries this is no longer space and rough mating.
permitted.
Treated toe of a male around maturity. Sharp untreated toe in a mature male. It is either a sexing error
or it slipped through in the process of toe treatment. This can
cause great harm to females.
Male management
Lower fertility and therefore lower hatching results
cause a significant decrease in the efficiency of
the entire broiler meat production chain. In non-
integrated production columns, if hatchability is
too low (< 80%), the flock farmer sometimes gets
a price penalty on the hatching eggs delivered or
receives a bonus if the average exceeds a certain
value (> 80%). Although this is only in the range of
tens of cents, if you have house with 20,000 broiler
breeders, this will add up to thousands of euros.
Observation rounds in the production house in
the afternoon create movement in the flock which
gives the males more possibility to mate. If you do
this frequently, you can also intensify and improve
grading. Particularly after 40 weeks of age, the
number of males which no longer mate increases.
In the morning, when collecting floor eggs, this
does not have much effect. But in the afternoon,
about 10 hours after lights on, when males should
be sexually active (after laying time) stirring
them up a bit by walking through the house is In front a well-developed male with nice comb. Close to the slats a
most effective. In addition, with frequent control subdominant male, with smaller comb and hunched up posture.
moments, equipment malfunctions are observed
earlier, minimising preventable flock disturbances
later on.
This male is hiding in a nest. This is a signal of psycho- Observation for selection of your males should be done daily especially with
logical castration: the male is anxious and will mate less. regard to external characteristics: legs, feathering, comb colour and weight.
Usually it will not even mate at all, so remove this bird. When picking them up, watch carefully; the cloaca should be moist and red,
and should not be too heavily feathered. The hocks should be red.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 85
4 old feathers 3o
ld f
Maturity of females
eat The characteristics of mature females at first sight
her
s
are in a way similar to the males: comb size and
comb colour and feather development (moult).
But the body confirmation changes as well from a
slender young hen to a full bellied female.
And of course the development of the pin bones
are a good indicator of the degree of maturity.
You can check wing feathers development of breeders at 19 weeks. Birds

moult their wing feathers from the inside out. On the wings you want to see
a maximum of four old feathers left (old = sharp tip, new = rounded tip).
However, for modern broiler breeders it is not a very good indication of the
sexual development of the birds. It is more commonly applied in laying hens
were it is still a good indication and management tool for the age of light
stimulation. Use the number of wing feathers always in combination with
moulting stage of all feathers (neck, thigh and back) on the entire animal.
A total equal feather development on all parts of the birds gives you an
impression of the uniformity of a flock. You have to adjust the light stimulation
to that!
Immature female with an A sexually mature female has a bright Different comb quality in females: on the left a nice, red-
underdeveloped comb and wattles. red comb and wattles. coloured comb, the one on the right is pale and less well
developed. She could be ill, for example suffering liver
degeneration.
Development towards maturity
During puberty, body conformation of the female changes significantly. On the left a female of 23 weeks old. She
is still slender. On the right a female of 27 weeks old, she developed much more abdominal fill (development of
reproductive organs).
Pin (pelvic) bones spacing
The conformation and shape of the pin bones if there is a big difference in space between the
changes during the pre-laying phase. The space pin bones between the females, then you have to
between the pelvic bones gets bigger and bigger postpone stimulation. It is good practice to have
under the influence of reproductive hormones, 80% of the flock with a 4 to 5 cm pin bone spacing
until the moment of laying. Measuring the space when starting light stimulation. Manage the flock
between the laying bones gives you information in your house not the one in your plans!
about the female’s sexual development. Perform
this measurement regularly between 20 and 23 Space between the pin (pelvic) bones by age
weeks of age (140-161 days). Preferably every time
Age Space between the pin bones
you are in the poultry house, but at least once
84-91 days Closed
a week. You don’t have to assess this on a lot of
119 days 1 finger 2 cm
females to get a good picture of what is going
21 days before the first egg 1.5 fingers 3 cm
on throughout the poultry house. You can also 10 days before the first egg 2-2.5 fingers 4-5 cm
hear the flock ‘singing’ when they come into lay. Point of lay 3 fingers 6 cm
Some females will crouch, as they would do for
Your fingers are a good indicator. But realise that in some countries in Asia
the males. If the pin bones are not yet spacious and Africa the daily care is done by women with thinner fingers. In that case
enough when you want to stimulate with light, or this table is not appropriate!
The birds have arrived at the point of lay when the space between the pin bones measures 3 fingers (that is about 5-6 centimetres).
On the left still too small, the image on the right shows the preferred width (3 fingers).
Because finger sizes vary, it is recommended that the same person measures the space between the laying bones each time. Or to
‘calibrate’ your fingers e.g. know their size. In this case two fingers are either 2.8 cm and 3.7 cm!
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 87
Light programme
Chickens naturally reproduce seasonally and lay uniform (CV more than 10%), postpone the light
their eggs in spring. The trigger is the lengthening stimulation for a week or more.
of the days. Although this light sensitivity is decre- Not only females are stimulated, males as well.
asing due to further genetic improvement. In pure For females 6, 8 or 10 hours doesn’t make a lot
laying breeds, the stimulus from light is reduced of difference, From 10 hours onwards sexual sti-
and body development is more important. Broiler mulation really starts. Males are more sensitive.
breeders are bred for meat and less for laying per- When males and females are kept in one house,
formance, which is why they are more sensitive to you could stimulate sexual development of males
increasing day length. Light stimulation or percep- when you have 7 hours of light, while for the fema-
tion of daylight is therefore just as important as les nothing changes. This has a natural cause: in
feed intake. The age to extend the day length from spring, the male has to be ready before the fema-
short (8 hours) to long (between 13 and 14 hours) le, so the first eggs are fertilised directly.
depends on the average body weight of the flock
and the uniformity of the flock. Weight gain in Adjustment with rearing
combination with absolute weight are the main Align the lighting programme between rearing and
criteria. A shorter day length might result in floor production farm. When in doubt about the light
eggs (laying in the dark) but also saves energy intensity and/or day length, do not take any risks.
consumption (= feed) by the birds. An additional increase in light intensity is much
In most cases it is not recommended to start light less disadvantageous than a decrease in light
stimulation before 20/21 weeks of age. For flocks intensity. Adjust the light intensity of coloured
that are below their target weight, or that are not lighting sources.
The light stimulus must be recognisable to the
bird. Extend by at least 2-4 hours and at least dou-
ble the light intensity. Preferably even a fourfold
LOOK-THINK-ACT increase in light intensity.

Increase the light intensity together with day
length to allow the females and the males to slow-
ly get used to each other. But be aware of pecking:
during light stimulation there is still controlled
feeding, so the birds are not satiated yet. Decrease
light intensity again once you observe pecking
(but not the day length...).
Lux and footcandles

The SI unit for brightness is lux (metric system).
This is the light intensity that falls on a certain
surface. As light spreads, its intensity decreases
as the light source gets further away from the
surface to be exposed, but the total surface
Darkness area that becomes lit increases. For a good
measurement you do not measure close to the
The lights are dimmed here, but even if you turned them off, the light light source, but at the level of the object to be
still comes in through the ventilation valves. This disrupts the synchro- illuminated. In some countries the unit ‘foot-
nisation between weight development and light stimulation. Close all candles’ is used (imperial). 100 lux equals 9 ftc.
openings and cracks. Rearing houses must be 100% lightproof, no On lamps, the luminous intensity is indicated in
trace of light may enter. Follow the lighting programme carefully and lumen. That’s the brightness at the source. 100
adjust it where necessary. lux = 100 lumen/m².
Do not stimulate too soon Effect of light stimulation at different ages
Do not stimulate the birds too early with feed and 120 days 140 days 160 days
light to start laying. Certainly not in a non-uniform Age at maturity (days) 173 175 182
flock of birds. Then you will have a considerable Weight of 1st eggs (g) 44.1 45.5 45.4
number of birds that are not ready (too light, too Number of chicks 119 133 127
little fat reserve). This type of flock decreases quic-
For the highest number of hatching eggs, the optimum age for light stimulation
kly in production towards the end of the laying is between day 140 and day 160.
period (poor persistency). A large number of eggs
at 30 weeks is therefore no guarantee of many
eggs at the end of the laying period.
Effect of start of stimulation on laying curve
The sexually adult birds divide their nutrients
into a part for maintenance, a part for growth, stimulation too late:
and a part for egg production. The birds that do delayed and lower peak
not lay yet divide their nutrients for two purpo-
ses: maintenance and growth, which will result in
correct timing
undesired weight gain and increase in body fat.
Production (%)
of stimulation
The lack of uniformity is thus exacerbated. The
increased weight gain (breast meat) results in a
higher demand for maintenance, resulting in lower stimulation too early:
slower getting to the (lower)
production. peak, lower persistency
Stimulate the birds only when they are physically
ready (sufficient development/weight), if necessa-
ry, wait a few weeks. Even better: when 95% of the
birds are ready (BW uniformity is also important).
Time (weeks)
If laying is stimulated too early or too late, the birds will produce fewer
Day length hatching eggs. If they start laying too early, they will drop off quickly in the
In spring the females mature faster than in second half of the production (poor persistency) and if they start too late, the
autumn. Despite a house that is perfectly dark, the production curve will shift altogether and you will also have fewer eggs for
hatching.
birds ‘smell’ that it is spring. An important point
of attention is therefore that the males must be on
their target weight as well. In autumn, the females
are naturally more difficult to stimulate. Therefore,
adapt the management to the season by building
up the lighting schedule faster in autumn than in
spring, but not by starting earlier (as some do).
Light stimulation (Europe)

Advice 2015 Advice 2020
20 weeks 8 hours 8 hours
26 weeks 14 hours 13-14 hours
The advice for light stimulation has continued to develop Overstimulation with feed might lead to increased mortality. This is caused
over the years. The tendency is to stimulate a bit later. by a higher risk of double yolk eggs, causing prolapse which triggers vent
The result is that birds are more mature. This means pecking. You often find victims in the laying nest where they try to hide from
fewer small eggs at the start and the time to peak their attackers.
production is shorter. Peak production is even higher.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 89
Natural light
The advantage of using natural daylight is that no
power is required. However, being entirely reliant
on the sun means that you have no control over
the length of time the birds are exposed to light.
When using natural light it is best to open the cur-
tains after 30 weeks 14 hours of light is generally
advised, 15 hours is still OK, but: 16 hours of day-
light is not recommended because the females are
less persistent and the fertility and hatchability is
worse later in the cycle. Another big disadvantage
of curtain houses is the difficulty in maintaining
sufficient heat in a cold season.
This house has the option of allowing sunlight to enter the house (and closing Different light sources
it). Sunlight stimulates comb development and thereby male fertility. The If the reared birds are used to red light from an
combs have a much darker red colour. In some countries having natural
daylight in the house is required by law.
incandescent lamp and get fluorescent light in the
production facility, they may have problems get-
ting into production. This is because fluorescent
light gives less red light and red light has a posi-
tive effect on the development of sexual maturity.
Yellow/red coloured light brightens the colour of the
red combs. The colour of the comb is an indicator of
health and in the selection of males. This is not easy
to assess in the case of the use of red light.
Slow growing breeds and

stimulation
Dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers re-
quire a different approach regarding stimulation.
The females need less stimulation in order to get
into lay. The light programme is more like for
laying hens: a slow stepdown programme.
At night, the birds should all be roosting on the slats.
Ideal increase in day length is from 8 hours in rearing to 13-14 hours during the laying period
11-12 hours 13-14 hours 15-16 hours
• More floor eggs, broken and dirty eggs • Faster to 50% production • Less persistent production
(hens lay eggs before the light is turned • More eggs due to an early start of • Worse sperm production
on) production • Results are worse (egg production)
• Females heavier at 60 weeks of age (less • More mating in the afternoon and • Higher feed intake
exercise) therefore better fertility and hatchability • Lower fertility and hatchability
Fertility and hatchability rates from birds that get a maximum of 14 hours of light is about 3% higher than in birds that get a maximum of 16 hours of
light. In addition, due to the shorter day length, the birds are more active throughout the day and the shorter day length results in more than 10% lower
energy consumption (and thus lower feed consumption!). However, you should never shorten the day length during the laying period.
Light intensity and floor eggs
Increase the light intensity at the same time as you
extend day length. There is no difference in egg
production between 5 and 500 lux, but the light
intensity should be between 30 and 60 lux at bird
height, so that the females will use the laying nests
(slightly darker environment) and therefore there
will be fewer floor eggs. In addition, increasing the
light intensity stimulates the males to become
sexually mature, increasing the percentage of
fertile eggs. Determining the brightness is always
about finding the right balance. An increased light
intensity has a lowering effect on egg weight. This
is caused by the fact that the females move more
when the light intensity is increased, and therefore
have a higher energy requirement. Modern poultry
houses have at least high frequency fluorescent
light and increasingly LED lights. LED is getting
cheaper every year and requires much less energy
and has a long lifetime.
Of the 13 hours of light, the first 10 hours are the most effective. Give
plenty of light during laying (morning) and dim in the afternoon by the
time birds get bored and restless (pecking). This is called dimming
after lay. In this house there are several lighting systems installed in
Dimmable LED lighting, the colour of which can be order to adjust the light intensity and colour.
adjusted. Red light is used to keep the birds quiet and
prevent feather pecking.
5. P u b e r t y ( 1 7 - 2 2 w e e ks ) 91
CHAPTER 6:
Onset of lay (up to 5% production)
The period from the first egg to 5% production aims to stimulate the females into lay with light and
feed. This is the period where you have to be very alert to prevent floor eggs. In this period nesting
behaviour can be stimulated or spoiled. It is very hard to correct hens once they prefer not to use
the nests. The bird follows its natural behaviour. All you can do, and have to do, is to facilitate the bird
to mutual satisfaction.
Originally, a chicken laid eggs for consecutive days production since the birds differ in readiness
in a row, after which she would start brooding. for production. Try to figure out why your flock
This is like all other fowls. In the modern breeds is coming into production so slowly and act
the hens are selected to produce one egg every accordingly. At least learn from it for the next flock.
day for as long as possible. A series of eggs
without interruption is called a clutch. The fewer
days without an egg the higher the total number.
In a flock the percentage of production represents Tip
the hens which have started laying. The more all
Open the nests some hours before lights on
birds are synchronised the sooner the flock is in
to prevent the nests still being closed when
peak production. expanding the light period. When the birds are
When you notice a slow start that informs you asleep, they won’t go into the nests anyways.
that the flock is uneven and you can expect poor
Laying nests
Make sure that the nests are freely accessible, well
visible, and the water system is close to the nests.
Before the females start laying eggs, they must
have had the opportunity to explore the nests. An
ideal nest is closed from above (chickens have an
instinctive fear of birds of prey), has an illumina-
ted entrance (to allow birds to ensure the lack of
snakes or other predators), no draught on the nest Just before the birds start laying, they should be given the
and has closed areas (behind the flaps). Around opportunity to explore the laying nests.
peak production it is busy at the laying nests.

Make sure you have enough nests available to pre-
vent floor eggs. The standard for a communal nest
is a maximum of 45 hens per linear metre of laying
nest. When using a double row, it is 90 hens per
linear metre of poultry house. In the case of indivi-
dual nests take five hens per nest as a guideline.
Water close to the nest, to attract the hens and a closed Do not open the nests until the females have crouched
area behind flaps. voluntarily, or you find the first floor egg. With a bit of
imagination you can see a heart shape. So, open them at
the moment the first egg is expected, usually about 10-14
days after the start of light stimulation.
The ideal laying nest
Slope to back
Place the nests in a quiet place (centre of the house). Make sure the entrance is spacious enough so that the hen can
easily step in, turn around, and step out. The entrance must be solid and well fixed.
6. O n se t o f l a y ( u p t o 5 % pro du cti o n ) 93
Eat-drink-oviposit
Normal behaviour is EDO: Eat-drink-oviposit.
Keep this in mind when you open the laying nests.
In any case, they must be open before the lights
are switched on.
With this drink cup, the birds drink in small groups, leaving
space in between the cups to pass.
✓
A single drinking line forms a wall, depending on stocking Double drinking line with parts were there are no nipples at
density. Females that would like to lay an egg will not be all. This allows females to move to and from the laying nests,
able to pass, resulting in floor eggs. while others are still drinking.
Individual nests are still used in many houses worldwide. These are mostly old types, with mainly manual egg collection
(left). Most houses have automatic group nests (right) where the eggs roll away immediately after laying. The advantage of
this is that the percentage of floor eggs is low, with better egg hygiene. This improves the quality of the chick.
Check whether the mats in the laying nests are not worn out. An egg should easily roll away once released. Just take an
egg and check it yourself.
Egg laying behaviour Development of the reproductive tract
Make sure the young females feel safe in the nest. More protein and amino acids in the feed are
In nature, the moment of egg-laying is one of the important for the development of the reproductive
most vulnerable moments in a day. This is also the tract. Switch to laying feed at the latest at 5% daily
case in the breeder house because, during laying, production. 5% Production should be around 23/25
other females can peck at the bulging cloaca of weeks (depends of moment of light stimulation).
the egg-laying hen. This is especially the case with During the production period, feed intake is slightly
young hens that get a little too fat. Make sure that controlled to prevent large increases in body
the nests are a little darker than the rest of the weight. Too much feed can cause reproduction
house. problems. Controlled drinking can also be applied,
A bird does not visit a nest to lay an egg! She is but if the birds were given unlimited water during
looking for a nest since she had an ovulation 24 the rearing period, this must also be applied in the
hours ago. Thanks to that you will not have abnor- laying period. You can influence the egg weight by
mal eggs, for instance shell-less eggs, in the nest. stimulating the females a little later. The egg weight
These eggs are found where the birds rested. In depends on the age of maturity and the weight of
slatted floors it is the dropping pit. These eggs the female: low hen weights and early maturity pro-
are usually not noticed and escape attention. duce small eggs; high hen weights and late maturity
Lower than expected egg production can be due to produce large eggs. This is easy to manipulate in
abnormal eggs. advance, but not afterwards.
Make sure that in houses where the birds are both
raised and produced (day old until death) the
nests are closed/covered during the rearing period,
because otherwise the hens will see it as a resting
place and will no longer be interested in the laying
nests by the time they have to use them.
Slow growing breeds and laying

Dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers lay more
eggs than conventional breeds and tend to lay
more all at the same time in the morning. Make sure
there is enough laying nest capacity: 40 females per In houses where automatic egg collection is used, it
linear meter laying nests (80 in case of double-sided is important to switch on the egg conveyors several
central nests). times a day, even before the first egg has been laid in
a new, young flock. This allows the birds to become
accustomed to the noise and vibrations that come with it.
You often find more shell-less eggs at the start of At the beginning of the laying period you will see small
production. They are usually laid at the end of the day eggs (45-50 grams), double yolks or deformed eggs.
due to flock disturbances. Be wary of disturbances as Although they have been fertilised, they are not suitable
the hens are settling down in the evening. Shell-less eggs as hatching eggs. Small eggs always produce small
are seldom found, especially when they are not laid in the chicks. These are also often floor eggs, which are often
nest. They are eaten by the birds or fell through the slats, contaminated with bacteria. Embryos do not develop or
so this signal is one you must watch for carefully. die during the hatching process.
Floor eggs
LOOK-THINK-ACT Floor eggs cause production losses and are a
hygiene risk for the hatchery. Make sure you suf-
ficiently train the females to lay the eggs in the
nests. Attention to detail prevents floor eggs!
Floor eggs give lower hatching results and you see
more early-chick mortality. Indirectly you see a
higher use of antibiotics required in the offspring:
the broilers. Make sure all birds roost on the slats
a week after the transfer. If they don’t do this on
their own, do this manually or chase them onto
the slats with a flashlight. After a few days, they’ll
all sleep on the slats. Make sure that they do not
sleep against the outside wall (= furthest from the
laying nests). This reduces the risk of too many
floor eggs. Normally you see more floor eggs in
the beginning than later in production. This is
Egg shells under slats! due to the inexperience of the birds, as a result
Most of the eggs that fall on the slats, break and are often not found. of which the first eggs often fall on the ground
If you clearly see fresh eggshells under the slatted floor it is only the or on the slats. The hen must first learn where to
tip of the iceberg and you lose much more than you actually see: ea-
sily 1-3% eggs per day of floor eggs can be found on (or often under)
lay her egg. And while some hens lay their eggs
the slats. Rule of thumb: 5% total floor eggs is at least 2.5% losses. in the litter, other hens tend to lay theirs close to
these floor eggs, increasing the problem. Quite
often at the end of the production cycle you can
see the number of floor eggs increase again. Floor
eggs are laid in the litter as well as on the slats.
Tip However, you often don’t find them on the slats
because they are broken there by the chickens. So
If you find too many floor eggs, you could remove all of the litter (and
put it temporarily under the slats) to make the floor less interesting to
pay attention to shells and yolks under the slats
lay eggs. This is applicable in a young flock up to 28 weeks of age. on the manure.
A floor egg on litter invites hens to lay their next eggs beside it. Chickens learn how to eat floor eggs. Prevent this by removing the
Remove floor eggs several times a day so that the females do floor eggs as often as possible.
not feel tempted to lay floor eggs. Just pick them up during your
walkthrough rounds: never go into the house without a basket for
floor eggs.
Dark, secluded corners are the preferred places for floor eggs. Floor eggs on the slats just in front of the laying nests. This was
Increase the light intensity between 30 and 60 lux to prevent floor caused by an electrified wire above the drinking lines in order to
eggs. Make sure that the last light source in the house is located keep birds off. Chickens are very sensitive to electromagnetic fields
close to the wall. At construction, the first and last light source are and prefer not to pass underneath the drinkers to the nests. Never
often two metres from the front and rear wall, thus preventing a use electrified wires in a poultry house!
good light distribution in the corners of the house!
The lighting in this house is not good, creating a shady area next to By hanging a light source a little bit differently you can prevent
the slatted floor. You will probably find floor eggs here. shady places.
You sometimes find eggs under the feeding pans. Chickens like Eggs under the feed chain. This sometimes happens when birds
to sit under something when they lay eggs, which is probably an are fed at a time when they should be laying eggs. The desire to
instinct to protect wild birds from predation (birds of prey). eat overrules the need to find a laying nest.
Train the females to Preventing floor eggs
use the laying nests. The first two weeks in the production house deter-
mine the result. You can’t unlearn bad habits.
Prevention is the best solution!
Avoid alternative
laying spots.
Make sure there’s peace and quiet around the laying

nests.
Prevention of floor eggs

Phase Action
During rearing • Teach the chicks to jump in order to learn how to use the laying nests.
• Use the same feeding and drinking systems in rearing and laying.
• Place platforms/perches from 4-6 weeks.
• Place drinkers above the platforms/perches.
• Ensure a light intensity of at least 10-20 lux (stimulates activity and use of the platforms).
• Do not use electric wires above the feed and water, this will prevent birds from learning to use their
environment.
During the production period • Place the birds directly on the slats after they have been moved.
• Keep the nests, slats and perches clean.
• Open the nest at least one hour before lights on.
• Close the nest an hour before the lights switch off.
• Make sure the opening is large enough.
• Provide a slat height of up to 25-30 cm and less than 5% slope.
• Keep a maximum of 45 females per linear metre of nest.
• At the start of the laying period, collect floor eggs at least five times a day to keep new eggs from being
laid next to the already present floor eggs.
• Take the light programme from the rearing house as a starting point for the layer house.
• Open the nests at the first signs of crouching. Females are curious and will explore the nests.
Feed and water management • Avoid feeding at the time of oviposition.
• Do not place an electric wire above feed and water.
• Lift up empty feed lines.
Housing • Distribute the light evenly throughout the house.
• Avoid moderately lit areas or shadows.
• Avoid draughts in the nest boxes.
• Distribute ventilation evenly through the house.
• Avoid high bird density.
• Make sure the laying nests are dark with a light opening.
Male behaviour • Synchronise the maturity stage of males and females.
• Avoid over-mating (too many males).
98 • Place the male feeding systems far away from the nests. Bre e d e r S i gnal s
Night-layers Influence of male feeding systems’ location on % floor eggs
The moment of lights off is the signal when a
8
hen starts making an egg. So if you turn off the
lights for too long, the hen will lay the egg while 7
the nests are still closed. Keeping the light on for
6
an extra hour also solves the problem: the egg is
Floor eggs (%)

therefore laid later. Or switch the lights on an hour 5
earlier in the morning. In other words: shorten the male feeders against slats
4
night. You’ll wake these females up sooner so they
can go to the nests. 3
2
male feeders against outer wall
1
0
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Age (weeks)
If the male feeding systems are placed far away from the laying nests, the
percentage of floor eggs decreases. The males in front of the nests are an
obstacle for the laying hens.
LOOK-THINK-ACT
How did this happen?
You turn on the light and find a lot of eggs on the slats, especi-
ally just in front of the laying nests. These floor eggs were laid by
night-layers, when the nests were still closed. Immediately extend
the length of the day. You can also apply twilight lighting (2 hours
before the main lighting is switched on), so that the hens that want
to lay an early egg are able to find the nest.
After closing the nests, make sure that no birds got stuck in the nest and that there are no dead hens in the nest! If you find dead birds
on the nest, take them away and disinfect the nest.
Example of feed intake targets Male feed during production period
180 From the start of the production period, weigh
10% of the males weekly or a minimum of 30
males per side of the house or compartment. Aim
Feed intake (g/bird/day)
160 for the males to reach the recommended weight at

female
30 weeks. Don’t let them get too heavy. The males
must increase their weight sufficiently in the
140
period up to 30 weeks. From this period onwards,
the increase in weight should be limited, but the
male males should not lose weight at any time, as this
120
has a negative impact on the production of sperm.
After 35 weeks, the feed supply for the males
100 should always be increased, this can even exceed
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 the feed supply (especially with low energy feed
Age (weeks) for the males) of the females. If the feeding system
Whereas the feed supply for males is gradually increasing, for the females it has of the males works optimally, the feed per male
to decrease after the laying peak in order to prevent females getting too fat. can be as much as 200 grams per bird per day.
In the beginning of the laying period, increase the
amount of feed for the females every day in small
steps from 2 to 3 grams per week. Large changes
can lead to intestinal problems or fattening. Males
usually eat their daily feed within 20-40 minutes
and then have time left to steal from the females.
Use a catching frame in order to get a good sample of at least 30 males to

weigh. Weigh all birds in the frame, otherwise you might miss the small birds
that always tend to hide and then you don’t have a representative picture of
development.
✓ ~
Use a wing clamp for weighing. That is much more bird friendly than hanging them from the legs. And never hang them from one leg!

Feeding time Egg production pattern
During rearing, in most cases the birds are used peak daily production
to being fed immediately after the light has been 100 4-5 hours after lights on
switched on. Keep doing this at the beginning of 90
feeding 0-1 hours
the laying period! This prevents stress, because 80
after lights on
Production (%)
chickens are birds of habit. Make sure you are pre- 70
sent during feeding time for observation. 60
50 feeding 6-7 hours
During the laying period there are roughly two
40 after lights on
options for feeding time: 30
1. Feed immediately after switching on the light. 20 lights on
Provide drinking water at the same time as 10
the light. In this way, the feed lines are empty 0
before the majority of the eggs are laid. A big 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (hours)
advantage of feeding in the morning is that
Adapt your management to the moment of egg-laying. Provide rest around the
on hot days you have no problems with feed
time of egg-laying and do not feed. Otherwise you pull the birds away from
intake. The feed intake during warm periods of the nest and eggs will be laid on the slats around the feeding systems. So you
the day will be lower. The disadvantage is that start feeding either 0-1 hours after lights on, or 6-7 hours after lights on.
more birds tend to defaecate in the nest.
2. Feed 6 to 7 hours after lights on and about
half an hour after water is provided. This way
you feed after most of the eggs have been laid.
Make sure you have sufficient water supply
capacity (especially in summer). The birds only
have about 6-7 hours to drink, check the crop
before the lights are switched off! This system
is more vulnerable if feed or water systems do
not work properly (increased mortality).
Chickens are conditioned and will know when to expect the feed, after some
time. Make sure the feed is distributed over the entire feeding system within
three minutes. This will reduce stress and improve uniformity.
Make sure the sensor on the hopper is working properly If the houses are longer than 50 metres, it is best to fill the feeding system from
so the system does not run empty. Otherwise it will take the centre of the house in both directions. You can also fill from several places in
too much time to fill up again. the house, by placing extra hoppers. In any case, make sure that the distance
between the beginning of the feed line and the end is as short as possible.

Water consumption pattern at different flock ages Capacity of the feed/water system
With controlled feeding, the pressure on your fee-
ding and drinking system is high. During this peri-
od, make sure there is plenty of space for eating
and drinking. This stops after about 25/26 weeks
Water consumption
25 weeks
with a feed ration of about 150 grams.
30 weeks At a younger age, you see a lot of activity just after
feeding has started. But as soon as the feed intake
is at satiation level, the urge to eat quickly decrea-
ses. They then eat a little slower and more spread
out over time, which makes it less crowded at the
feeders.
07:00 07:30 08:00 08:30 09:00 09:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00
Time
With young birds (25 weeks), there is a peak in water intake after feeding
because they are still under strict feed control, so all eat at the same time and
subsequently all drink at the same time. The system must have the capacity
to provide for the top demand, not the average. Drinking behaviour changes
as the birds move towards satiated feeding; there is more time for feeding and
drinking. At 30 weeks the water intake per hour is more constant.
Make sure that you have enough feeding space so that all birds can Especially at the beginning of the laying period, the birds experience
access the feed properly and that they do not experience any stress a lot of stress during feeding because they were used to eating
or get pushed out of the way. This creates more peace and better the feed quickly during rearing as a result of controlled feeding.
feathering. If you see hens pacing up and down the line, it might be Therefore, feed in the dark. The birds are calmer and you can
too crowded. distribute the feed more easily. There are fewer accidents and fewer
problems with feathering.

Growth and condition
In addition to the daily check-up rounds, walk
through the flock at least once a week purely to
check the physical condition. Do this with more
than 25 females, feeling the breast meat and
looking at the foot pads. Also pick up more than
10 males to assess the breast meat and general
condition. The most important period to do this
for females is between 20 and 30 weeks of age.
Males must be properly monitored throughout the
production period.
Monitoring growth is very important. If the males grow too fast now, they will
become much too have later. Males with too much breast meat have difficulties
keeping their balance while mating. This results in less successful matings.
Breast meat and lysine

Lysine stimulates the development of breast meat. With a surplus of
breast meat, males can become much less stable (heavy front). For
good mating behaviour, it is desirable to provide less lysine for males.
In addition, breast meat consists of muscle tissue. Muscle tissue
needs a lot of energy for maintenance. This costs extra feed.
Review the development of the breast on a weekly basis.
The rapid increase in feed intake (and switch to protein- This feeder is empty. Controlled feeding is applied until peak production to
rich feed) at the beginning of the laying period often avoid rapid growth. After the peak the amount of feed is closer to the satiety
results in wetter droppings. In addition to the switch itself, level of the females, so there is less stress around feeding. If the birds don’t
this is because the surplus protein that must be excreted grow enough, you give them a gram extra.
(in the form of uric acid) for which water is required. If the birds grow too fast, you give one gram less.

CHAPTER 7:
Production towards peak
From 5% daily production to peak production, it is essential to promote and support reproduction during the
laying cycle. In addition, it is also the period to make sure hens lay in the nests and not on the floor. Monitor
the development of the birds as much as possible. Do not just monitor weight gain of males and females,
but also their nesting and mating behaviour. Also watch the distribution of the males and females.
In practice, it is very critical to provide energy and Birds that receive more feed than necessary for
protein according to the birds’ needs. In this initial egg production and growth will increase their
period it is quite a challenge to feed every bird weight considerably. They are just not sexually
according to its requirements, because production mature enough at that moment (overstimulation).
increases very rapidly from 5% to over 80% within The eggs of these females will be of poor qual-
a few weeks. On top of that, this increase is not ity (many double yolks), with a poor hatchability
uniform for all birds. When the average production and an increased risk of peritonitis and prolapsed
is 50%, the production of many females is already cloaca.
80%, while others are just starting. If you increase In practice, you feed a bit more than production
the amount of feed exactly in accordance with the would justify (anticipate expected production).
average laying percentage, the highly-productive To prevent the birds from gaining weight too
birds are being fed below their requirements. This quickly, you need to increase the daily feed allo-
makes it very clear how important it is to have a cation by small amounts, but every day, starting
uniform flock in all aspects. from 5% daily production.

Eating behaviour Example: pattern of feed adjustments in relation
Make sure that all birds have access to the feed to egg production
simultaneously. If birds do run from one place to daily weekly steady state (feather loss =
the other it is a signal that everything is not OK. adjustments adjustments more energy requirement)
The more dominant birds will have access to the
feed first and then the less dominant ones. Also egg production
the speed of the feeding system can scare off

birds, but some of them are not afraid and will feed ration
eat. This also creates stress, so let the system run
Egg production
in the dark, especially with speeds over 20 meters/
minute.
These differences in eating behaviour are causes
for developing an uneven flock, especially an une-
ven development of the lower-class birds. These
birds, often already with a lower body weight, will
then lag behind in further growth.
At about 60% daily production (around 25-26 Age (weeks)
weeks) you reach the maximum feed intake which
Until onset of lay, you adjust the feed level weekly. Between onset and peak
is close to the satiation level of the bird. The birds daily and after the peak you can go back to weekly adjustments. This allows
will be a lot calmer by then. During peak produc- you to make the most accurate adjustments during the critical period.
tion, they are at about 90% of their maximum feed
intake capacity.
If (peak) production does not increase for one or
two weeks, reduce the feed by 1 gram per female
per week to prevent fattening. Monitor growth
using the management guidelines of the breeding
company. If the birds grow: reduce the feed by
1 gram!
Laying is leading (example)
Creatures of habit
Chickens are creatures of habit. Make sure that Laying rate Feed ration
you keep your choice of raw materials the same 5% 130 g
as much as possible when changing feed between 15% 137 g
phases. This keeps the taste recognisable and 25% 144 g
familiar and makes it easier for the chickens to 35% 151 g
continue eating. This also prevents digestive pro- 45% 158 g
blems. Protein can be obtained from, for example, 55% 164 g
soy or rapeseed meal, but the taste is completely 65% 170 g
different, as you’ll find out as soon as you switch 75% 170 g
from one to the other. 85% 170 g
During rearing you adjust the feed according to body weight, during
laying the laying percentage is the guideline until at 60-65% the
Flock weight is decreasing. maximum feed level is reached. For example: on 5% production
What should you do? you provide 130 grams, the peak being 170 grams. You divide this
40-gram increase over the projected 60% rise in egg production, so
When the weight of the flock and/or the 10% an increase of approximately 0.6-0.7 grams of feed increase per %
lightest females decreases, you increase the feed production. In fact, this is based on the energy requirements of the
ration once by 3-5 grams per female per day. bird, so it is better to use joules/calories as a measure.
7. P ro d u c t i o n t o w a rd s peak 105
Feeding management Feeding early lay
There is much more to determining the daily It can be difficult to control the body weight of
amount of feed than the bird’s age. You must con- the males properly, because during this period the
sider the needs of the birds, their level of produc- males are increasingly excluded from the females
tion and the egg weights, as well as the weight of feeding systems. Therefore, determine the average
the birds themselves. Watching behaviour at fee- body weight and the weight gain of the males at
ding time provides a lot of information and there- least once a week. Also check their condition as
fore it can help a lot in adjusting the management you walk through the poultry house.
accordingly. This information is usually one step Females at this time are eating for longer and
ahead of production perfomance. longer periods as the feeding rate approaches
The combination of production, bird weight, their satiety. This gives males more opportunities
and egg weight are always leading indicators for to steal feed. This is a crucial time to control the
the actual daily amount of feed. In very produc- males’ weight; they should not become too heavy,
tive flocks, it is important to give enough feed but certainly not lose weight. Males hardly have
to maintain that production, but also when egg any fat reserves. If they do not get enough feed,
weight and/or weight gains are below target levels. the weight of the testicles will decrease because
Prevent the development of too much breast meat, the fat reserves will be used there as well, which
because the maintenance of breast meat is rela- will result in a poorer sperm quality. Comb colour
tively ‘expensive’. For maintenance of 100 grams (blue) and activity are signals of (too much) feed
of body weight, 9 kcal is needed, for 100 grams of control. Before the laying peak 45-80% of the maxi-
breast meat it is twice as much. Be aware that a mum feed intake capacity is provided, after the
lot of body weight is determined by the abdominal laying peak this remains at a level of 80% of the
cavity. This develops between 23-30 weeks of age. unlimited feed intake capacity.
Calcium
Provide calcium, added to the feed, as soon as the
hens start laying eggs (from 22-24 weeks). In order
to make eggs with a strong shell, a considerable
amount of calcium is required. The hen gets cal-
cium from her bones (30%) and from the feed.
Linoleic acid
There’s more linoleic acid in the first laying feed.
This gives heavier eggs due to a higher yolk weight
(more nutrients for the chick). Especially in combi- Leaning feed pans. Females can only eat on one side, so
nation with more TSAA (methionine and cystine). poor feed distribution and insufficient feeding space. You
can see the same with round drinkers, especially with a
steep slatted floor.
Example of key feed characteristics in various phases
Pre-lay 5%-35 35-50 50-60
weeks weeks weeks
Energy (kcal) 2,750 2,850 2,850 2,850
Lysine 0.49 0.57 0.53 0.49
Methionine + Cystine 0.48 0.56 0.54 0.51
Crude protein 14 15 14 13
Crude fat 3.5-4.5 4-5 4-5 4-5
Calcium 1.2 3 3.2 3.4
Linoleic acid 1.00 1.50 1.25 1.25
At the beginning of the laying period there is a need for more energy, amino
acids, protein, crude fat and, of course, calcium. While the next feed phase The hens must be able to select the limestone particles
is mainly lower in protein and amino acids (keep egg weight low and don’t let so that they can absorb calcium as required. The particle
birds produce too much breast meat) but equal energy (high BW) and a little size must be at least 2 mm for optimal absorbability.
more calcium (for stronger shells). Good sources of calcium are chalk and limestone.
106
Monitoring behaviour
The most underestimated monitoring tool is the
behaviour of the chickens. Especially during feeding,
it is important to be present to observe the flock.
That way the chickens give signals about:
• Whether there is enough feeder space
• Whether the feed is distributed equally over
the house
• Whether the females are afraid of the males
• Whether the males are looking more at each
other rather than at the females
• Whether the nests are used equally
Keep in mind that it is hard to change behaviour.
It is preferable to deal with it and to adapt the
housing and management. Automatic weighing works well for females, but not for males. They walk
around all the time and it is not in their behaviour to stand still on a weighing
platform. So males always have to be weighed manually.
Combined signals when feeding the females:
• Development of daily production - daily
• Feed intake speed of the females
(clean up-time) - daily
• Body weight increase - weekly for manual
weighing, daily for automatic weighing
• Quality of the feathering of the females - weekly
• Weight development of the lightest females in
the flock (uniformity).
• Condition/confirmation - weekly
• Egg weight - daily
A height indicator in practice, so the feeding line hangs on the same height
from the litter layer. Especially when you lift them up after each feeding and
have to let them down at the next feeding. When birds grow, of course you
have to change the length of the chain accordingly.
Feed systems are often lifted during daytime. To put it back at the correct height, connecting a chain on the feeder is a helpful tool.
Also since the thickness of the litter increases over time (because of the droppings), a chain is a good measure to check the height.
Manual weighing system
A catching frame allows you to catch a lot of birds
at once for individual weighing. This gives you
a good idea of the average weight in the flock.
Try to do this each time exactly the same way: at
the same two or three places in the house and
at a fixed time of day to get more reliable results
(about same group, same crop fill). In addition,
a catching frame helps you to remain objective.
If you caught individual birds, there is a chance
that you would miss the fast (and possibly ligh-
ter) females. Slow and less vital birds are easier
to catch. Or unconsciously you always catch the
largest bird within reach. In this way, you might
Make sure you weigh all animals in your catching frame. Since especially the make a selection that is not representative of the
smaller animals tend to hide and that would give you a false average weight. flock as a whole. Unfed weighing is preferable, but
in the morning the hen has to lay an egg and is
usually fed immediately when the light goes on.
So do this 6-8 hours after feeding.
Automatic weighing system

By weighing the birds automatically, you get a
good picture of the growth pattern. This is now
more important than absolute weight. Keep in
mind that the average weight measured is higher
because the birds are weighed automatically
throughout the day, and therefore also just after
eating and drinking with a full gastrointestinal
tract. On average, from the moment of complete
feed control, the weight is 106-107% of the ‘empty’
weight. You could also programme the automatic
weighing system in such a way that it only records
weights during certain times of the day (prior
to feeding). With automatic weighing you can’t
With automatic weighing you have to take into account when the weighing always be sure whether you are weighing a female
takes place: before or after feeding. You can choose to only include the or a male. Their weights must be different enough
weighings prior to feeding to get a reliable average. for this, but in fact, the growth curves overlap.
So, heavy females are assumed to be males and
males that are too light will be seen as females.
Manually weighing males remains a necessity.

Signals of feed intake time Development of egg weight
The time it takes every day to finish the feed, from
distribution to empty feeding system, is a signal
of whether the flock is getting enough energy. The
actual daily egg weight
feed intake time depends on age, temperature,
Egg weight
feed quantity, physical characteristics of the feed,
density of the feed components and composition, egg weight target
and the quality of the raw materials. Normally,
the feed intake time around peak production is
between 2 and 4 hours, at a room temperature
of 20-22°C. If there is a sudden deviation in feed
intake time, this may be due to reduced feed qual-
180 185 190 195 200 205 210
ity, incorrect feed quantities, health problems or
Age (days)
water supply problems.
A fast-running system prevents birds from walking The fluctuations in the daily egg weights are a signal of whether the nutrients
are being absorbed properly. In case of insufficient absorption, you will see
around while the system is running. Some of the a decrease in egg weight, an excess will be reflected in an increase in egg
birds do eat out of a fast running system, others do weight. It is normal for the curve to show small fluctuations, due to variation
not dare to do so. In a slow-moving system, filling in eggs and environmental influences. Collect this data from the moment the
hens reach 10% production. Use an average of a few days or a week in order
up in the dark helps to completely fill up the feed to get an accurate understanding of the situation.
system without competition for feed and feed selec-
tion: birds eat less quickly in the dark.
Malnutrition signal
If the birds do not get enough nutrients, the first
thing you will notice is that the egg weights do
not increase for 3-4 days and the egg weights start
to deviate from the target weights. If the peak
feed rate has not yet been reached, move the next LOOK-THINK-ACT
increase forward to correct this. If the peak feed
amount has already been reached, increase by an
additional 3 to 5 grams per female for three days
and see what happens.
Monitoring egg weight

Weigh a representative number of eggs, 120 (4
trays) – 150 (hatchery tray), at once. Use the
eggs that you collect directly from the nest in
the second round of collecting to prevent you
from weighing eggs that were laid the day before.
Remove the double yolks, small eggs and abnor-
mal eggs (e.g. soft-shelled eggs, cracked eggs)
before weighing. It is important to weigh eggs
from about the same place in the house. The time
of day is also important. Morning eggs are a little What do oversized eggs tell you?
heavier than lunch eggs. Watch out! Don’t forget
This flock lays a lot of big eggs. Oversized eggs, especially in the
to subtract the weight of the tray(s) or setter tray second part of the production period are a signal of overfeeding.
from the total weight. Check the feeding schedule.
Signals of feeding errors
To know if you are feeding well, the numbers can
help but you must first observe the birds. Males
that are slow and listless, with reduced activity
and which crow less are underfed. This is where
you need to intervene immediately. Check the feed
intake time, feed space per bird, and the separate
feeding systems. To be on the safe side, weigh the
birds again, even if no alarming values have been
obtained before. Then provide 3 to 5 grams of
extra feed per male per day. The next stage is that
the comb and the wattles become limp. The males
that lose weight and condition, lose colour in their
face, ornamentation and cloaca, and they can start
If there is not enough feed during the laying period or just after the peak, the moulting. No recovery is possible at this stage.
females may become broody. Characteristics of broodiness: hens refuse to If you observe broodiness in females, increase the
leave the laying nest, are aggressive towards humans and birds. Set up wings
and feathers, sitting on one or more eggs, making a typical sound to indicate
feed before it is too late. And look for the cause. Is
that they are under attack. it in one part of the house? Check the feed supply
and composition!
This male looks OK at first sight, but if you look more closely you see it looks An all-blue comb can be a signal of too much feed
a bit blueish around the eye, which is a signal for malnutrition. If you have a restriction. Check this in combination with condition/
separate male pen, you can exchange males and put this one in conformation.
a recovery pen.
Signals of feeding errors in the females during laying

Too little Too much
Crude protein Decreased egg size and number. Poor chick quality Increased egg size and lower hatchability. Increased
from young flocks metabolic stress during hot weather conditions
Energy Body weight, egg size and egg number will decre- Increased double yolks, increased egg size.
ase unless feed quantity is adjusted Late fertility/hatchability decreased too fast
Lysine, methionine and cystine Decreased egg size and number Increased egg size and increased breast meat
Linoleic acid Decreased egg size Increased egg size
Calcium Poor shell quality Reduced availability of nutrients
Available phosphorous Reduced egg production and hatchability. Reduced Poor shell quality
bone ash in chicks

Monitoring the flock
When the daily egg weight lags behind the optimal LOOK-THINK-ACT
curve, males might be eating with the females,
especially when the females are between 50% egg
production per day and the laying peak. In that
case the males become too heavy and the females
too light. That is why it is important to monitor
both the egg weights and the weights of the fema-
les on a daily basis. The signals of this in terms
of body development normally occurs earlier but
requires more expertise to assess. Weigh males
What do I see here?
manually every week, all through the cycle. Males
must not lose weight! Losing weight indicates The male on the left has shrunken testicles. Shrunken testicles
insufficient feed quantity or health problems. indicate decreased fertility. That is why a male should never lose
weight, because the testicles shrink rapidly and the male is less fertile.
Weighing gives you the first signal but, in the end, Males that lose weight and start moulting rarely become good males.
you mainly look at weight in combination with This is certainly true for overweight males that lose weight.
condition and conformation. The testicles should be well filled and well developed. In order to
achieve this, the entire flock of males is kept in a condition of slight
but continuous growth.
A signal that a male is eating from the Bridomat-hen This is an example of bad feed distribution. It is overcrowded at the beginning of
feeding system is the grey discolouration of the back of the feed chain and at the end there are no chickens (left on photo). By this time
the male’s head, comb and wattles. They force their way the chain is either empty or there is only bad quality feed left.
in and sometimes the wattles get stuck in the spiral.
Slow growing breeds and feeding

Dwarf females for slow(er) growing broilers
consume less feed during the production period,
due to a lower need for maintenance. This
means that the concentration of nutrients - es-
pecially amino acids - in the feed should be a bit
higher than for conventional breeders.
Males must always be taller than the females in the house. If they don’t stand
out, something is wrong.
Drinking water
Check the water intake daily! Always provide water
at the same time as feeding. This water must
remain available for at least two hours after the
feed is finished. A good habit is to provide an
extra hour of water at the end of the day before
the light goes out as a lure to make them sleep on
the slats. Birds who want to, can go up for a drink.
Keep the waterline clean by flushing and cleaning
it regularly. Because consumption is not the same
all the time, there is a greater risk of contamina-
tion (biofilm, for example). Biofilms are mainly
caused by supplements (medicines, electrolytes,
Test the water regularly and also remember to swab the inside of the pipe. vitamins etc.) added to the drinking water.
Provide a good cleaning protocol during the production period and during the
period the house is empty. Bell drinkers require different maintenance than
nipples. Think of cleaning with peroxide, compressed air in combination with
water, etc.
An automatic nipple rinsing system contributes to good water quality. The pipe In order to get a good picture of the water quality, it is
never empties completely, the nipples are screwed in the pipe and there is important that you take samples as close as possible to
always a small layer of water. You can keep this clean by flushing it. the point where the birds are drinking. This way, not only
do you know what the quality of the source is, but you
also have an idea about the quality of the pipes.
Biofilm, a thin conglomeration of pathogens in the water pipe
1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
1. Pathogens attach 2. Pathogens stick to each 3. The biofilm grows. 4. Particles of biofilm break
themselves to a surface. other by forming glue-like off and the pathogens spread
compounds. through the water pipe.

If you wouldn’t dare to drink the water from the nipples
yourself or give it to your own children, why would you
give it to your birds?
Check at least 20 birds in the house every day for water

intake. You can feel the crop to see if the content feels
mushy. Check this throughout the house (front, middle
and back) and at the same time of the day. Preferably in
the afternoon, 2-3 hours before the light goes out, while
there is still time to provide extra water before the light
goes out. Each bird should drink sufficient water to digest
the feed properly.
A good measure of the amount of water in the bell A single wire stretched over a drinking line often does not prevent
drinkers is half a thumbnail depth (approx. 1 cm). This birds from sitting on it. A double wire will... Don’t forget to tighten the
guarantees a sufficient water level but prevents waste. wire frequently.
Feeding time and heat stress Heat stress
44 The temperature in the house should preferably
peak of temps 30 minutes
after feeding be around 20°C, with little fluctuations in the
43 minimum and maximum temperature (max. 6-8°C
Core body temperature (°C)
per 24 hours). Chickens have a so-called thermo

42 neutral zone, or comfort zone. This is the ambient
temperature at which the chicken can easily main-
41
tain its body at the right temperature. This thermo
39 neutral zone is between 18 and 27°C.
When it is warmer than the upper critical tempe-
38 lowest temps midnight temps began to rise 2 hours rature (27°C), the chicken must work to lose more
and 3:00 am before lights on heat to keep the body temperature constant. The
0
moment the chicken doesn’t manage to do this,
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
her body temperature will rise.
Time (days)
With heat stress, you immediately see a lower egg
In case of heat stress, do not feed during the day but very early in the morning
or feed less (temporarily), since digestion releases energy, heating up the birds
production and sometimes increased mortality.
even more. The coolest moment of the day is often two hours before sunrise. The There will also be poorer fertility, but you will see
hottest moment is 3-4 hours after solar noon (highest position of the sun), so at that later in the cycle.
noon the feeding system – and preferably also the crop – must be empty.
Heat loss
The capacity of the chicken to release its heat
depends on both environmental and bird factors.
Drinking in hot climates
• Environmental factors: A high wind speed,
It’s hot in the poultry house, yet the birds do not want to drink. This low relative air humidity and a large difference
happens when the water temperature is higher than 40°C (105°F).
in temperature between the bird and the
Check the temperature of the drinking water. Or there may be an
unpleasant taste to the water (incorrect dosage of acid/medication or environment ensure that the bird can easily
other additives). Rinse the pipes with fresh water and keep the water lose heat. Conversely, the effect of a high
temperature between 18 and 21°C.
For fewer problems during hot days, it is advisable to provide the feed
ambient temperature on the body temperature
and water immediately after the light is turned on. of chickens can be enhanced by a high level of
humidity (> 60%).
• Bird factors: age, volume/surface ratio, body
weight, growth rate, possible egg production,
condition of the plumage (insulation) and
behaviour.
A chicken that is warm will try to lose heat by panting, dustbathing (looking for a cooler layer in the litter) and by keeping her wings away
from her body.

High temperature + high humidity = HEAT STRESS Effect of heat stress on egg production and fertility
The result of the sum of temperature and humidity
gives an indication of the amount of heat stress a fertility
bird is suffering. A comfortable value is 90.
Rule of thumb: Above 100 = heat stress.
Production/fertility
Above 115 points for a longer period, the birds
egg production
die. heat stress moment
Age (weeks)
When the temperature suddenly rises, you first see a dip in the production
rate, followed by a dip in fertility.
You’ll see more dead birds when it is hot. But in addition, a large number of the birds suffer from heat stress, which also costs reproduction in the long
run (fewer eggs and lower fertility). Rule of thumb: 1 chicken dead = 10 chickens almost dead.
Temperature Comfort zone

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
100 The ideal relative humidity is 50-70%. Heat stress is caused
Danger by a combination of high humidity and temperature, where the
95
chicks can no longer lose their heat by panting, because the
90 air around them is already saturated. Try to keep the birds in
85
their comfort zone: the green belt. If you reach the red area,
birds will die. In the blue area the bird suffers from cold stress,
80 especially if poorly feathered. So, if the room temperature is
Humidity
75
below 18°C, increase feed intake.
70
95 Muggy
65
60 85
H. Rodenboog
55 Comfortable
50
45
Too low
Cooling in the house
In order to prevent heat stress when outside tem- Additional measures
peratures are high, a cooling system must be in
Feed
place to ensure that the house temperature never • Feed at the coolest time of the day (as early
exceeds the upper limit of the thermo neutral as possible).
zone. Examples of cooling systems are fogging/ • Provide less feed (-10 to -15%).
From 26-30°C 2 g per °C, from 30°C
misting or pad-cooling. The effective temperature 3 g per °C.
can also be lowered by using tunnel ventilation • Turn off the water every now and then in
(wind-chill). order to get cool water to the birds.
Water
Options when using fogging/misting: • Make sure that the birds always have fresh
• Inside or outside. Indoor cooling by mist is and clean water at their disposal.
more effective than outdoor cooling. • Add bicarbonate and vitamin C with
electrolytes to the water. Start this one day
• Above the incoming air. before it gets warm.
• Low (10 bar, 30 microns)/medium (35 bar; 100- Ventilation
• Ensure sufficient ventilation capacity
15 microns)/high pressure (60 bar; 5 microns).
(> 3.6 m³ per kg body weight).
Preferably high pressure because a fine mist • Make sure that the negative pressure is
evaporates quickly and the houses hardly get maintained.
• Make sure the air inlets and fans are clean.
wetter.
• Avoid blind spots.
Effective temperature is a combination of tem- • Create air speed at bird level (stimulate
perature, humidity and wind movement. Up to 3 evaporative cooling).
Lighting
meters per second is used in hot climates. This • Leave the lights on somewhat longer at
has a strong cooling effect. the end of the day, so that the birds remain
scattered in the house and are still able to
find water (temporarily extend the length of
the day).
Cooling
• Start cooling well before the hottest
moment of the day, at approx. 27°C room
temperature.
Example of atomisation cooling. Pad cooling is used in warm climates with dry air
(RH < 80%). Air is drawn through a water-saturated filter
and cools the air by evaporation. A point of attention is the
retention of minerals (especially calcium) after evaporation.
Rinse the pads frequently. At high humidity levels, you can
get ‘wet’ wind with negative consequences for bird health.

Signals from the laying curve Relation egg production, hatchability and number of chicks
By nature, hens always lay their eggs in a series 100 6
of consecutive eggs: a so-called clutch of eggs. 90
hatchability 5
Chick production (chicks/hen/week)

Because the formation of egg takes a little more
Egg production / Hatchability (%)

80
than 24 hours, the birds skip a day at a certain
70 egg production
point. At the peak the egg production is between 4
60
85 and 90%.
Compared to laying hens, breeders have a higher 50 3
chicks/week
urge to lay eggs in the beginning of the laying 40
period. More follicles are released. As a result, 2
30
you often see a lot of double yolks: the signal for
20
a high peak production. If you have more than 6% 1
10
double yolks, it could be a signal of over-stimulati-
on with feed or light. 0 0
22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 58
The peak of the egg production is around 85-90%
Time (weeks)
between 28 and 32 weeks. At that moment the
The peak in hatchability and chick production is later than the peak in egg
focus is on the viability of the chicks and the
production. Therefore, feed intake after the laying peak should not drop
weight of the chicks. If the peak in feed is reached too quickly to avoid a negative energy balance with adverse effects on egg
too late, this could have a negative effect on chick production, fertility and chick quality. If a negative energy balance lasts longer,
broodiness may also occur.
quality. The peak of hatchability is a bit later, at
the age of 34-38 weeks.
It is common that many hens sit together on a laying nest. This is not a signal
of overcrowding but natural behaviour to sit together.
Relation production at 30 weeks and total production Relation mortality at 30 weeks and total production
200 200
Number of eggs at 60 weeks
Number of eggs at 60 weeks
190 190
180 180
170 170
160 160
150 150
140 140
23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Number of eggs at 30 weeks Mortality at 30 weeks (%)
Many poultry farmers use the number of eggs at the age of 30 weeks in order to predict total production. However, the number of eggs at
30-35 weeks is not a good predictor for the total number of eggs at 60 weeks of age. Mortality around 30-35 weeks is a better indicator
because birds that die do not lay eggs and it is a signal of the overall quality of the flock!
117
Posture Male grading
Up to 30 weeks, you must selectively remove
males that are inactive and have bad legs. Males
straight neck that exhibit non-dominant behaviour should also
be removed, for example, males that run away,
are afraid, stay on the slats, or stay in front of or
upright tail steep back
in the laying nests. These only cost feed and have
no added value. After 30 weeks you should start to
straight line grade those males with incorrect posture, which
from beak
to toes are not actively mating, or that are very heavy.
The males must have the following characteristics:
• Uniformity in body weight
• No physical abnormalities
• Alert and active, upright position
• Strong, straight legs and toes
A good male has a dominant, upright posture. With an • Good muscle tone and condition
upright tail, straight back and straight line from the tip of
the toe to the beak. A steep back indicates a physically
• Beautiful red, firm comb and wattles and moist
better build to mate (balance), which attracts females. cloaca are signals of mating behaviour
✓
Males should have a straight back and upright tail. Remove males with an arched or bent back.
An arched back, caused by a deformation of the back The angle between neck and back is too small, which is
(enterococcus infection, kinky back), making the chance not a good posture of the male.
of a successful mating very small.
Male hierarchy and competition
The percentage of males at transfer is about 9-11%
and this is reduced by grading and mortality of
males. At the start of production around 23 weeks
of age, approximately 8-9% of males are present in
the flock. The reasons for grading males for remov-
al are absence of mating behaviour or health prob-
lems such as leg problems. Approximately 15-30%
of the males are selected during the production
period. Often farmers increase the number of
males in order to have sufficient males left at the
end of production. However, this might become
a vicious circle: too many males will cause more
competition and fights (= less mating), increasing
male mortality. So you will use even more males Males and females choose each other by comb size and colour. These
next time, causing... external features may be an indication of health and fertility. A female with a
large, fleshy comb has more sex. She also receives 50% more sperm per
ejaculation than a female with a small comb.
Dominance and mating results

3.5 mounts
3.0
2.5
Acts/male/hour
2.0 completed matings
1.5 interfering
1.0
0.5 interfered with
0
subordinate intermediate dominant
Dominance category
The most dominant males mate more often and deliver Males that are at the bottom of the hierarchy or that are afraid sometimes will
more offspring than lower-ranking males. hide in the nests. That’s not desirable, they contaminate the nests and scare
off the females. Remove these males from the flock.
A male that should be removed immediately. It is a victim Damaged comb due to aggressive pecking by other males, probably
of pecking and will not mate at all. aggravated by a staphylococcus infection.
Male legs
The legs of especially the males are good indicators
for the quality of the birds. They should be long,
colourful and straight. The length is very functional,
since most female excluding systems for feeding are
based on bird height, and for proper mounting the
male requires long, strong legs.
Short or long legs? The top male has short legs and
will not be able to mate well: it can’t make contact with
the female’s cloaca and it will keep its balance badly!
This causes a lot of unrest during mating. The female
Males’ legs can be measured nicely with your fingers. But beware: this only
experiences the attempt as a mating and thus she may
applies if you always use the same finger (or, the same person).
not mate again. This underdevelopment often occurs in
the first six weeks of rearing. Remove these males.
If you hold a bird upside down, you can assess their leg position. Are they
straight, like here? Or O-shaped (yellow line, varus) or X-shaped (red line,
valgus)? Crooked legs will damage the backs of the females. Remove males
Red legs, a sign of high sexual activity.
that not have straight legs, like the X-legs on the right.
Leg length and fertillity result
94
92
Fertile eggs (%)
90
88
86
84
82
80
Long Medium Short
Leg length
Remove males with bent toes, as they can tear open the flanks of the Heavier reared birds (light blue) have longer legs and
females. In addition, there may be a genetic component involved that can on average higher fertility rates during the entire laying
cause problems for the broilers as well. period.
Other criteria
A male that shows active mating behaviour will have broken feathers The comb is a sign of male quality: the differences between
and partially lose feathers around his shoulders, thighs, chest and these four males are clearly visible. The front two males are well
tail (left). On the right you see a male with a beautiful feather cover developed. The rear male has a poorly developed comb and the
but that doesn’t mate much. Feathers around the cloaca and belly male in the middle has a pale comb. If the combs are pale, have an
remain white. These are probably new feathers and you won’t see autopsy done on some of the males. It may indicate worms or liver
any broken feathers on the belly. Remove this male. degeneration (Fatty Liver Syndrome). A feed supplement to support
liver function could provide relief.
Resistance of the wings gives you an indication of the strength of Breast blisters are painful during mating and therefore males with
the bird. breast blisters will avoid mating.
The males should be evenly distributed over the litter area during This male is too small. The height of the feed line is adjusted to
the light period. This is important throughout the day, but especially the height of the average male. A well-adjusted male feed system
in the afternoon during the peak mating period of the day. Males therefore works automatically as natural selection: males that do
must not group together on the litter or hide under the equipment. not grow sufficiently are selected automatically. Males do not grow
Remove males that are not alert and not active. Comb colour is an in height after 20 weeks. This male has probably been eating with
excellent indicator of overall health. the females for a long time and definitely had a problem to start with
(bent back).
Sexual activity
The main parts of the males to assess are comb that is not in a good condition and that does not
(easiest to see), legs and cloaca. mate well will lose its red colour from its eyes to
A male that is in good condition and mates well the outside. Males that have little colour in their
has an even, red colour all over the comb, its wat- face probably don’t mate much and should be
tles and in the area around its eyes. The closer to removed.
the eye, the more intense the red colour. A male
Active male at 30 weeks of age
Yellow legs, hocks turning red at the edges. Moist cloaca.
Clear red edge at the hocks. Pink-red and moist cloaca.
Warm and red belly. Large, red comb and red around the eyes.

Grading is a continuous process to prevent the removal
of too many males at once, as this may lead to unrest.
Inactive male at 30 weeks of age
Pale legs and no red edges at the hocks. Dry cloaca.
No red hocks. Dry, pale cloaca.
Well feathered, pale belly. Pale comb and white around the eyes.
Male-female interaction
Competition will make males perform better.
Diversity is therefore good in a male population.
If the males are too dominant or too many in
number, they may encircle the females. This is
undesirable. The males should mingle with the
females. Look for the cause of this behaviour:
• Males are ahead of the females in terms of
development
• Percentage of males is too high
• Relatively small litter area
• Stocking density too high
An obvious situation of a group of females, surrounded by dominant males.
Variation of individual male activity over time

40
35
30
Progeny per male
25
20 Every male is different. Some males

are very fanatical in the beginning but
15
can only maintain that spirit for a short
10 time (live fast, die young!). Other males
take it easy and become sexually
5 active later in the production period.
The combination of these types works
0 very well; they complement each other.
Don’t be too quick to remove males,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
they can improve later, as long as they
Weeks of production remain in good condition!
✓ X
A uniform distribution of males and females increases the number of Dominant males surround a group of females, this inhibits normal
interactions leading to mating. male/female interaction.

Influencing mating behaviour
You see that in a narrow poultry house it is rather crowded with equipment and birds. By hoisting one of the feeding lines, you create room for
mating behaviour.
A typical image: males dominate the litter area and females the Males on the slatted floor in the afternoon is not a good signal.
slats. But make sure they mingle sufficiently and that the hens do Males are supposed to walk in the litter area. Young males may be
not flee to the slats out of fear for the males. pecked at by females and older males. Or submissive males are
taking cover. Remove these males. They are not functioning and
just eat expensive feed.
A female with bad feathering will not be willing to mate and will By lifting up the females feeding system, you can also influence
avoid the males. Remember: it takes two for a successful mating. behaviour. With many aggressive males, you keep the feeding
Injuries are caused by crooked toes and toenails of males, system down. Males are then not only focused on the females and
overactive males or high stocking density. Injuries can also result the females have more escape options. If the fertility rate remains
from too little feeding space for females at the beginning of the low, you lift up the system, so that the males and females mix more
production period, before the satiation point (climbing on top of and fertility results improve.
each other) or poor feathering to start with.
Sperm quality
The quality of the males and their sperm decreas-
es while aging. The production of sperm will be
less successful, resulting in more deformed sperm
cells. These can reduce fertility results because
they can fertilise an egg but this does not develop
into an embryo. Adding males (spiking) that
replace selected males from 40 weeks can prevent
the downward trend.
Females have the ability to retain sperm for
about 10 days in order to fertilise all the eggs in
the clutch of eggs. Therefore it is not necessary
Take a look behind you as you walk through the flock when you check or to mate for every egg she lays. When she mates
scatter grain. Not much happens in front of you. The birds move aside in front several times a day it is usually the sperm of the
of you (if all goes well), but look back and you will see mating behaviour!
last male that fertilises her egg. It is thought that
this involves repelling sperm from less dominant
males in favour of sperm from more dominant
Age and decreasing quality
males.
100 50
Complete matings (%)
80 45
Moment of mating
Sexual activity (%)
40
60 The moment of mating is important for a good
35 fertility result. The best time is in the afternoon for
40
30 the following reasons:
20 25 • Mating takes place after oviposition. There is
0 20 no longer an obstacle in the reproductive tract,
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 because the egg has already been laid.
Age (weeks)
• Sperm concentration and quantity is highest at
Around 30 weeks of age there is a turning point. The males then become less the end of the day.
sexually active, and the sperm decreases in vitality and quantity. These males
will complete fewer matings successfully.
• Females can eject sperm from subdominant
males in favour of dominant males.
It is important that the females and males can
come into contact with each other in the after-
Mating pattern noon. The litter area is the ideal place for this.
20 Roughly 90% of all matings take place on the litter
Matings total (%)
area. In order to stimulate the contact between the

15 females and the males you have to make sure that
the birds are active at that moment. This can be
10 done by scattering grain, performing walkthroughs,
grading birds, providing water, etc. It’s your activity
5 that gets the birds to mingle, which stimulates
coincidental encounters between females and
males.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 You could even say: every time you walk through
lights on Time (hours) lights off the house after 15.00 hours you earn €100!
Mating activity is low for most of the day. The peak of the number of mating
lies naturally in the afternoon. Therefore, contact between females and males
in the afternoon is essential, especially during the last 3-4 hours before the
lights go out. It is recommended to scatter grain to promote mixing. You get
a similar effect by switching on the feed and/or water system for just 15 to
30 seconds.

Deviating mating behaviour? Failed / successful matings
Around 25 weeks of age you often see the males
100 % failed % forced
mate ten times more often than biologically 80 % successful % non forced
Matings (%)
necessary. Because of this ‘over mating’, females 60
can develop an aversion to the males. It also plays 40
a role in the fact that the feather cover on the back 20
of the females quickly becomes thinner making
0
mating painful. In that case it is better to keep 20 22 24 26 28 28
20-50% of the males separate at the beginning of Age (weeks)
the laying period and gradually add more males Of the matings, 90% are forced by the male in week 28. 60% of these fail as
a result. Females that avoid the males are responsible for a large part of the
over time. ‘infertility’.
Broiler breeder males often show aggressive and
rough mating behaviour. Courtship behaviour of
broiler breeders is very different from the behavi-
our in a natural environment.
Courtship behaviour is rare and the females hardly
seem to notice the males. They hardly crouch
either for the males. It seems that both males
and females do not know the natural elements of
mating behaviour or do not show it for reason of
competition. The space for extensive courtship
behaviour is also very limited at high stocking
density.
Too many males in the flock causes over-mating,
interrupted mating and abnormal behaviours. If
possible, you can move them to a male pen to be
able to put them back in later.
This female crouched for the male, but this doesn’t happen voluntarily. She’s
forced to squat.
Most mating takes place on the litter (about 90%). Due

to a high stocking density, there is less room to exhibit
courtship behaviour. This also reduces the chance of
recognising signals that are specific to mating behaviour. Under confined conditions, a male can’t really afford to
If males do not have room for mating behaviour on the exhibit courtship behaviour. Courtship behaviour means
litter, they will look for other places in the house. Lowering an extension of the duration of the sexual act, which
the stocking density improves the quality of mating. increases the chance of interruption by competitors.
Male aggression Harems?
If you see a lot of males fighting, and if that figh- Under natural conditions, chickens live in groups
ting ends in serious injuries and feather damage, of 5 to 30 individuals containing both males and
then that is also a signal of too many males in the females sharing a ‘sleeping tree’ with each other.
flock. Males who fight continuously, the so-called Within such a flock, there is one dominant male,
hooligans, fight but do not mount. Remove exces- which generally fertilises most of the eggs. This
sively aggressive males, they do nothing but dis- dominant male plays the most important role
turb the peace. in defending the territory. The dominant males
generally tolerate lower-ranking males, but keep
them at a distance. During the day, females and
males within their territory gather their feed and,
in the evening, they roost together (in the tree).
The males seldom move more than 50 metres
from their roosting location. The average territory
is approx. 50-75 meters in diameter. The area of a
population of feral chickens extends over a maxi-
mum of 0.5 hectares.
However, this is not the case in a commercial
This female is bald on her head. This is a signal that she has house with more than 5,000 birds.
been mated many times. A slight loss of feathers is normal. 1. Chickens can only recognise a very small
group of other chickens (maximum 50 to 150
chickens). In a flock of 5,000 birds, a male will
no longer recognise its harem.
2. Most females use the entire surface of the
house. Males stay in a more fixed area due to
territorial behaviour. This is usually the litter.
That’s where 90% of the mating takes place.
The mating of males and females is mainly a
matter of coincidental encounters.
Injuries on the back of the head due to persistent rough

mating. This leads to reduced well-being, a decrease in Promiscuity of females and production results
condition and reduced egg production. 80
70
60
No of chicks
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No of males mated
This male is coming right at you to fight you. Some Females in a breeder house mate with several different
males want to defend the females against humans. After males. If females mate with more different males, they
40 weeks of age the spurs are less sharp, but a collision produce more offspring.
is still undesirable. Aggressive males (towards other
males or humans) are often the most virile ones.

Artificial insemination
In many countries where labour is cheap, artificial
insemination (AI) is still used to fertilise the fema-
les. With AI you inseminate each female once a
week up to 40 weeks of age and from 40 weeks of
age onwards twice a week (in the afternoon when
there is no egg left in the oviduct). Semen is sto-
red in the oviduct after insemination. The sperm
remains good for 7-10 days after insemination.
The female can therefore lay fertile eggs for more
than a week.
Quality Time House

An experimental system is the Quality Time House.
In a Quality Time House the males and the females Pay close attention to hygiene when using AI, because in females this poses a
are separated five hours a day in a separate room great risk of infection with an E. coli infection (a bacterium that occurs naturally
in manure). Rinse the manure from the cloaca beforehand.
with a separate feeding system, water system and
a moving fence. Because the females get more rest
and the males are more eager in the afternoon,
more voluntary and successful mating is carried
out. As the quality of sexual behaviour improves,
the females also have an improved feather cover
between 25 and 50 weeks of age. Fertility of hatch-
ing eggs after 40 weeks of age was 2% higher.
Males are ‘milked’ by hand. The fresh sperm from the different males is then
mixed and diluted and used directly for AI for the highest chance of fertility.
Quality time house. The males are placed in

a separate area (middle or rear of the house
around the male feeder) during feeding.
If carried out correctly, the fertility results of AI are better than in houses with
natural mating.
CHAPTER 8:
Peak production to end of lay
The period after the peak is all about maintaining production (persistency). Production should reduce by no
more than 1% per week. The older the birds get the more alert you have to be. You will pay for any flaws in
management.
Walk through the flock at least 5 times a day from

30 weeks onward:
• It causes movement in the flock, resulting in
more mating (better fertility percentage).
• It is easier to find poor performers.
• You discover malfunctions in the system at an
early stage.
Body weight (gain)

During their lifetimes, the birds will probably start
to deviate more and more from the target weights
in the management guide of the breeder company.
Therefore weight gain is a better measure then
absolute bodyweight. This provides insight into
During collection of floor eggs, give sufficient attention to the birds. the development of the flock compared to the tar-
gets and that is what you want to monitor.

Attention points in the house Laying curve
Stay alert to details in the flock, house and equip- 100 peak production
ment, even in this phase of production. This can 90
loss of persistency
make the difference between good production, fer- 80
tility and hatching egg quality and disappointing 70
Egg production (%)

results. 60
In order to be able to manage the flock properly 50
during this period, you need the following infor- 40
mation: 30
• Daily egg production. 20
• Daily (or weekly) body weight gain compared 10
to the target weight gain. 0
• Daily egg weights and changes in egg weight 0 30 35 40 45 50 45 50 60
compared to the target weight. Age (weeks)
• Daily changes in the feed intake time.
• Daily water intake and water/feed ratio.
• House climate data. Attention curve
100 full attention
You have to keep in mind that an abnormal decre-
ase in production or fertility is usually the result 90
loss of attention
of ‘mistakes’ made long before. That is why you 80
have to be very proactive. The later you notice that 70
Attention (%)
something is not going as expected, the less you 60

can do to reduce the damage. 50
In open houses and in less controlled housing sys- 40
tems you also have to deal with seasonal 30
influences. 20
10
0
0 30 35 40 45 50 45 50 60
Age (weeks)
After 40 weeks, the laying curve and the quality of the birds go down. But
the attention span of the farm manager often decreases as well, while in
this period it is important to maintain flock quality and this requires your full
attention!
Observation frequency and hatch results

often
85
average
few
Hatchability (%)
80
75
70
< 31 weeks 31-40 weeks > 40 weeks

Age (weeks)
Monitor egg weight daily and compare it to the target After 40 weeks the birds get lazy and may be more or less bored. Activate
weight. In this phase controlling egg weight is one of the them by walking around in the afternoon. Advice: 2x in the morning, 1x
main focus points. around lunch and 2x in the afternoon, so a total of 5 times a day. Experiment
for yourself to see if the birds respond differently to irregular walking times
instead of doing it at the same time every day.
8. P ea k p ro d u c t i o n t o e n d o f l ay 131
Clean laying nests
Birds don’t like dirty nests. In addition, hygienic
nests are important in order to prevent E. coli etc.
from contaminating the eggs. At oviposition the
eggs are 40°C and without an air chamber. Due to
cooling of the egg after oviposition, air is sucked
into the egg, creating the air cell. But bacteria on
the egg’s surface are also sucked into the egg. The
older the breeder flock, the higher the porosity of
the egg shell and the higher the risk of bacteria
entering the egg.
A dirty nest is the main cause of dirty eggs. The hygiene
decreases towards the end of the production period. So, the older the hens the better the hygiene
should be. In practice, the opposite is noticed.
Dust, dirt and manure accumulates between the
ridges of the nest mat. Just shake the mat over a
lightly coloured surface and you’ll see. In a total
production period with an average of 45 birds per
linear meter of laying nest and 170 eggs, it means
that within that meter more than 7,500 eggs
are laid. So you can image that it will get dirty.
Therefore, clean the nests regularly by cleaning
and disinfecting the nest mats. Replace broken or
worn nest mats in time and do not wait until the
You see stripes on this egg. These are dust stripes end of the production round. An egg from a dirty
caused by the jute egg belt behind the nest. These
are on the egg and are erasable. Clean the entire egg nest is as bad as a floor egg.
transport system regularly.
LOOK-THINK-ACT
In a dirty laying nest you often see short stripes/dots

on the eggshell. You may notice that these match the
structure of the mats. It is aggravated when the eggs
Why are there claw marks on this egg? have not yet dried before they roll to the egg belt.
Therefore, make sure that the nest mat is of good quality,
Claw stripes may indicate old, worn mats. Eggs laid on these mats that there is good hygiene and that the house is well
will not roll away as they should. Check the surface (slats/shelf) in ventilated.
front of the laying nest, it may be dirty. A hen that steps on it takes
dirt into the nest easily. Usually it is also a signal of poor litter quality.

Maintaining litter quality
Over time, the quality of the litter often decrea-
ses. However with good litter management and
attention to detail, this can be prevented! Wet
litter leads to the formation of ridges on the floor
of the house. In wet conditions, the foot pads are
often already affected and painful by the time you
notice an issue, both for the males and the fema-
les. This can make it more difficult for the males
to mate, especially in combination with a house
with ridges. Ridges usually occur because the
feeding system is not winched up. The birds spill
feed and scavenge it from underneath the feeding
system, pushing the litter in the area to the sides. Scattering grain on the floor in the afternoon stimulates natural foraging
behaviour. While scratching to find the grains the birds prevent compaction of
If the litter is wet at this time and the top will be the litter and allow it to dry. Scratching is good for leg strength of the heavy
compacted and become hardened (caking). Lift birds and it increases mating behaviour because males and females interact
the system high enough that the birds can freely more. So many benefits.
scratch underneath it.
In addition, wet litter increases ammonia concen-
trations in the house, which is bad for egg quality
and foot health. Poor litter is therefore bad for
fertility, the quality of the hatching eggs and the
general health of the birds.
Males are especially vulnerable to bad litter. They are heavy, have large feet
and walk around in the litter all the time. Lumps of wet litter cling to the foot
pads, as you see here, causing infections.
If the litter is not good, then leg problems can occur

in males: e.g. bumblefoot. Foot pad problems lead to
reduced mating behaviour and lower fertility.
This is a heavy male. Heavy males are more likely to have leg problems
(especially in combination with mediocre litter). A male with abnormalities of
the legs is also less able to walk; it is more difficult and more painful. This will
These birds all have irritated eyes. This could be due to hinder the bulging of the cloaca and the ejaculation, with the result that full
high levels of ammonia. mating will not take place. Replace heavy males with new ones in time.
If the litter forms ridges, it’s a sign of dropping cold air (condensation), High ridges in an old poultry house with static feeding lines.
check the ventilation. When feeding lines are lifted, the birds can loosen Nowadays, most feeding lines are lifted up daily. Frequently
the litter there. The caking on this photo occurs against the slats. removing ridges helps to maintain a good litter quality.
The litter must always be dry and slightly loose. There shouldn’t be Good litter is loose (more than 60% dry matter content) and therefore
too much sticking to your hands or boots. The litter in this picture is gives less cause for softening and irritation of the footpads. Poor
not good. If your boot doesn’t come up clean there is a litter issue. quality litter has a dry matter content of less than 40%.
Check the floor under the litter. If it is wet (dark coloured) you have Keep the house lights clean so that they provide sufficient output
not ventilated sufficiently or the floor was too cold. Floors do not and do not allow dark spots in the house which can lead to an
get cold throughout the house at 35 weeks, so this is a signal of increase in the number of floor eggs. Prevent shady places,
a larger issue. Sometimes there are wet spots if the connection of especially in the front and back of the house (risk of floor eggs).
floor and wall is not good and the outside temperature suddenly Place an extra light source if necessary, to make these areas less
drops. desirable to your birds.

Feeding after the peak
After 30-32 weeks the egg production declines, the done very carefully and, if necessary, even incre-
birds are almost at maximum weight and the eggs ased (in autumn and winter flocks).
become heavier. Shortly after the peak production Don’t go over 20 grams per week growth to ensure
(early photo stimulation around 21 weeks of age) that the egg weight rises only slightly during this
at about 224 to 231 days (32 - 33 weeks) the peak time.
in egg mass occurs. At this moment, the females
have reached their maximum nutrient require-
ment.
You must adjust the feed supply to avoid over-
No daily growth = half the flock is losing weight!
sized eggs. A lower feed rate after the peak in egg If the average weight development does not indicate any growth,
mass is needed to prevent future issues. Excessive this means that some of the birds are growing and some are losing
weight. Your flock must never lose weight! Make sure that the weight
growth after the laying peak leads to overweight progression indicates increasing growth per week.
birds and a lack of persistency in production and
fertility. If the birds reach the laying peak earlier,
the peak feed rate may be slightly lower. The feed
intake after the peak is always in function of the Production index
production. If you’re late with this decrease, you’ll
A handy rule of thumb for the productivity of a flock at different ages
have to feed more for maintenance for the rest of is the ‘production index’. This is easy to calculate: age + laying per-
their lives. centage. 120 points is okay, 125 is super and 115 is too little.
This is easier to remember than knowing exactly what laying per-
centage belongs to what age. From 30 weeks onwards, the laying
7 to 10 days after peak production percentage may therefore be reduced by 1% per week in order to
In order to ensure that the hens do not gain keep the production figure at 120.
too much weight after the peak production, you 100
should start reducing feed 7 to 10 days after 90
80
Egg production (%)
reaching the peak production at the latest. The 70

birds are entering a different phase of their lives. 60
30 weeks + 90% = 120
50
Therefore, switch to a more suitable feed type for
40
their new needs. 30 40 weeks + 80% = 120
Even though you reduce feed intake per day, 20

10 50 weeks + 70% = 120
the flock must continue to grow each week after 0
30 weeks to maintain high production levels from 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60
40-50 weeks onwards (persistency, shell quality, Age (weeks)
fertility). The reduction of feed intake should be
Feed intake time
In this period between peak and end of lay, the time of feed intake between distribution and clean-and-empty feeding system should be
3-4 hours for mash, 2-3 hours for crumb and 1-2 hours for pellets. Faster feed intake is a signal that you are not feeding enough. Slower
feed intake is a signal of overfeeding, unpalatable feed or feed that is too fine (in the case of mash). Slower feed intake can also be due to a
decrease in water intake, so keep a close eye on the flock’s water usage.
Effect of protein intake on embryo mortality (age 45-60 wks) Adjust according to circumstances
High crude protein Low crude protein If, after a feed reduction, production declines fas-
(21.5 g/day) (19.4 g/day) ter than expected, go back to the previous feed
Embryo mortality 4.0 3.7 rate and maintain it for five days before applying
1-9 d (%)
any further reduction. Around 45 to 50 weeks of
Embryo mortality 5.7 4.7
10-21 d (%) age, you usually switch to breeder feed 3, the last
2nd grade chicks (%) 2.3 1.7 phase until the end of lay. Here too, the birds
must continue to grow slowly. If the flock has its
There is a direct link between a lower crude protein intake and a lower
embryonic mortality. Therefore, in order to increase the number of chicks, peak production during warm weather conditions,
older breeders should consume less protein daily during the laying period, in the feed should be reduced earlier and faster. The
combination with a higher energy value.
feed intake time remains the control tool. A rule of
Energy requirement partition thumb is then: from 26°C to 30°C you give 2 grams
100
less feed per degree of temperature increase. From
90 30°C you reduce the feed intake with 3 grams of
egg production feed per degree of temperature increase.
80
growth
ME requirement (%)
70
Protein in the feed
60
After 40 weeks of age you increase the difference
50 between the energy and protein levels in the feed.
40 This is mainly done by adjusting the protein con-
tent, which you reduce more and more. The energy
30 maintenance
• body weight content remains the same or even goes up a bit as
20 • feathering the birds become heavier and have less feathering.
• immunological status
10 The energy and protein content in the diet are gui-
0 ded by your choices of raw materials. A low crude
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 protein percentage in the feed scores better on
Time (weeks) sperm production (in terms of volume and ferti-
lity) than higher percentages of crude protein.
At the start, much of the energy in the ration is needed for growth and
later it is used for egg production. Maintenance is always a large portion
of the energy budget due to the relatively high and continuously increasing
bodyweights. You cannot cut the diet as insufficient weight gain reduces
egg production. The weight gain must be very gradual in order to prevent
persistency and fertility from deteriorating. Broiler breeders need much more
energy for maintenance than laying hens (appr. 70% vs. 50%).
Effect of crude protein on hatchability
94 hatch of fertile eggs
92
Hatchability (%)
90
88
hatch of set eggs
86
84
82
80
10 % CP 12 % CP 14 % CP 16 % CP
Protein content of diet
During the last 15 to 20 weeks of the laying period, use a feed with a lower
crude protein content (approx. 13%) and, of course, a lower amino acid
content. This results in a higher hatch rate.

Condition/conformation of males
To get a good idea of the conformation/condition
of the males, feel the keel bone with your hand,
where you can assess the shape, size and muscle
tension (firmness) of the breast meat.
This male is severely leaning forward because of very Two males. One is underdeveloped (left) and one is
heavy breast muscles. Or he is trying to relieve sore joints overdeveloped (right), with regard to fleshiness.
or legs (inflammation of legs and/or foot pads). Remove
this male because most mating attempts will fail.
This is the bird on the left: too little breast muscle. This is the bird on the right: too much breast muscle.
A pointy, V-shaped chest with a clearly present and easy A rounded, U-shaped chest with no clear sternum.
to feel sternum.
Signals of male condition around 40 weeks

Condition score below target Condition score on target Condition score above target
Body weight above target Fat birds. Check feed distribution
and separate-sex feeding. Feed just
to maintain body weight.
Body weight on target Consider an additional feed incre- Perfect situation. Stick to recom-
ase and investigate the declining mended feed increase.
condition.
Body weight below target Give an additional feed increase.
Investigate feed volumes, feed dis-
tribution and separate-sex feeding.
Effect of intra-spiking on males’ activity Spiking and intra-spiking
200 In some countries, additional ‘spiking males’ are
Total sexual activities
used. This means that young, more active males

150 control
are added to the flock from about 40 weeks of age.
intra-spiking Inactive males are removed. Spiking increases
100
the risk of pathogens as you are introducing birds
50 from outside of the flock. From that point of view
it is better not to add males at all. Spiking keeps
0 the production of fertile eggs at a higher level. It is
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 important to use only adult males (from 26 weeks)
Age (weeks) and the heaviest males in the group of young
Intra-spiking stimulates all of the males. Even the old ones! males (> 4kg). Smaller and younger males will not
This has a direct effect on the percentage of fertile eggs.
be accepted in the flock. Intra-spiking – changing
older males on the same farm from one compart-
ment/house to another – is sometimes used to
Effect of spiking on hatchability
improve the activity of the males, and thus fertili-
spiked at 40 weeks ty. This reduces the risks for biosecurity and saves
90
money. However, the effect of intra-spiking is less
85 pronounced than normal spiking. Spiking can be
Hatchability (%)
non spiked stressful for the birds because the aggressiveness

80
of the males may increase. New battles may break
double intra-spiking
75 at 40/48 weeks out as birds seek to establish a hierarchy.
It is preferable to place males at night, and near
70
the male feeding system.
65 Routine spiking is usually done as a kind of ‘insu-
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 rance’ against declining fertility results in the
Age (weeks) second part of the production period. However,
Introducing new (spiking) or old (intra-spiking) males in the flock 1 to 3 times if you add/replace when the fertility problems
has a positive effect on the hatch rate of the eggs. Introducing new males become evident then you are already far too late.
once (spiking) gives a better result than intra-spiking twice.
If spiking is needed, replace 20% of the males in
a couple of weeks, certainly not more. Too many
Male presence in a flock fanatical young males may be counterproductive.
current practice
Males (%)
desired?
20 30 40 50 60
Age (weeks)
Ideally, you start with a low percentage of males (4-5%) and add new males
gradually to compensate for the declining quality of the older males. In
practice, a high number of males are introduced and, due to selection, their Exchange 20-30% of the old/original males between
number gradually decreases. If a relatively large number of males die or are houses of the same farm, after 40 weeks of age (1 to 2
selected at times, you must add males to compensate for this (spiking). times). This is called intra-spiking.

Male persistency
In practice farmers start with 9-10% males in order LOOK-THINK-ACT
to end up with about 7-8%. At about 2/3 of the
production period the males are kind of worn out.
Mortality (including grading) is higher than for
females. This is caused by the origin: the male
line is selected for growth; this has a negative
effect on persistency. The result: a lot of males are
introduced at the start to have enough left at the
end. Although not easy, it is better to have about
6% at start and 9% males at the end. You can
achieve that to keep males in a separate room and
start adding these males gradually on a weekly
basis (starting at 30 weeks). In flocks with spiking
males: when weighing, weigh only the original
males. Spike males are lighter and otherwise this
would give you a wrong impression of the average
weight. You can recognise them by their narrower Why don’t the males eat at the same time?
chest width and shorter spurs. Make sure that all males eat at the same time and make sure that as
few females as possible eat with the males. If not all males eat at the
same time, ask yourself why: is there enough feeding space for all
males? Are some males too frightened to eat with other males? Does
the feeding system function well? Check the feeding system. Also
measure the height of the feed line.
During weighing, immediately assess the condition,

conformation and colour of the cloaca.
You can mark original males in order to recognise them quickly and identify
sexing errors in the mixed flock. You can see which ones they are and how
they develop and mingle in the flock.
A new young male in an old flock. In the back you can The disadvantage of a mark is that it can attract the attention of other males
still see an original male. and thus lead to pecking and aggression.
Laying pattern and flock age Signals from egg weight
30 The egg weight depends on the body weight. The
egg weight is therefore a good signal for changing
Nest-laid eggs (%)
25
body weights. It is also easier and more efficient
20 young (35 weeks) to weigh eggs than to weigh hens! Morning eggs
are up to 2.5% heavier than afternoon eggs.
15 Therefore, always weigh the eggs at the same time
old (60 weeks)
for good insight on development.
10
If a hen receives too little energy, does the egg
5 weight go down first and then the body weight? Or
does the body weight go down first and then the
0
egg weight? Opinions are divided.
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time (hours) As hens grow older, the eggs will normally also
become considerably larger. The difference
The laying time shifts with increasing age. In a young flock, 80% of hens will
lay during the first 7 hours of light. Later in the cycle this becomes closer to between an old and a young flock is almost 10
60%. Take this into account when collecting the eggs. In older flocks you see grams. After 60 weeks one-third of the eggs laid
more spread, so collect eggs more often in that phase. are heavier than 70 grams. This is breed depend-
ent. There is a connection between egg weight
and hatchability: the larger the eggs, the lower the
Quality of eggs and flock age hatchability. For larger eggs, the eggshell is thin-
ner and more vulnerable. Provide more calcium in
the feed from 45 weeks in order to maintain the
Egg production (%)
X ~ Prime eggs ~ quality of the eggshell.

The uniformity of the eggs is worse in a flock with
older birds. This automatically means that the uni-
formity of the offspring (broilers) will be worse.
If you collect the eggs every day at the same time,
you will be able to recognise fluctuations due to
Flock age abnormalities more quickly.
The first eggs from a flock are not suitable as hatching eggs (below 50 or Everything decreases with age. Fertility and
52 gram), these small eggs are used for consumption. The best eggs are hatchability rates also decrease, and there is more
produced around peak production and about 20 weeks after that. embryonic mortality. Optimal management is
required to limit this negative trend and maintain
the quality of your hatching eggs.
Nowadays, the focus is mainly on keeping the eggs
small after 45 weeks. After all, fewer large eggs
means a higher overall shell quality.
Influencing increase in egg weight

5-day-average
How to act
increase in egg weight
> 0.5 g remove 2 g of feed
0.4 g - 0.5 g don’t touch the feed
< 0.4 g add 2 g of feed
The increase in egg weight per 5 days should be about

0.5 gram after peak production (0.1 g per day). If it is
more or less you can adjust the daily feed ration using
these simple guidelines.

Feathering at end of lay
A good quality feather cover is also important
later in the production period, in order to prevent
skin damage to the females as a result of mating
behaviour. If feather loss is not compensated with
feed (more energy loss), there will be a decrease
in production (spontaneous moulting) as well
as reduced fertility and hatching. Especially in
the last 10 to 20 weeks of production. However,
females that don’t visit a laying nest have very
nice-looking tail feathers. Broken tail feathers in
an older flock is actually a good signal. Pick up
females with a nice tail and assess whether they Never underestimate the effect of baldness on energy demand. A completely
bald breeder should receive as much as 15% extra per day in European
are laying at all. Or have they moulted and started climates. In curtain houses in southern Europe, this is even higher when
laying again? the temperature drops below 15°C at night. In contrast to laying hens, for
breeders the feed supply sometimes must be increased at the end due to the
additional need for maintenance and at least partly due to poor feathering.
Effect of feather cover on maintenance feed requirements

Effect on feed
Description
energy requirement
Feather cover fully intact + 0%
Small bald patches on back and flanks + 5%
Large bald patches on back and flanks + 10%
Bald back and flanks + 15%
The balder the birds are, the more feed they need to keep warm.
Shown is the effect at 20°C ambient temperature.
In case of troublesome, aggressive males, the females’

feathering quality drops faster. Here, you see that the
males are still (too) well-feathered mainly in the litter, with
(too) bald females on the slats.
Deteriorated feather cover in females in the second half You can see on this infrared heat camera that in places with little feathering
of the production period. This is normal. Hens usually the heat loss is greatest. Balder birds therefore need more feed due to higher
don’t look good after 50 weeks with good production, energy requirements to keep the body warm.
while they are quite often kept for up to 65 weeks
(production index=120).
Moulting
LOOK-THINK-ACT Chickens in nature moult once a year to have a
good, warm feather cover for the winter. This is
intensive and requires a lot of energy. As a result,
moulting chickens are weaker and production is
declining and stops. During the production phase
you want to prevent the females from moulting.
A moulting hen looks a bit bald, is less active and
no longer lays eggs. The hen looks a bit paler,
thinner and is a lot quieter. During moulting she
will also be very low in the pecking order.
After moulting, males hardly produce any sperm.
The male is then lost for reproduction.
A very small egg (size of a 1 or 2 euro coin) is a
sign of a moulting bird. It is the last egg produced
before she stops laying eggs.
Why is this female hiding?

This female has few feathers. The fewer feathers a female has, the
more sensitive the skin and the more likely it is to be damaged.
These females are more likely to withdraw from mating and are at an
increased risk of death.
Feathering at end of lay
Female
Good feathering Bad feathering
Male
Reasonable feathering Bad feathering

Forced moulting
In some countries forced moulting is applied at LOOK-THINK-ACT
around 55 weeks of age. This is done by shorten-
ing day length to max. eight hours, providing no
feed and water for some days. After that, condi-
tions are slowly returned to normal. After 3-4
weeks the hens have returned to the old situation.
After this moult, the hens go into a second pro-
duction period of 30 weeks. A peak egg production
close to 80% in the second laying cycle is possible
with a good flock; this gives the chickens a longer
lifespan and makes them cheaper, but it is far from
being bird-friendly. In the EU, forced moulting is
not allowed.
End of lay
Normally breeders are depleted around 60 to 65
weeks of age (depending on the region). The exact Why is this female moulting?
end of the laying period of your flock depends In this phase, older females sometimes start to moult spontaneously.
on market conditions. If there is a high demand Spontaneous moulting is caused by stress and disease problems
(water shortage, energy shortage, latent diseases, etc). You can
for hatching eggs, the females are kept longer.
recognise these hens afterwards by their thick full feathering and
Sometimes production and fertility remain at such a recent feather growth. You can check the space between the pelvic
good level that the females can be kept for a longer bones to see if they are laying. After moulting she will be laying small
eggs again to start with.
production cycle. In the United States, for example,
the females are kept for up to 65 weeks, but there the
females also start their production later.
Of course, when the perfomance results or market
conditions are bad, birds may be depleted earlier.
The limit for a depleted flock is often 70% egg
production, 70% hatchability or a combination
of both. Lower than this, too many poor-quality
eggs are produced, and the feed conversion rate
becomes too high to be profitable.
Emptying the house. The timing of this depends on After a moulting period of 6 to 8 weeks these hens develop new feather
hatching egg pricing, production level, meat prices and follicles and will be in a beautiful feather cover, while all of the other females
planning of the new flock. are not looking their prettiest... These moulted hens will only lay small eggs if
any. Therefore, avoid poor conditions to avoid pushing the birds to moult.
CHAPTER 9:
Egg handling and storage
Up to 80% of the results in the hatchery depend on the quality of the hatching eggs. On top of that nothing
can be done to correct a poor-quality egg, once laid. For that reason you have to take care of the hatching
egg all the time. Also you have to realise that any contaminated eggs ruin the quality of all other eggs in the
same setter.
Hatchability usually declines with the ageing of the mother hen heats the egg from above, so the
the breeder flock. If hatchability is below 84% you optimal position would be on top close to the egg
should wonder why. Eggs from very young bree- shell. So the yolk floats on the egg white with the
ders have a lower hatchability and poorer quality germinal disc on top.
chicks. Best hatch rate are from parents between
30 and 50 weeks of age.
You can already see directly after laying whether
an egg is fertile or not by the germinal disc on
the yolk. You might say: if you open an egg there
is 50% chance that you can see the germinal disc
and 50% that it is on the other side of the yolk and
you cannot see it. However, the yolk always turns
with the germinal disc on top, so you can always You can estimate the chick weight by taking 2/3 rd of the
see it. The goal of this phenomena: in nature, egg weight + 1 gram. A 52-gram egg, for example,
produces a 36-gram chick.

45 gram 50 gram 60 gram
A good hatching egg weighs at least 50 grams (minimum requirements differ per geographic region) with a maximum weight of 70 grams. Smaller
eggs can be set, but the chicks require more care and should be housed in a different pen/house. A rule of thumb: a 50-gram egg can be placed
between your thumb and forefinger along its length. Try this and check with a scale, because not everyone’s fingers are the same length.
Critical points at the broiler breeder farm

Moment Quality risk
Before laying Breed characteristic (size and form)
Bad fertility
4 mm 2 mm
Around lay on Incorrect quality of hatching eggs (too round, too long,
breeder farm infertile, dirty, etc.)
Floor eggs (100x higher risk of bacterial rot)
Already at lay, a fertilised egg shows the first development Rough treatment
of the embryo on the yolk as a circular structure of about 4 Lack of hygiene (dirty nests, transport belts)
mm (blastoderm). Total yolk size is about 60 mm. An infertile No good, healthy broiler breeders
egg only has a small white spot on the yolk of about 2 mm. Damage to the eggs (cracks and dents)
Storage on Cooling down too fast
breeder farm Incorrect climate (and not uniformly distributed)
Incorrect storage conditions (temperature fluctuations),
sweating eggs
Stored for too long
Insufficient hygiene
Damage to the eggs
Malfunctions
Transport Climate conditions not in order
Shocks while driving
✓
Influence of outside temperature
Insufficient hygiene
Malfunctions
How to get clean eggs

Floor eggs Cleanliness Collection
moments
• Try to prevent floor • Make sure that • Collect eggs
eggs as much as the inside of the several times a
possible. nests and the egg day. Most of the
• Collect floor eggs conveyors remain eggs are laid in the
separately and as free of litter and morning. Adjust
X
often as possible manure. Nests and your collection
per day. Keep them conveyors should times accordingly.
separate from the be cleaned at least The nests and egg
other hatching once a week and conveyor must
eggs. checked for dead be emptied every
Assessing fertile and infertile eggs by breaking them is time • Register the birds every day. day at the end of
consuming. It is easier to install a small hatching machine number of floor • Prevent hens the day, so that no
(e.g. for 30 eggs) and in a few days you can candle them eggs and dirty from sleeping in eggs are left lying
without breaking. To avoid using valuable eggs you could eggs and take the nests or shy around overnight.
use floor eggs, since for assessing fertility rate this doesn’t appropriate hens from hiding
make a difference. Try to find out whether infertile eggs are management themselves in the
from a specific house or part of a house. measures. nests.
9. E gg h a n d l i n g a n d st orag e 145
Not suitable as a hatching egg
Grading at egg collection is an important task in order to select the best hatching eggs, the ones that are not perfect, but still
acceptable and the ones that should be thrown away. Dirty eggs might be washed and still used, but of course this should not
be standard procedure. Prevent inferior eggs to start with. Washing is only an alternative if you have to discard the eggs other-
wise.
A good hatching egg. Blood smear on egg. Wounds around Slightly dirty, possible dirty laying nest.
cloaca? Should be washed. Should be washed.
Egg soiled with droppings. Should be Point damage, egg landed on a hard Wrinkled egg. Unfit for hatching.
washed. surface (replace nest mats?). Unfit for
hatching.
Side-slabbed egg. Unfit for hatching. Pin hole. Part of shell is sucked into the Definitely too dirty, this egg should not be
egg during cooling down. Unfit for hatching. used as a hatching egg.

Hairline cracks
Eggs with hairline cracks can cause as many pro- chicks hatched from hair-line cracked eggs, up to
blems as more serious damage. The hatch rate of two weeks of age, when compared to normal chicks.
these eggs is 25% lower than eggs with an intact Your problem is that hair-line cracks eggs are hard
shell. The egg content is also more likely to be con- to notice in fresh eggs at egg collection. Even after
taminated with pathogens. As a result more chicks storage you have to be experienced to notice these
are of inferior quality (selected in the hatchery), and cracks. You can sometimes recognise hairline cracks
there is a four times greater mortality rate among by a faint grey line on the surface of the eggshell.
By holding a light behind the egg, you can highlight any You can also recognise hairline cracks by gently tapping
hairline cracks. two eggs against each other. You are able to hear the
difference between a good egg and one with a hairline
crack.
Good quality hatching egg Egg with hairline cracks

Fertile 81% 56%
Hatch percentage 74% 51%
Chick mortality 2% 7.5%
Infected or broken eggs 1% 5%
source: Pas Reform
A longitudinal crack in the middle of the egg points to A crack at the blunt end or on the pointed end indicates
a problem with rolling from the nest to the egg belt, or a hard nest floor, excessive dropping height, or a fault in
between two belts. The eggs roll against each other the egg turning device or dropset that puts them into egg
sideways. trays.
Large and small eggs
Production of up to 4% double yolks at the onset
of lay is not unusual, while more than 6% double
yolks is a signal of over-stimulation. Double yolks
are unsuitable for setting, because a chick seldom
hatches from them. Double yolks can also be an
important signal of too much laying stress, or a
result of over-stimulation with feed because of an
incorrect weight profile in the rearing phase or just
before start of lay. These hens were likely given
too much feed at the start of lay to force them to
lay and/or too sharp an increase in daylength was
Eggs that are too small. The old-fashioned analogue scales are often introduced. Especially in open houses this can
quite accurate. Digital scales may give a very precise result, but be a problem. From smaller eggs you get smal-
regularly check this. While it looks accurate and modern, it may not ler chicks that require extra care. In addition, the
be in reality.
simultaneous incubation of normal and small eggs
in the incubator results in less uniform hatching
results, as both types of eggs require different
hatching conditions. That’s why you should set
them separately.
On the egg belt you can see a lot of variation in egg size. This is what a double yolk looks like under the candling
lamp. Two dark spots are visible at the bottom and at the
top. Those are the two yolks.
40 g 50 g 60 g 70 g
Variation in egg size is unwanted, since it will also mean more difficulties in A broken double yolk. The yolks are often close to each
hatching, more variation in chick size and therefore a less uniform broiler flock. other and therefore do not each have their own thick
white layer around them.

Shell quality
An egg must be porous so that during the incuba-
tion process there is sufficient gas exchange (CO2
out and O2 in) for the growing embryo. Porosity of
the egg can be determined from the weight loss
during storage and during hatching. The average
egg has about 10,000 pores. The cuticle, a protec-
tive layer over the outside of the egg, is meant to
prevent bacteria penetrating the egg. This cuticle
has no visible openings but is permeable to gases.
The thickness of this cuticle is between 0.010 mm
A 70-gram egg has as many pores as a 60-gram egg despite its larger size.
and 0.005 mm. The larger eggs are more difficult to hatch because too little gas exchange
may cause embryonic death. Therefore, do not let the eggs become too
heavy at the end of the laying period. Also, larger eggs are more vulnerable to
egg breakage.
Characteristics of the egg Air chamber - (also called air

cell) the space between the in-
Outer shell membrane ner and outer shell membranes.
Inner shell membrane
Chalazae - twisted structures

Yolk or vitelline membrane - forms derived from the albumen
a barrier between the yolk mass which hold the yolk in the cen-
and the albumen. tre of the egg.
White yolk - the initial feed source Yellow yolk - provides the
for the developing chick, is quite remainder of the nutrition for
different in composition from the the chick.
yellow yolk.
Thick albumen (white) - a
nutritional and water source
Germinal disc - this is where the for the chick, has antibacterial
chick develops after fertilisation. properties and acts as a shock
absorber.
Outer thin albumen (white) - the Inner thin albumen (white) -

layer between the thick albumen between the yolk and the thick
and the eggshell membranes. albumen.
Shell membranes - provide

protection against dangerous
bacteria and form a base layer
for shell formation. Eggshell - protects the egg
contents and regulates air
exchange through gaseous
exchange pores.
Cuticle (bloom) - protects the
egg contents by sealing off the
gaseous exchange pores which
run through the shell.
The egg has a multi-layer protection against microbial contamination. The cuticle, egg shell, shell membranes and certain proteins act as
physical or chemical barriers.
Drying and cooling Cooling and nest types
Directly after laying, you might say the storage In most countries, automatic nests are preferred,
period starts. So you have to try and maintain the as they are often cleaner and allow more air move-
hatching egg quality immediately. ment around the egg. This will help cool the egg
This means the egg has to dry and cool down. quickly. In case of manually-collected litter nests,
Drying is essential to prevent dirt from sticking there is regularly a hen on the eggs already laid
to the surface. Cooling causes the development and the eggs cool down very slowly, in these cases
of the air cell (also called air chamber). If the egg the embryo can sometimes start developing even
stays too warm in this period before egg collec- before the egg is taken to the hatchery.
tion, the embryo will start to develop.
after lay
at lay: at lay: after lay
40°C 40°C 20°C 20°C
At lay, the egg temperature is 40°C and no air cell is present, yet.
Just after lay, egg temperature drops to about 20°C. The contents
shrinks slightly, but the shell maintains it size. Therefore air is sucked Cooling eggs is a natural and necessary process. The
into the egg through the pores of the shell: the air cell is formed. But, hen also lays eggs intermittently and leaves the nest
with the air, contamination can also be sucked in as well, decreasing which cools down the egg. As a result, embryonic
the quality of the hatching eggs. development is temporarily halted, but the quality is
maintained.
0 sec. 5 sec. 10 sec.
The eggs must dry quickly after laying. This is important for a good hatching egg quality. After laying, it takes 2-3 minutes for the cuticle
to dry and harden. In these few minutes, it is possible for bacteria to pass through the cuticle and enter the egg through the pores.
Therefore, floor eggs are of inferior quality and the hygiene in the nests must be very high. Also, the temperature difference should not
be too large as the eggs cool. As the egg cools, the air chamber is created and there is a chance that bacteria on the shell surface will
also be sucked in; this is why it is important to ensure that the egg is not laid in a dirty environment.

Egg collection Manual egg collection
The eggs can be transported from the nests by In nests where eggs are collected by hand, there is
conveyor belt or collected by hand. Manual col- a greater chance of dirty shells. This is because the
lection is very labour-intensive. With automatic eggs do not roll away immediately and therefore
nests, the quality can be better if all transitions are more easily stained by the legs of the hens
on the conveyor belts and the packing are smooth and any manure, blood or dust in the breeder
and well maintained. It is a myth that manual col- house environment. Also, leaving the eggs in the
lection is always better. Among other things, it nest can cause breakages and make the litter and
depends on the type of nests and frequency of egg other eggs dirty. It is also important to change the
collection. litter in the nest at least once a week.
If the eggs get wet after collecting, due to differences Litter is often used in hand-collected nests. This
in temperature and humidity in the house compared means that the eggs stay warm for a longer time.
to the storage room, this increases the risk of As a result, the final production is lower and less
contamination. Water or mechanical cleaning uniform. The hatching results from farms with
damage the dried cuticle, reducing its protective manually-collected eggs are approximately 5%
effect, creating a risk that bacteria may penetrate. lower than for farms with automatic nests. The
This also a risk when washing eggs. percentage of dirty eggs is approximately 2%
higher for farms using manual collection. Frequent
egg collection prevents the start of the hatching
process, at least 4 times a day at a breeder farm.
Breeder house with manual laying nests. The requirements of hatcheries are often that the farm or
breeder house number is printed on the egg.
Often eggs are collected once or twice per day. In Asia By attaching a broom under the egg belt, the belt is
often four times per day due to the warmer and humid continuously cleaned as it rotates. A simple and effective
climate. A reason not to collect too often is the tendency solution to prevent dust stripes on the eggs. However, it
to speed up the collection belt a bit if the number of eggs only cleans visible organic material and doesn’t decrease
is low. Result: shocks, cracks, etc. the bacterial loading. Clean/replace this brush regularly
in order not to make it a source of infection instead of a
cleaning device.
Egg grading
The grading of the eggs can be done both at the
breeder farm and at the hatchery. The purpose of
grading is to set only first-class hatching eggs.
Weigh a fixed number of eggs every day, ideally
at least 100 eggs. Do not take the first collection,
because it may still contain eggs from the previ-
ous day and that does not give a representative
picture. Weigh trays when they are full and empty
and then divide the difference by the number of
eggs. Always weigh at the same time, because the
weights of the eggs vary throughout the day. In the
afternoon the eggs are often a little lighter. The
development of the egg weight is an important
Automatic egg grader. The heavy eggs are separated on the left side, the signal for flock management.
eggs that are too small on the right side. The rest are packed for further The cause of poor uniformity of the eggs often lies
storage.
in poor uniformity of the flock. This is usually due to
deviations in the feed and water system, insufficient
feed trough length, and so on. As the flock ages you
regularly see large differences in egg size because a
number of birds spontaneously go into moult. These
birds start laying eggs that are much lighter.
A manual grading point. The obviously defective eggs are selected out here. Minor soiling can be removed with your fingernail. With
soft droppings carefully wipe it with a paper towel. Make
sure you don’t touch any clean parts of the egg.
On the belt you already see a lot of differences in size. The larger the variation, Scraping off dirt with a scouring pad is not advised.
the more risk that some of the eggs will be incubated too hot or too cold. This is When lightly soiled eggs are wiped, some of the dust you
not good for embryonic development and therefore for the quality of the chickens. produce will accumulate in the pores and block them.
Large eggs (from old breeders) also run a greater risk of transport damage due to a This inhibits gas exchange. In addition, the chance of
thinner shell, but also because they do not fit very well in the transport trays. contamination increases, because the protective cuticle
is damaged and bacteria may penetrate the shell.
152
Packing eggs
At the breeder farm, the eggs are often put on
plastic trays (farm-traying). That saves time later
on at the hatchery. If the eggs are intended for
export, they are often placed on a pulp tray.
If you have a disinfection step on-farm:
Preferably do not use wet disinfection methods.
If eggs do get wet, let them dry before you treat
them or place them in a cold egg storage.
If the eggs are put on the trays directly, select and pack the eggs immediately
after collection.
LOOK-THINK-ACT
Stacking machine for pulp trays.
Is this trolley properly packed?

On this thermal image you can see newly col-
lected warm eggs that are placed under eggs
that have been collected before. This is not
correct. The heat from the lower eggs warms up
the eggs above them, because heat rises. Fill
the trolley from bottom to top so that the cooler
eggs stay cool.
As soon as a trolley has been placed in the egg storage, it must remain there.
Place trays in the trolley in the storage area, and do not remove the trolley
from the storage area to refill it.
Cool down after collection
LOOK-THINK-ACT Store the eggs in a separate room in which the
temperature and humidity are controlled. The
embryos must not be allowed to develop during
storage. Therefore, the storage temperature should
drop slowly to below 21°C within 6 hours after
laying. Below 21°C, any embryonic development
that started during fertilisation stops. At a higher
temperature, the embryos may die or develop une-
venly, causing abnormalities.
But beware: bacteria on the shell can be pulled
into the egg while it cools down, because the
contents shrink slightly during cooling, creating
the air chamber. Make sure that the cooling is very
gradual!
Even fresh eggs that end up in the middle of a
pulp-tray halfway up the stack, cool down too
Do you see the misplaced egg?
slowly. Plastic trays or setter trays work better.
Eggs should be placed with the point down, so that the germinal disc Make sure that there is good air circulation in the
on the rising yolk cannot stick to the shell membranes. Sometimes storage area, so that the eggs can cool down more
eggs do end up in the tray the wrong way around. 95% of these
misplaced eggs don’t hatch. In practice, this sometimes involves 4% easily.
of the total number of eggs incorrectly placed. This number should
be below 0.5%. Check the adjustment of the collection machine. Two Point setting
incorrectly placed eggs can be seen in the 5th row from the bottom.
If you keep the eggs for more than seven days,
you have to turn them every day. Eggs are stored
point-down, because:
• It reduces the risk of the yolk coming loose
(chalazae are strongest at the tip).
• When eggs are placed in the wrong direction,
the chick develops with its head in the tip:
there is no air chamber and the tip is the
hardest part of the egg.
Correct placing is much more difficult in rounder
eggs. Train yourself. You can check if you’re doing it
right by marking the presumed top and then placing
it in water. The air chamber will always float a bit.
If eggs are packed in boxes, make sure that the eggs are first cooled down Heating and cooling are twice as fast on plastic trays
to storage temperature (18°C) otherwise they will cool down too slowly and as on pulp trays, because the air movement between
embryonic development will continue in the meantime. This is also the case the eggs is much higher. Do not wrap the trolleys in
when wrapping a pallet with plastic. As an alternative you could use net plastic until the eggs have all cooled down to storage
wrapping. temperature. Always use plastic with holes or gauze for
sufficient cooling.

Storage
The storage temperature must be adapted to the
duration of storage and kept as constant as pos-
sible. A temperature of 15°C is better than the
usual 18°C for longer storage periods. The set
temperature is determined in consultation with
the hatchery.
Don’t place a fan for cooling or heating directly on
the eggs, since this will result in temperature dif-
ferences in the eggs. Provide indirect ventilation.
Regularly check the temperature distribution in
the storage area, possibly with a heat camera.
The storage area should have smooth floors and
a smooth ceiling so that it is easy to clean. Clean
and disinfect the room at least once a week and Keep the space where the eggs are collected and stored clean and tidy.
perform a regular bacteriological check. The size Make sure you have a good pest control. If the door of the storage room is
often used, storage temperature will fluctuate too much. Don’t disturb the
of the storage room depends on the size of the
environment and make sure there is a lock and an automatic door closer on
flock, the nature of the packaging material and the door.
the storage time. With a flock of 30,000 hens and
a storage time of 7 days, approximately 115 m2 is
sufficient.
Relationship between storage period and storage temperature
Storage period (days) Storage temperature
1-3 20-23°C 68-73°F
4-7 15-18°C 59-64°F
>7 12-15°C 54-59°F
> 13 12°C 54°F
Preferably set the hatching eggs within 7 days. Storing for more than 7 days
causes a reduced hatchability because cells of the embryo die off and the
internal quality of the egg decreases, especially the quality of the protein.
If longer storage is unavoidable, a cooler storage temperature will help to
After cleaning the storage room, disinfect the room. Here keep the yolk and protein in good condition. The longer the eggs are stored,
disinfection nozzles are installed to do this. the cooler the ideal storage temperature.
A hen will turn her eggs regularly. During storage you must also turn the eggs every hour at a turning angle of 38-45 degrees. In this
way, you ensure a good distribution of nutrients and prevent the embryo from sticking to the shell membranes.
Humidity
The humidity should be between 75 and 80% to
prevent the eggs from drying out. Normally a
hatching egg loses 1% of its weight per week.
This is normal.
Effects of storage
• An egg needs at least one day rest after lay
before setting.
• Every day you store a hatching egg, it takes
an extra hour of incubation time. At the
hatchery, fresh eggs must be stored and set
at different times.
• After 5 days of storage, the hatch rate is
0.5 to 1% lower for each additional day of
storage.
• When stored for more than 12 days, the
weight of the chicks is lower at hatch and
the quality of the chicks decreases.
In this storage room the climate control units are just
above the pallets.
When cold eggs are placed in a warm, humid Take regular samples of the egg surface to check the
environment, condensation forms. This creates a risk hygienic status of the eggs. In this way you are able to
of infection: water can penetrate the protective layer monitor your processes. In case of low hygiene: check
around the egg and bacteria multiply more quickly in a the nests and egg conveyors and clean them. Do not mix
humid environment. Condensation also causes moulds to washed floor eggs with originally clean eggs.
develop on the eggshell.
These eggs have fungal stains. Moulds are pulling in Storage temperature and humidity meter in the egg
through the eggshell. A second danger of fungi is that storage room.
they can quickly affect other eggs nearby.

Washing eggs
Washing is not a good practice for hatching eggs
so should never be a routine measure for all
eggs! Whether or not floor eggs are washed dif-
fers per country. In some countries, all floor eggs
are thrown away because of the likelihood of poor
quality – especially with older flocks. Keep in mind
that 1% washed floor eggs can cause all broilers to
have to be treated with antibiotics at the broiler
farm later. The best thing you can do to preserve
chick quality is to destroy dirty eggs. Washing can
Bangers burst open in the incubator and infect other eggs. This is caused by
cover up that the eggs were dirty on the outside, the accumulation of gases in the egg as it decays. Damaged eggs, soiled
but on the inside, they are often already infec- eggs, eggs with different shells or mould-infected eggs increase the risk: an
egg infected with Salmonella that bursts open in the hatcher can infect all the
ted with bacteria. Never wash clean eggs! A lot eggs (and chicks) in the batch.
of research has been done to show that chicks
from unwashed eggs need little or no antibiotic
treatment. A washed egg will never be a first-class
hatching egg again, since you have removed the pro-
tective cuticle.
The cuticle is a waxy layer which prevents bacteria from entering the egg.
You can tell when you washed it off. The picture on the left shows an intact
You can feel if an egg has been cleaned. It feels rougher cuticle: a drop of water beads on the egg. The picture on the right shows
because part of the cuticle has been washed away. Eggs the cuticle has been washed off: the water runs off the egg and penetrates
with a good cuticle feel smooth. With UV light you can through the pores.
quickly identify whether dirty eggs are washed, rinsed or
wiped clean.
Example of a good washing machine: uses 3 times clean water per wash, rinsing temperature 42-45°C.
157
Washing procedures
Points of attention when washing eggs Floor and soiled eggs have large numbers of bac-
Collect the dirty eggs several times a day and wash them immedia- teria and fungi on the eggshell. They can infect
tely, as soon as possible after collecting them.
• Washing can be done with softened tap water. the embryo in the egg (bangers) or at hatching.
• After every 150 eggs, the water must be changed if it is not Washing these dirty eggs reduces the risk of explo-
already done automatically. ders, but this must be done properly and with
• The washing water should be about 42 to 45°C, to prevent
bacteria from being sucked into the egg as it cools. Avoid warmer clean water. If there is a shortage of hatching eggs,
water, otherwise the embryo will die. it can happen that dirty eggs are still set. Always
• Do not wash longer than 3 to 4 minutes and do not rub with
set these eggs separately. Preferably do this in
a cloth as this will spread any bacteria and increase the risk of
sucking in. separate incubators (logistic incubation), so that
• Use a detergent at a concentration of 0.5 to 1% in the washing chicks from dirty eggs cannot contaminate the
water (5 to 10 grams/litre of water).
good chicks from clean eggs. However, the chicks
• After washing, rinse the egg with sterile water that is slightly
warmer than the washing water. from dirty eggs are often mixed with a batch of
• Then dry the eggs in a room at 22°C. The drying area must be chicks from good hatching eggs, which increases
dust-free and clean.
• Make sure that the trays are not stacked in a way that the eggs
the risk of failure for the flock. Chicks from dirty
cannot dry properly. eggs can carry harmful germs.
• Remember that washed hatching eggs are always at greater risk
of producing poor-quality chicks. That’s why you should always
keep them separate. Disinfection
In most cases, disinfection is done at the hatchery
by specialised personnel. If it takes place at the
breeder farm at all, you must follow strict protocols
in order to achieve the desired effect.
The washing water must always be warmer than 41°C so

that it is always warmer than the warmest egg in the egg
collection. The eggs are never uniform in temperature just
after collecting (the eggs on this thermal image were laid
within a period of two hours prior to this picture).
Make sure you use the right washing water temperature and that you don’t
mistake Fahrenheit and Celsius. 100°F is a good temperature for washing
water, but 100°C is boiling water; the embryo is lost, but you may have it for Deliver washed eggs separately and clearly marked, for
breakfast. example at the bottom of the container.

Candling and breakout
Some breeder farmers have a small hatcher to picture of the fertility rate. After all, fertility and
randomly check fertility. This allows you to identify hatchability are two different things. The male’s
any abnormalities at an earlier stage. Otherwise sperm can be good and so can the fertility, but
you will only read this in the result report from the hatchability may still be poor. The results of the
hatchery after 4 weeks. inspection process are input to help the breeder
Inspection systems are not always able to dis- improve results.
tinguish between infertile and early death. Also, Breakout is used at the breeder farm to analyse
various diseases and abnormalities such as blood whether eggs were infertile or if the embryo died
ring, black eye, etc, can’t be easily recognised by afterwards and at what stage. There are many dif-
a machine, at least not yet. For this, you’ll have ferent causes, both at the hatchery and the bree-
to break the eggs. You use a breakout form der farm; good communication will allow you to
for a complete overview. A breakout gives a good troubleshoot and correct issues in future flocks.
Fertile egg, but embryo died during setting. Infertile egg. Fertile egg, but early dead of embryo (blood
ring visible).
Hatchability problems and their causes

Problem Farm Hatchery
Early dead Inadequate egg collection Formalin exposure 12-96 hours
(1-7 days) Nutrition Slow to reach incubation temperatures
Floor/soiled eggs Condensation on egg surface
Fluctuating temperature during storage Incorrect turning angle/frequency
Long egg storage
Fluctuating egg storage temperature
Mid dead Nutritional deficiencies Embryo temperature too high
(6-14 days) Contamination
Late dead Nutritional deficiencies Inappropriate incubator temperatures/humidity
(15-19 days) Contamination Transfer damage
Eggs set upside down (tip up)
Insufficient water loss
At pipping Nutritional deficiencies Inadequate turning/eggs set upside down
Transfer damage
Excessive fumigation in hatcher
Long egg storage
Contamination High levels of floor eggs Egg shell disinfection inappropriate
Poor nest hygiene Condensation on egg surface during storage or transport
Thin or cracked shells
High levels of contamination in the hatchery
Malpositions Beak above right wing - nutritional Head in small end – egg incubated upside down, high incubation temperature or
deficiencies (linoleic acid) or heat stress. shallow turning angle
Beak above right wing – heat stress
Other malposition – causes unknown
Malformations Exposed brain – high early incubation temperatures
Ectopic viscera (exposed intestines) – high incubation temperatures mid-term
Extra limbs – rough handling or jarring of the eggs during collection/transport
On-farm transport Transport of hatching eggs
The hatching eggs must be moved to storage after Hatching eggs are the final and valuable product
collection: so-called on-farm transport. This must of the broiler breeder. Transport is a delicate final
be done carefully, because the hatching eggs are step to hatching. The major concerns when trans-
very vulnerable. Check the transport route that porting hatching eggs are that shocks, temperature
the egg trolleys must take. Make sure the floor is fluctuations and condensation should be preven-
evenly paved, preferably with tarmac or concrete ted. Transportation should be as clean as possible:
(no cobble stones, brick road). Shocks may not use new pulp trays, clean plastic trays and clean
only harm the egg shell, but also the embryo incubator containers. Work hygienically to prevent
inside. Shocks cause damage to the germinal disc. cross-contamination of pathogens: remove any
With these hatching eggs you see reduced hatcha- residues of eggs on the trays, clean and disin-
bility, especially with eggs from older hens (50-60 fect so no pathogens can enter the breeder farm.
weeks), or abnormalities on the day-old-chicks. Even the driver should not enter the breeder farm
beyond the egg storage area.
Logistic planning
Hatcheries often collect eggs 2-3 times per week. If
you collect them more frequently, you have more
eggs from the same production date but smaller
batches per production location (farm). A hatchery
will try to set eggs with the same characteristics
together as much as possible. If a choice is made
as to which eggs are hatched together, the follo-
Extra limbs were formed, caused by shaking and wing priority order applies:
vibrations, prior to the hatching process. 1. Origin (farm)
2. Flock age
3. Production date
A few days difference in the production date of
the eggs therefore weighs less heavily than a few
weeks difference in the age of the flock.
A higher frequency is often applied in order to get
the eggs to the hatchery - where temperature and
humidity is generally better controlled - as fast as
possible. Once they are at the hatchery, the mana-
ger has more choice in eggs once he has to fill
With electronic eggs it is possible to map the course of the incubators in an optimal way. If the eggs are
the eggs. These eggs can indicate where the risk points
in the system are. It is often the transitions between belts at that point still on the farm, he would not have
and/or worn nest mats that cause hairline cracks. them available to set.
Avoid potholes and unevenness. When moving the eggs, they must not be subjected to rough handling, excessive vibrations or shocks.
This influences the development of the embryo and can cause mortality or abnormalities in the chicks.

Transport systems Characteristics of various means of egg transport
There are various systems for transport of hatching Pulp Plastic Setter Setter trays on metal
eggs that differ in: trays pallet trolley transport trolley
• Capacity capacity + + - -
• Shock proofing hygiene -* + + +
• Hygiene shocks + 0 -- -
labour - 0 ++ +
weight + +/0
Don’t underestimate the weight of egg transport.
ventilation/ - 0 + +
You can easily pack 20,000 eggs per meter of truck
temp. control
length. At 60 grams per egg and a 12-meter length,
- = negative effect 0 = neutral + = positive effect
this is 15,000 kg.
If your transport is less compact (like on setter * Pulp trays and cardboard boxes are less good for hygiene when re-used. In case of
single use (common for hatching eggs but increases costs), hygiene is good.
trolleys), you have half the egg capacity and there-
fore half the weight. Day-old-chicks are much ligh-
ter (from a 60-gram egg, you get a 40-gram chick).
Hatching eggs in setter trays in setter trolleys. These can be placed Hatching eggs in setter trays in farm transport trolleys.
directly into the setter.
Hatching eggs in plastic boxes and trays. Hatching eggs on cardboard/pulp trays for export.
Transport movements Preventing cracks and breakage
The main damage that occurs because of rough
transport are hairline cracks, breaks, dehydration
and embryo damage. During transport do not pull
up or brake too hard. However, the movements
most likely to cause cracks are sideways move-
ments. It is also easier to secure carts down the
length of the cargo space than across the width.
Bumpers are proven to prevent damage. If you
do not use air cushions, this results in 0.5% more
cracks, up to a maximum of 4% lower hatchability
and 0.5% embryo damage. Of course this is highly
dependent on the quality of the roads, the trucks
and the duration of transport.
Lateral: sideways. Caused by bends and turns, wind.
Make sure the eggs don’t move during transport. In this

case a simple solution does the trick: a few pulp trays
as bumpers between two pallets. The boxes around the
Horizontal: front, rear. Caused by accelerating and braking. pallets secure a stable microclimate (especially to prevent
condensation during transfer to and from the truck).
Besides driving carefully, bumpers in the truck can

absorb shocks. Inflatable bumpers are empty when you
load the truck. Once loaded, they are inflated creating a
Vertical: up, down. Caused by potholes, speed bumps, etc. flexible soft cushion.

Climatic conditions
It takes a few hours for eggs to cool down or heat
up. Still, temperature fluctuation during transport
might cause problems if transport lasts a long
time or takes place in extreme weather conditions.
Physiologically, the hatching process starts at
25°C. However, in practice 20°C is considered too
high an egg temperature because, at this point,
development has already started slowly. 12°C
is normally maintained as storage temperature,
sometimes 4 to 5°C. Below this point there is a
risk of freezing, leading to embryonic mortality.
A rise in temperature can cause the onset of
embryo development and, if this is not part of the
hatching process, it is unwanted and may cause
embryonic mortality. A protective measure against condensation is a transport cover to create a micro-
In an open truck, the outside airflow can have climate. This prevents warm moisture containing air from reaching the eggs directly.
quite an impact, especially in extreme climates. In
closed trucks (even without climate control) this is
lay setting lay setting lay setting
Temperature (°C)
less of a problem; temperature will remain relati-

vely constant. transport
Condensation is a real danger for hatching eggs:
• Water is an ideal environment for bacterial and transport transport storage
fungal growth on the shell surface. temperature
• Water drops may contain contaminants that

could enter the egg shell. Ideally from laying to setting the temperature follows a U-form. For transport
you could even cool it down a bit more to create a V-form. What should be
prevented at all times is a W-form (unless it is on purpose: SPIDES).
Mollier diagram Example: ambient temperature is 25°C with RH 60%. On eggs stored at 18°C,
Warm air can contain more moisture than cold condensation will not yet take place (A). However, when transported in a truck
air. When air cools down, relative humidity (RH) at 17°C and temperature at arrival has risen to 27°C at the same RH of 60%,
will increase and when this reaches 100% water condensation will occur (B). In other words, all weather situations to the right of
condensates (dew point). This happens when warm the black line will cause condensation of water on the eggs.
outside air reaches the cold egg shell: water in the air
immediately condenses on the surface. Outside Outside
RH in the storage room is not crucial for the problem Storage
25°C, RH 60% Truck 27°C, RH 60%
Storage in
on farm hatchery
of condensation, it is mainly the conditions of the dew point = 17°C 17°C, RH 60% dew point = 18,5°C
18°C, RH 60% 18°C, RH 60%
outside air in combination with egg shell temperature = no condensation = CONDENSATION
that causes condensation. There are, in fact, two
major stress moments when it comes to condensa- A B
tion at the time of transport:
1. From the cool storage at the poultry farm to the
transport truck. B
2. From the transport truck to the storage room at
Temperature (°C)
the hatchery. A
(%)
This can be read in the so-called Mollier diagram.

idity
Hum
tive
Rela
163
CHAPTER 10:
Health and diseases
For optimal production, you need healthy birds. Besides this, the broiler breeder delivers the raw
materials for the next step in the production chain. So, health is not only an important issue for the
results of the broiler breeder farm, but also for the results of their offspring: the broiler.
The sooner you recognise the symptoms of disease, the better.
Health management is an important part of broiler

breeder management. This is more than just trea-
ting unhealthy birds, preventing diseases should
also be a priority
Some diseases can Preventing an outbreak of disease includes:
be transmitted from
mother to chick. That 1. Optimal biosecurity.
is why the health of 2. Optimal protection by the immune system
broiler breeders is extra (vaccination).
important. On the other
hand, immunity can 3. Early diagnosis.
also be transferred. 4. Adequate treatment.
So, some vaccinations
are actually intended
to protect the broiler
and make use of this
transference effect
(maternal immunity).

A healthy chicken
Of course you need to be able to distinguish a
healthy bird from a sick one. You have to be able
to find the bird that sticks out.
Healthy breeders nice and cheerful sound
red and
clear eyes clear wattles
behaviour: alert,
comes towards you
clean nostrils no injuries to head,

neck, back, and tail
straight neck
closed beak
firm straight back
proudly upright posture crop
full tail
wings well positioned
along the body clean, moist,
and nicely pink cloaca
clean, smooth, and even plumage
pink and moist smooth and flexible joints

mucous membranes
straight, yellow legs,
not overly warm or cold
straight toes firm, dry droppings

short nails smooth footpads
Unhealthy breeders
behaviour: sits/stands still in a
corner, lethargic, and slow
screaming, squeaking, wattles and comb: tongue and eyes: mucous,
congested sound pale, rough, and mucous membranes semi-closed, frothy,
shriveled swollen, white, dry, curved neck or
pale and dry
dull/pale in colour extremely
pale or dark-red stretched out
head, often hidden
under the wing convex back
gasping
bald back
dirty feathers wings drooping along the
scabs on body or standing upward
the neck bald wings
dirty,
moist nostrils pecked tail feathers
scratched hips
breast blister dirty, bulging,
drooping and dry, and pale cloaca
pendulous hunched up posture
lame, deformed legs crop scratsches and/or
(O/X-shaped) wounds
bumble foot thick joints
bended toe
bumble foot
long nails, bumble foot abnormal droppings: discoloured
legs too hot or too cold short legs crooked/curled (bloody, black, sulphur), foamy and/or liquid
toes
10. H e a l t h a n d d i s e a s es 165
Vaccination At the hatchery, but mainly during rearing, choices
Because the maternal immunity (antibody level) have to be made about vaccinations. Factors that
decreases in the first weeks of life, chicks need to determine the vaccination programme (number
be vaccinated repeatedly to build up immunity. of vaccinations, kind of vaccine, administration
Not only to protect the broiler breeders them- method):
selves but also to give them a high level of anti- • Legislation.
bodies in order to prevent infections that can be • Epidemiological situation: field (infection)
vertically transmitted to the progeny. Examples pressure in the neighbourhood of the rearing
of vertically transmitted viruses are: REO, CAV, farm but also of the breeder farm.
Adenovirus and AE (Epidemic Tremor). Only heal- • Cost/benefit analysis.
thy flocks should be vaccinated. • Availability of vaccines.
There is only one exception: an emergency vacci- • Required level of antibodies
nation can be necessary to stop further outbreaks; (sometimes by legislation, e.g. ND).
reports of good experiences have been published • Vaccination for other diseases.
with outbreaks of ILT and Fowl pox. But always • Immune status of the birds
keep in mind: disease prevention by vaccination (measured by monitoring).
alone is not enough! • Biosecurity and history of the farm
(e.g. Salmonella).
Three goals of vaccination • Type of bird: broiler breeders (Reo!) versus
layer breeders (EDS in brown layers!).
1. To protect the birds against specific infectious

diseases.
2. To induce immunity (high levels of protective

antibodies) to protect against vertical
transmission of diseases.
Make sure you store live vaccines according to

the guidelines provided: in a refrigerator (top),
3. To produce day-old-chicks with high levels of preferably with a temperature alarm (bottom).
maternal antibodies (maternal immunity).

Efficacy of vaccination
Vaccination efficacy depends on, for example:
• Age of the birds.
• Type of vaccine: live or inactivated (killed).
• Way of administration.
• Number of vaccinations.
• Percentage of birds that really get in contact
with the vaccine in an adequate dose per bird.
Live (attenuated) vaccines have an earlier res-
ponse than killed (inactivated) vaccines that
deliver a slower, but stronger and longer lasting
immune response.
Gumboro vaccination of breeders

The first vaccination against Gumboro in grandpa-
rent or commercial broiler breeder flocks may be
done at the hatchery or in the field. Hatchery vac-
cination ensures a uniform and consistent immu- Especially for respiratory diseases, vaccination is more effective if the ‘target
tissue’ is hit. E.g. for ND-vaccination an aerosol in very small droplets that go
nisation using vector or immune-complex vaccines.
deep into the respiratory tract (lungs and airsacs) will give a better immune
Field vaccination with live conventional vaccines may response than a coarse spray or a drinking water administration. But to prevent
be done once or twice via drinking water. Measuring for a severe vaccination reaction (an adverse reaction) the first vaccination
should not be done by aerosol with certain ND-vaccines! Vector ND vaccines
maternal antibody levels at day of hatch will help
have shown good efficacy as a starter vaccination at the hatchery.
to calculate the appropriate water vaccination age.
Later on, close to the end of the rearing period, a
booster vaccination with an injectable inactivated
vaccine is done to generate high levels of antibodies
to be transferred to the progeny to protect it during
the first weeks of the broilers’ life.
For some diseases, special formulations have been developed to give a boost
injection vaccination after prior live vaccinations: e.g. combination of IB, ND,
TRT, Gumboro. For others these oil-emulsions (killed vaccines) are single
vaccinations: a good example is the killed vaccine with reovirus in combination
with Gumboro.
In recent years new vaccines have been developed The storage of HVT and Rispens vaccines against Marek
to vaccinate in advance at the hatchery in ovo. This should be in containers with liquid nitrogen (-196°C).
technique can now be used for various vector vaccines,
and several other vaccines are being developed.
Vaccination at the hatchery
Effective and efficient immunization of flocks
starts at the hatchery, where uniform, consistent
and massive administration of vaccines (In-Ovo or
at hatch) ensure protected new flocks. Vaccination
of breeders could be centralized at the hatchery
eliminating field vaccinations.
Every chick must be injected with one dose of
vaccine in a proper way: subcutaneously or intra-
muscularly. Spray vaccinations with IB and ND
vaccines are common in hatcheries as well. Eye-
drop vaccinations in which one dose per bird is
administered are more precise but also expensive
and time consuming. But in situations where there
Also for vaccinations in a carrousel at A properly applied vaccination: the are outbreaks of these diseases, this method (pos-
the hatchery - often in combination coloured suspension can be seen in
with beak treatment - a dye can be the neck under the skin. sibly in combination with an injection with a kil-
used in the Marek suspension, to led vaccine) ensures that the chicks get early and
prove that the injection is carried out
long-lasting protection.
subcutaneously.
Types of vaccines
Immune-complex vaccines include a live vaccine in
a temporary combination with specific antibodies.
After injection, the complex is naturally and progres-
sively degraded, as the maternal immunity goes
down. Therefore, the live vaccine is freely released
and can immunise the bird at the right time.
Vector vaccines are using a carrier (=vector) virus,
usually a Marek’s HVT strain, or a fowlpox virus. By
genetic engineering genes from another disease
agent (Marek’s, IBD, ND, ILT) are inserted at a
specific location in the DNA of the carrier. After
injection, the vector virus replicates and bears the
foreign proteins on its surface, immunizing the
bird against them. In breeders, HVT is particularly
interesting due to its lifelong persistence in the
bird. HVT vector vaccine cannot be administered
in combination with other HVT vaccines, since this
will reduce the development of immunity against
both diseases.
Custom (autogenous) vaccines are needed in
case no commercial vaccine is available to address
a field issue. In such a case, relevant organs, or
bacterial colonies need to be brought to a labora-
tory for identification, propagation, and incorpora-
tion into a killed preparation.
In the hatchery, coccidiosis vaccination is applied by gel spray (top) Monitoring vaccination paired with surveillance
or water spray (bottom). After vaccination, it is recommended to keep programs will ensure the efficiency of the immu-
the chicks in a bright area for at least 10 minutes - preferably longer -
to stimulate the vaccine (droplets) ingestion. nizations and the early detection of emergent or
sub-clinical pathogens that impair optimal flock
performance and production parameters.

Vaccination during rearing Most important diseases for vaccination
Vaccinations during the rearing period should Disease Specific vaccination information
be planned very accurately. Vaccinations against IB Because early IB-infections can harm the reproductive tract
respiratory diseases should have at least 14 days and cause ‘false layers’ a good programme should be planned
with the several, available serotypes. Preferably live IB-vaccines
between them, but this cannot always be done should be administered by eye-drop or (coarse) spray. Aerosol
(e.g. because of legislation). and drinking water administration are also possibilities. To give
the IB protection a real ‘boost’ an injection with a killed vaccine
after several live vaccines is advisable. Possibly combined with
spraying every 4-5 weeks during production.
ND ND vector or live vaccination can be administered at the hat-
chery. At least it has to be carried out early in life. To prevent
vaccination reactions that are too severe, the first live ND vacci-
nation can be administered by spray or drinking water with a mild
vaccine. The next ND vaccinations should be given by fine spray
or aerosol followed by injection with a killed vaccine to get high
protective titres against ND.
Fowl pox Vaccination against Fowl pox should preferably be given in the
wing-web and vaccine take should be checked 7-10 days after
application: a skin lesion (pock) proves that the vaccination has
been carried out properly.
ILT Vaccination against ILT during rearing should preferably be car-
ried out by eye-drop. Spray and drinking water vaccinations can
Vaccination of a flock requires good organisation. Here, have serious vaccination reactions as consequence. Another
the person sitting grabs the bird and hands it over to a option is to use a vector HVT-ILT or FPV-ILT vaccine. Or to do
person who administers a wing web vaccination (Fowl both vaccinations: at day one with a vector vaccine and during
pox), the second person (on the left) applies an oil- rearing with an eye-drop. In case of high infection pressure in a
emulsion IM-injection. region, two times eye-drop is advised.
CAV and AE Vaccination against CAV and Epidemic Tremor (Avian Encepha-
lomyelitis) should be never forgotten and furthermore the level of
antibodies should be tested at the end of rearing to show that
the birds are well protected and no claim can be made against
the rearing company or farmer (even the breeder farmer).
An example of a vaccination schedule for broiler breeders

Age Route Disease Type
Day 0 Injection Mareks Rispens Live
(hatchery). Injection Mareks HVT+ND Vector
Injection Gumboro Immune-complex
Direct young birds along the long side of the house (or Spray IB (Mass)+ IB (793B) Live
compartment) to be efficient with a coarse spray vaccination. Spray-Gel Coccidiosis Live
Spray ND Apathogenic-enterotropic Live
Day 1 Drinking water SE Live
Week 6 Drinking water SE Live
Week 8 Wing web FP & LT & AE (Vector LT-FP Vector
vaccine Cutter, Calnek 1143)
Wing web CIAV (Del-Ros) Live
Week 9 Spray IB (793B) Live
Week 10 Spray TRT Live
Week 16 Injection TRT+IB+ND+Gumboro Killed
Injection Reo Killed
Injection Salmonella Killed
Week 18 Spray IB (Mass) or IB (793B) Live
An automatic injector ensures that the injection is placed at

the correct depth and correct place in the breast muscle.
Other vaccination methods during rearing
Coarse spray vaccination Fine spray vaccination (aerosol)
A coarse spray is often applied in the boxes: chicks are Fine spray vaccination creates a mist of fine droplets that
easy to control and have time to inhale/ingest the droplets. are inhaled by the birds.
Drinking water vaccination Wing-web vaccination
Use a dye for a drinking water vaccination to check whether A wing-web vaccination often uses multiple needles to
the vaccine solution reaches all parts of the poultry house. give the vaccine more contact points into the skin.
Eye-nose drop vaccination
Manual eye-drop vaccination. Automatic eye-drop vaccination.
Correct administration?
A blue coloured tongue is a signal that the eye-drop, Proof that the fowl pox vaccination was successful:
nose-drop or drinking water vaccination has been you see a skin lesion in the wing-web.
properly executed.
Failures that have been made in the past…… to learn from
Mistake Consequence
Vaccination too early, e.g. Gumboro-vaccination at day 21 with No take up of the vaccine: no development of immunity, chicks are
intermediate live vaccine still susceptible
Vaccination with a ‘strong’ ND vaccine and/or aerosol at a young age Severe vaccination reaction with respiratory distress
of the chicks
Vaccination by drinking water: before vaccination, A lot of chicks will drink water without vaccine, so no development of
too much residual water present in the drinking lines immunity and a lot of birds are still susceptible for the virus
Vaccine is dissolved in drinking water with disinfectant Vaccine virus will be harmed: vaccination will not be effective
Vaccine is dissolved in a solution with hot water Vaccine virus will be harmed: vaccination will not be effective
Incorrect storage of vaccine: e.g. live vaccines that were not stored at Reduction of live dose of virus; oocysts will be harmed or even killed:
refrigerator temperature (2-8°C), coccidiosis vaccine (live attenuated, vaccination will not be effective
with oocysts) is stored in the freezer (-20°C)
Anti-coccidiosis drugs in drinking water or feed (coccidiostats, ionophores) Poor or no result of the coccidiosis vaccination
Ventilation is not turned off during spray or aerosol vaccination Poor or no result of the vaccination
Antibiotic administration or coccidiostats before live bacterial Poor or no result of the vaccination
vaccination (e.g. live Salmonella)
Intramuscular injection
✓ ✓ ✓
Correct injections, you see two small Always use sharp needles. Rule of Oil emulsion vaccine correctly injected
injections points at the correct location. thumb: for each bottle of vaccine of between the superficial and deep breast
1,000 doses, you use a new needle! muscle; the vaccine will stay on its place.
X X X
An intramuscular vaccination gone Local inflammation after oil-emulsion If injected too superficially (blunt needle,
wrong. The muscle tissue is locally injection. touching the breast bone), the vaccine
severely inflamed, e.g. because of emulsion may leak back under the skin to
needle contamination. causing a subcutaneous inflammation.
Disease symptoms
The first diagnosis of diseases is often from sig-
nals in the poultry house. Do you notice differen-
ces? In behaviour, posture, signals from the envi-
ronment, signals from data or visual inspection?
Behaviour Posture
Birds that are not feeling well tend to hide. Chickens that are not feeling well often sit in a hunched-
up position. This can be a signal of coccidiosis.
Signals from the environment Signals from data

If you see wet litter, this could be caused by leaking With modern tools you can analyse the performance
nipples or condensation, but it could also be caused of birds almost in real time. Mortality, weight, water
by wet droppings: examine droppings in each and feed intake are important parameters. Not only
inspection round. to monitor production results, but often they show
the first signals of a disease outbreak.
Clinical inspection Post mortem examination

If a bird stands out, because of its behaviour or Dissection provides more information about which
posture, pick it up for further inspection. organs are involved; specific alterations can give an
indication of certain diseases.

Laboratory diagnosis
For many poultry diseases the only way to get a clear diagnosis is by laboratory testing. Since a lot of
symptoms are very general and could be caused by a variety of diseases.
Blood samples are usually taken from the wing vein. Analysis of the chick paper or the box liners can provide
Paired sampling (with an interval of 3-4 weeks) can show you information about the Salmonella status of the
an increase of antibody titres. delivered chicks.
For respiratory problems, a swab is taken from the trachea of the bird.
Droppings can be analysed for

a variety of intestinal infectious
diseases, e.g. Salmonella,
Campylobacter, Histomonas,
intestinal worms and coccidiosis.
Viral diseases
Infectious Bronchitis (IBV)

The IB virus is found worldwide, is highly contagious,
and changes continuously, producing new variants all the
time. In young birds IB results in respiratory problems,
often followed by an E.coli infection. Some strains can
also cause kidney disease and therefore wet litter.
In adult birds, infection may result in reduced egg pro-
duction, eggshell abnormalities, pale egg shells
and a watery viscosity of the albumen.
Because IB virus can also harm the oviduct of pullets,
and immature birds, limited egg production over a
prolonged period and also ‘false layers’ (birds that fail to
come into production) can be seen.
An effective IB vaccination programme should be based
A false layer adopts a penguin False layer, caused by IB. You can on epidemiological information from the area of rearing
stance. This abnormality, which we see some follicles in regression, and production. Vertical transmission does not seem to
see in birds in production, is caused blood veins around the follicles and be relevant for IBV.
by an IB infection early in the rearing very weak follicles (bottom). There are no specific treatment options for IB.
period (juvenile IB infection).
False layer after a juvenile infection of IB.

The ovary is active (follicles present), but
the oviduct is abnormal: filled with fluid.
Avian Influenza (AI, bird flu or fowl pest)

Typical for infection with a Highly Pathogenic Avian
Influenza virus is the sudden increase in mortality.
Symptoms are: swelling of the head, purple
discolouration of the head, comb and wattles;
subcutaneous haemorrhages; shortness of breath;
diarrhoea; lameness; huddling and ruffled feathers.
The AI virus can therefore cause all kinds of symptoms,
making it difficult to identify immediately. AI, NCD,
ILT, TRT and sometimes IB can all produce similar
symptoms. AI is notifiable. In every outbreak of disease
with sudden extremely high mortality, you should suspect
AI. But there are also AI strains that cause only very mild
symptoms in poultry, or none at all (Low Pathogenic AI
IA, bird flu. = LPAI). The big risk of the H5- and H7-strains of LPAI is
that they can mutate spontaneously to HPAI-strains.
Newcastle Disease (ND, pseudo-fowl pest)

ND is not called pseudo-fowl pest for nothing. The symp-
toms of ND and AI are alike as two peas in a pod. ND
is also notifiable and requires the same measures to be
taken as for an AI outbreak. The ND virus is a Paramyxo-
virus, while the AI virus is an Orthomyxovirus. In various
countries there is a legal requirement for commercial
poultry to be vaccinated against this disease. In the
event of a ND outbreak, a rapid ring vaccination in the
area around the contaminated farm will limit the risk of it
spreading further.
174 Proventricular bleeding. Bre e d e r S i gnal s

Infectious Laryngotracheitis (ILT)
ILT is a viral disease which causes severe breathing
problems, loss of production and death.
A proper vaccination with a live vaccine by eye-drop
during rearing will prevent serious outbreaks. Further-
more, a first vaccination can be given at the hatchery
via a vector Marek’s vaccine with ILT in it. Also a vector
vaccine for wing web application is available (FP-LT). In
the event of an ILT outbreak, an emergency vaccination
can limit the damage considerably.
ILT symptoms can be caused by a live conventional
vaccine virus spreading from another flock.
A serious ILT infection causes inflammation of the wind-

pipe and throat. It could lead to mucous plugs and blood
clots. The bird has difficulty taking in enough air and can
even suffocate.
Gumboro disease (Infectious Bursal Disease, IBD)

Gumboro is a serious viral disease that affects young
chickens and can be accompanied by sudden death,
typical watery, yellowy-white urate diarrhoea and re-
duced immunity. Rearing layer type-pullets seem more
susceptible than broiler-type chicks, with mortality rates
sometimes exceeding 50%. Autopsy reveals typical
abnormalities: the bursa is swollen and surrounded by a
glassy skin (oedema), often with haemorrhaging. Muscle
haemorrhaging and swollen kidneys complete the pic-
ture. There is no treatment. Vaccinating young chicks can
effectively prevent the disease, so it is very important to
determine the right time to vaccinate. To do this, a good,
fast lab test of the chicks’ existing immunity levels is
needed. The importance of this is often underestimated. Inflammation of the Bursa of Fabricius (= bursitis).
Some Gumboro vaccines can be injected in the hatchery
(immune-complex, vector).
Chicken anaemia (CAV, Blue wing disease)

Birds of all ages can be infected with the Chicken Infec-
tious Anaemia Virus. Clinical symptoms (anorexia, mortal-
ity, focal skin lesions especially of the wings, co-infection
with staphylococci leading to gangrenous dermatitis) are
only seen in birds at an age of 3 to 4 weeks. Morbidity
varies from 20-60%. Mortality is normally 5-10%
(but: 60% has been experienced!). The virulence of the
virus, the route of infection, the age of the birds and
possible secondary bacterial and viral infections can
influence morbidity, mortality and recovery.
The majority of broiler breeder birds are infected during
rearing by a subclinical field infection, resulting in sterile
immunity. It’s better to perform a standard vaccination by
drinking water or injection during rearing. Haemorrhages on the wing of a young bird with Chicken
CAV-outbreaks in broilers at a young age are the result Infectious Anaemia, hence the name Blue Wing Disease.
of a CAV infection during the production period of broiler
breeder flocks that did not have protection.
At the end of the rearing period, before transport to
the production farm the CAV-status should always be
checked by serology testing.
Fowl pox/Avian Diphtheria
Fowl pox is a common viral disease, it causes economic
losses due to drops in egg production, slow growth and
mortality. Birds can already be infected at a young age;
but also if there is a lack of immunity in older birds. The
disease can be seen in two forms: a cutaneous (skin)
form or a diphtheritic form, or in combination. The skin
form is expressed by lesions on the comb, wattle, eyelids
and non-feathered areas of the body. In the diphtheritic
form typical lesions are seen in the mouth, oesopha-
gus or trachea causing respiratory signs. Birds will eat
and drink less. There is no therapy. Sometimes when a
rearing flock is not yet vaccinated an urgent vaccination
is necessary if there has been an outbreak in the flock or
Fowl pox in the cutaneous form: lesions on the eyelids. in the neighbourhood.
Reovirus Infections
Avian reovirus can cause viral arthritis/tenosynovitis.
Reovirus is a common inhabitant of the intestines of
birds and not all strains are pathogenic. The virus may
be transmitted by droppings from bird to bird. Vertical
(egg) transmission is also a factor when breeder flocks
become infected during egg production.
The first signs of viral arthritis/tenosynovitis are usually
observed in broiler breeder chickens between 6 and 10
weeks of age. The birds are reluctant to walk. A distinct
swelling of the tendons of the shanks and also above the
hock joint can be observed.
Vaccination of broiler breeders during rearing with live
and inactivated vaccines protects against vertical trans-
Tenosynovitis due to a reovirus infection. mission and ensures maternal immunity in the offspring.
It also appears to be of benefit to the birds themselves.
Epidemic tremor (Avian Encephalomyelitis)

Avian Encephalomyelitis is a viral disease that causes
lameness in young chicks, a significant drop in egg
production of between 10 and 15% and an approximate-
ly 5% drop in breeding results in parent birds. The virus
is transmitted to progeny through the egg. In pullets,
around 15% (or anything up to 60%) display lameness
(nervous symptoms, lying on the side) and tremors. The
mortality rate among affected birds is 50%. The tremors
are usually only seen or felt in a small number of birds by
picking them up. Vaccinating parent flocks gives almost
100% protection to their progeny.
Typical lateral position caused by avian encephalomyelitis.

Marek’s disease
Marek’s disease is a Herpes virus infection that can
cause tumours. It resides in the feather follicle cells and
is therefore also found in dust particles from skin and
feathers.
Feather dust – and therefore often Marek’s virus as well
– can be found everywhere where chickens are or have
been. It is therefore important to vaccinate chicks at the
hatchery in-ovo or immediately after hatching. Traditionally
by injection of different strains, like Rispens or HVT or a Neurological: often asymmetrical lameness in the leg,
combtionatie of these two strains. for example. Marek nervous form can be found from 6
Immunity against Marek’s disease needs at least 7-10 weeks onwards.
days after vaccination to build up. So, if there is any
disease for which biosecurity measures are even more
important than vaccination, it is Marek’s disease! House
the new flock in a very clean environment. You should
also keep different aged chicks separate. If inadequate-
ly protected chicks are infected in the first six to eight
weeks of life, disease symptoms will emerge from about
15 weeks. Sometimes serious cases commence well
after the onset of egg production, especially in broiler
breeders or subsequent to moulting.
Ocular: grey, discoloured, irregular Visceral: tumours in internal organs
The disease has several forms: iris (causing blindness) (mainly the liver, spleen, ovaries and
• Neurological sometimes other organs). This form
• Visceral is the most common and may result
• Ocular in extremely high mortality.
Also skin lesions are a possible form of Marek’s disease:
tumours of feather follicles.
Leukosis (ALV)
Avian Leukosis Virus (ALV) can cause severe tumours in
birds of various ages of all kind of organs: liver, spleen,
kidney, heart, lung, ovaria and testicles, bursa of Fabri-
cius, bones, eyes, skin.
Birds can get infected vertically from hen to progeny and
horizontally, by direct or indirect contact.
Diagnosis by specialised laboratories is necessary to
distinguish from other neoplastic diseases (Marek’s
disease, REV).
Primary breeding companies of layer-type and meat-type
have made significant progress in reducing or eradicating
ALV of several subgroups from their breeding lines.
Tumours in the spleen.
Enlarged liver due to either Marek’s disease or leukosis.
Bacterial diseases
Salmonellosis
There are a great number of Salmonella serotypes,
but only some can cause illness in poultry:
S. pullorum causing Pullorum Disease (PD), an acute
disease of chicks and pullets. With mortality rates of
0-100%! Typical symptoms are diarrhoea and greatly
increased mortality, particularly in the first and second
week of life.
S. gallinarum causing Fowl typhoid, mostly affects
mature birds. S. gallinarum results in widespread
mortality, including in older birds. Autopsy reveals
inflammation of internal organs including the ovary and
peritoneum. Antibacterial treatments and vaccinations
are ultimately ineffective. There is no simple way of
eradicating Salmonella, so it is necessary to develop a
specific farm-based approach for each case.
Abnormal ovary with follicle stalk Dark, inflamed pericardium and Losses from peritoneal inflammation caused by
formation, commonly seen with a swollen liver caused by S. enteritidis S. enteritidis are sometimes observed in adult layers.
S. gallinarum infection. infection. In humans, some serotypes that come from poultry,
including S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium, cause
food poisoning with severe diarrhoea. For that reason
according to European guidelines breeder flocks that are
infected with these types of Salmonella (S. enteritidis,
S. typhimurium, S. hadar, S. infantis and S. virchow) will
be culled and slaughtered in a logistic way. S. pullorum
and S. gallinarum are strictly poultry pathogens, so not
dangerous for humans.
In many countries there are national programmes for Salmonella control. Part of this is regular monitoring of reproduction flocks. Samples are
easily taken by walking overshoes (boot swabs) through the house. For broiler breeder flocks this monitoring is extra relevant since Salmonella
can be vertically transmitted via hatching eggs and hatchery.

Colibacillosis
E. coli Peritonitis Syndrome (EPS)

Besides peritonitis, E. coli-infections in adult birds can
also cause pericarditis (inflammation of the heart sac),
perihepatitis (inflammation of the liver capsule) and
salpingitis (inflammation of the oviduct). E. coli-infections
often occur secondarily when the birds’ immunity is
compromised but also primarily by virulent E. coli-
strains, the so called Avian Pathogenic Escherichia
Coli (APEC)-strains. Colibacillosis is the most common
infectious bacterial disease and responsible for significant
economic losses.
In a flock of young chicks with colibacillosis, the birds will
huddle together with raised feathers. Their breathing is
laboured, they snort and cough and often produce thin
droppings. There may be lame birds, and some birds
may stop producing. Losses are between 0.2 and 1%
per day. Autopsy reveals inflamed air sacs, liver capsule
and heart sac. Risk factors for colibacillosis are viral
infections of the respiratory tract, poor house climate and
inadequate hygiene.
Normal abdominal cavity. Peritonitis. Exudate of fibrin covering
EPS is very common in adult hens: moderate to severely
the intestinal tract.
increased loss of birds in top condition is often the only
symptom. Production is usually more or less unaffected.
Sick birds are rare, and production is usually maintained.
Treatment of E. coli is possible with antibiotics: sensitivity
tests are needed. Live vaccine (O78) and killed vaccine
(to provide natural passive immunity to progeny of vacci-
nated hens) are available.
The use of autogenous vaccination can be helpful if
specific pathogenic strains are involved.
Yolk sac infection

Young chicks can die in the first days of life because of
an inflammation of the navel (omphalitis). Because the
navel is very close to the yolk sac the yolk sac is usually
involved.
An acute inflammation of the navel shows redness, swell-
ing and oedema. E. coli infection is most common, but
Enterococcus faecalis is also frequently isolated.
Chicks that live longer than 4 days may also have peri-
tonitis, inflammation of the heart sac and liver capsule.
Survivors are usually stunted and have stunted growth.
Possibly highly pathogenic E. coli strains are involved
resulting in high mortality.
Biosecurity (hatching egg hygiene, hatchery hygiene) is
essential as a preventive measure. Pictures after autopsy. On the left: a chick without a yolk sac infection. On the
Bacteriological examination including sensitivity tests are right: with a yolk sac infection. Note the size, dirty-yellow colour, veining, and
needed to find out which antibiotic treatment should be the runny yolk content.
chosen.
Mycoplasmosis (CRD: Chronic Respiratory Disease)
Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) infection can cause
severe respiratory signs because of caseous airsacculitis,
sinusitis (swollen heads), perihepatitis and pericarditis
in breeders, resulting in mortality (especially when the
disease occurs in combination with other disease agents
like IB virus and E. coli). Feed consumption is reduced
and egg production declines.
Because Mg is vertically transmitted, the progeny will be
infected too and have serious problems.
However in some countries a ‘stamping out’ policy has
been successful in producing only Mg free progeny.
Vaccination is possible (live vaccines and inactivated
vaccines), but this is not permitted in every country.
Swollen head caused by mycoplasmosis
Fowl cholera (Pasteurellosis)

Fowl cholera is a disease that mainly occurs in adult
birds that are in production; they are more susceptible.
Mortality usually ranges from 0-20%.
How the bacterium has been introduced into a flock is
often unclear. It has an acute and a chronic form and
is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida. The
acute form is associated mainly with higher mortality and
diarrhoea. The chronic form can result in inflammation
of the comb and wattles. Often males are more affected
than females. Options are preventive vaccination and
antibiotic treatment.
Swollen comb and wattles caused by Pasteurella multocida.
Coryza (Avibacterium paragallinarum)

Coryza is caused by the bacterium Avibacterium
paragallinarum (formerly known as Haemophilus
paragallinarum), and mainly occurs in hot areas. It
primarily affects older birds. It is especially seen in multi-
age farms that are never depopulated. Morbidity is high
but mortality is low if uncomplicated, although it may be
up to 20%. The bacteria survive 2-3 days outside the
bird but are easily killed by heat, drying and disinfectants.
This usually acute, sometimes chronic, highly infectious
disease is characterised by inflammation of the upper
respiratory tract, especially nasal and sinus mucosae.
1-3 days after the first contact there is a rapid onset of
disease over a 2-3 day period with the whole flock affect-
Swollen sinuses due to coryza. ed within 10 days, resulting in increased culling. Carriers
are important with transmission via exudates
and by direct contact. It is not egg transmitted.
Symptoms: facial swelling, purulent ocular and nasal
discharge, swollen wattles, sneezing, dyspnoea, loss
of condition, drop in egg production of 10-40%, loss of
appetite.
Prevention is obtained by stocking coryza-free birds and
using an all-in/all-out production policy.
Vaccines (so-called bacterins) can be used; at least two
doses are required. Commercial bacterins may not fully
protect against all field strains but reduce the severity of
reactions. Live attenuated strains have been used but
are riskier. Controlled exposure has also been practised.
Vaccines are used in areas of high incidence. Birds re-
covered from the challenge of one serotype are resistant
to others, while bacterins only protect against homolo-
gous strains.

Clostridial diseases
Necrotic enteritis, caused by Clostridium perfringens, is
primarily a disease of young chicks but can also occur
in adult birds. The disease is both an infection and
intoxication in the affected birds. Characteristic is the
sudden onset, high mortality and necrosis of the mucous
membrane of the small intestine (‘pseudo membrane’).
It can be the consequence of a concurrent coccidiosis
infection (often E. necatrix or E. brunetti) but also be
related to a sudden change of feed (change of batches)
or by segregation of feed components.
Treatment with antibiotics (e.g. penicillin and tylosin) are
very effective. Also restoring of the microflora by a com-
petitive exclusion product is beneficial.
Necrotic enteritis with dead mucosa of the intestines
(pseudomembrane).
Femur head necrosis, synovitis and bumblefoot

Lameness from Staphylococcus aureus infection is a
worldwide problem and causes economic losses due
to bird losses, lower production, and condemnations of
carcasses at slaughter.
Several locations in the bird’s body can be infected via
skin wounds, inflamed mucous membranes and via the
blood stream. In joints this results in arthritis (hock joint:
synovitis), in bones in osteomyelitis and in the foot in
‘bumblefoot’. Infection can take place at a young age via
the open navel of day-old-chicks, or via treatments (e.g.
toe or beak treatment). Also during the rearing period,
injection vaccination may possibly infect birds with S. au-
reus. If the immunity is also impaired, birds become more Broken thigh bone due to Staphylococcus aureus Bumble foot.
susceptible. Eliminate sharp objects such as metal edges (femur head necrosis).
and splinters (slats!). Particular attention is needed to
good litter quality: this is beneficial for healthy footpads.
S. aureus infections can be treated with antibiotics.
Amyloidosis (amyloid arthropathy)

Incidentally flocks of breeders show enlarged joints
with presence of orange-yellowish material inside often
caused by bacteria, mostly Enterococcus faecalis. The
route of infection is not clear.
Unilateral deposition of amyloid has also been seen in
rearing broiler breeders after intramuscular vaccination
with Marek vaccine in the leg, possibly injecting a specific
clone of E. faecalis.
Good hygiene procedures at the hatchery have shown
good effects.
Furthermore it is still uncertain how to prevent this
disease. Possibly treatment of underlying disease or elim-
inating potential stress factors can benefit.
Male bird (age 13 weeks), suffering Typical picture of synovitis, swollen,
from synovitis of the left hock joint. warm hock and tightened, shiny skin.
Deposition of orange coloured substance in the joints.

Brachyspira infection
Brachyspira bacteria cause avian intestinal spirochae-
tosis (AIS), a chronic intestinal inflammation resulting in
reduced nutrient intake. This causes deficiency and lower
resistance. The symptoms include frequent drops in pro-
duction, diarrhoea, weight loss and higher bird losses.
Foamy caecal content.

External parasites
Red mite
Red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) can carry harmful bac-
teria or viruses. The bloodsucking parasite transfers them
as it passes from one chicken to the next. With a severe
red mite infection, chickens lose a lot of blood which
can lead to anaemia, and in turn death. An average red
mite infection reduces the chicken’s resistance, but there
are few external symptoms other than the fact that their
plumage is rougher because they pick at the itchy skin.
Chickens control red mites naturally by taking regular
dust baths.
It is best to control red mites when the poultry house is
empty with, for example, silica or thermokill (heating the
house). Also fluralaner via drinking water when the birds
Accumulation of live mites on a bolt. Mites tend to hide in are still in the poultry house is a therapy. Clean it well to
small corners, avoiding light. remove the hiding places such as under piles of manure.
If you use pesticides, make sure you follow the instruc-
tions properly. Heat treating the house can also greatly
reduce an infection. Birds’ nests on the outside of the
house are a potential source of infection: remove them.
Even on farms with good biosecurity red mites can be
present, also on rearing farms.
Red mites can be tracked down by knocking on the
system or by scraping in cracks with a knife while holding
a white sheet of paper underneath. You can also hang
up mite traps in which the mites will hide. Inspect places
where red mites are likely to hide: under perches, under
slats, in dry droppings and in laying nests.
Parasitoid wasps are used to combat red mites.

Predatory mites are being used for this purpose as well.
darkling beetle
red mites
Vectors for diseases, like darkling beetles and red mites can be found under the slats.
182
Internal parasites
Worms
Regular post mortems on representative birds per house
can give a good impression of the worm status. Another
method for an adult nematode check is to have a regular
worm egg count from mixed samples of intestinal drop-
pings and caecal droppings.
Nematodes
Because farms for broiler breeder replacements are
usually cleaned out after 18-20 weeks, worms are rarely
found on those farms; but it is commonly thought that
broiler breeder farms are all contaminated with the
worms with a ‘direct-life cycle’: e.g. Ascaridia galli,
Heterakis gallinarum and sometimes also Capillaria spp.
Capillaria obsignata, is the most pathogenic nematode. Caeca with small worms (Heterakis spp.) that you can
Ascaridia are the largest nematodes, sometimes reach- actually see through the intestinal wall.
ing a length of 116 mm. The adults live in the lumen
of the small intestine but the larval stages invade the
mucosa. Ascaridia galli may cause ill-thrift, enteritis or
intestinal impaction. The life cycle is direct, which means
that infections can re-occur on the same litter.
Heterakis gallinarum (which serves as a transport host
for Histomonas meleagridis, the causative agent of
blackhead disease) is a small, generally white worm
and primary found in the caeca. The life cycle is direct,
although worm eggs may be ingested by earthworms,
where they hatch and live for months before being
ingested by a bird.
Capillaria can be found in the small intestine mucosa
where it induces a catarrhal exudate and thickening of
the wall. Morbidity and mortality are possible in heavy
infections. Close up of Heterakis gallinarum on a fingertip.
Regular deworming programmes are recommended.

Benzimidazoles fenbendazole, flubendazole, albendazole,
cambendazole, levamisole (L-tramisole), are highly effec-
tive. Some are available in a water-soluble formulation.
Tapeworm infections (cestodes)

These worms are flattened, ribbon-shaped, usually
segmented. Most common is Raillietina cesticillus, a
large robust tapeworm, up to 15 cm long, which needs
beetles as intermediate hosts. A well-known beetle is the
darkling beetle (lesser mealworm, litter beetle, Alphitobius
diaperinus). The pathogenicity is described as mild or
harmless. In some countries, products with flubenda-
zole (by feed) are registered for treatment of cestode
infections. Cestodes control measures are best directed Roundworm infection in the small intestines (jejunum) with
against the intermediate hosts. Ascaridia galli.
Tapeworm infection in the small intestines (jejunum) with

Raillietina cesticillus.
Eimeria in chicken Coccidiosis
There are five species of Eimeria with relevance to chickens. Coccidiosis is one of the most harmful diseases in poultry
Each species has its own favourite spot in the gut. farming and is caused by several types of Eimeria. This
single-cell gut parasite is common in poultry and causes
very minor to severe harm to the gut. Moderate infections
can result in subclinical disease, while mass infection
1. E. tenella resides in can lead to clinical symptoms such as diarrhoea and
the caecum and can sometimes death. Coccidia spread as oocysts which are
cause an accumula- 2. E. brunetti also
causes severe extremely resistant to common disinfectants. That is why
tion of blood there. almost every farm in the world is infected with coccidio-
enteritis but in the
last part of the sis. The severity of the symptoms depends on the age
intestine. of occurrence and the species of Eimeria: from slightly
retarded growth with E. acervulina infection to sudden
death with E. necatrix, E. brunetti or E. tenella infection.
3. E. necatrix resides The faecal droppings are often abnormal; in case of cae-
in the middle of cal coccidiosis (E. tenella) there may be fresh blood in the
the small intestine droppings. Coccidiosis can also lead to bacterial enteritis
and causes severe (Clostridium). Normally the disease occurs in young birds
enteritis. (during rearing), although outbreaks are also possible in
young breeder flocks during the onset of production due
to poor immunity.
4. E. maxima causes
petechiae (purple
Prevention
spots) in the middle
Good cleaning of the empty house between rearing
third of the intestine.
periods with a large volume of water (flushing out oocysts
mechanically) is very important for reducing the number
5. E. acervulina causes of oocysts inside the house. Specific products have been
white bands at the used to target the oocyst for destruction. In some coun-
beginning of the tries there is a product available containing an ammo-
small intestine. nium salt and sodium hydroxide (oocide). Also burning
of the floor is a method to destroy superficially present
oocysts. Vaccination with live vaccines is common in
breeders: attenuated (low-virulence) or non-attenuated
(wild type) strains. Most vaccines contain live coccid-
iostat-susceptible strains: so be certain that the feed
does not contain coccidiostats and don’t use early after
vaccination sulpha-therapies.
Even after a proper vaccination E. necatrix outbreaks are
seen because of the poor immunity typical of this Eimeria
species.
Treatment is possible with drugs by drinking water
administration or (if the birds are too sick to drink) by
injection with a sulphadimidine-sodium solution.
Pale bird suffering from caecal coccidiosis. Typical ‘salt-and-pepper’ Typical picture of bloody content inside the intestines
appearance of the intestines, due to E. necatrix coccidiosis (haemorrahgic enteritis).
caused by E. necatrix.

Blackhead (histomonosis) exudate from the mucosa fills the lumen of the caeca and
Histomonosis is an emerging disease. It is not uncom- distends the walls with a caseous or cheesy core, and
mon for blackhead to cause 10% mortality, increased ulceration of the caecal wall may lead to perforation of
culling and non-uniformity in breeder flocks. Decreased the organ and cause generalised peritonitis.
production from morbidity, chemotherapy expense and Typical, numerous lesions in liver tissue are not always
problems in the progeny of infected broiler breeder flocks seen, but more often in young birds than in adult birds:
also contribute to economic losses from histomonosis. circular depressed areas of necrosis circumscribed by a
Outbreaks may be seen at 8-10 weeks, but producers raised ring.
have reported problem farms where outbreaks occur ear-
lier, even at 4 weeks of age! The disease has no public Histomonas life cycle
health significance because it only affects birds. The most important route of infection is by ingestion of
The protozoan Histomonas meleagridis is a single cell ‘infected eggs’ of the nematode worm Heterakis galli-
parasite that invades the caecal mucosa and then narum. Also earthworms can serve as transport hosts in
spreads via the blood to the liver. which Heterakis eggs hatch and survive. Histomonads
In those organs gross lesions are seen: after tissue cannot survive long outside the host unless protected by
invasion with histomonads the caecal wall becomes the heterakid egg or earthworm. So the worm egg is a
thickened and hyperaemic. Serous and haemorrhagic way for longer persistency in the environment and for a
‘safe passage’ through the acidity of the crop, proven-
triculus and gizzard. Because worm eggs are resistant
to environmental conditions and may remain infective
for 2-3 years, Histomonosis can suddenly reappear on
farms! Houses may become badly contaminated by Het-
erakis worm eggs, causing outbreaks in flock after flock.
Treatment
In many countries there are no chemotherapeutic
products available for treatment (because of the ban of
nitroimidazole antihistomonals). It has become common
practice to treat outbreaks with antibiotics to combat
secondary infections. It is therefore important to target
the intermediate hosts by early and frequent deworming
with a benzimidazole type dewormer, e.g. fenbendazole,
capable of killing the larvae. It is important to administer
dewormers at least 1 week prior to the usual expected
Severe, chronic inflammation of the caeca (typhlitis), time of outbreaks, based on the history for each farm.
with typical cheesy plugs: caecal cores.
Life cycle of Histomonas meleagridis
Carrier bird:
Caecal worm larvae develop Caecal worms (Heterakis gallinarum)
into mature worms. produce eggs containing
H. meleagridis infects the H. meleagridis.
ovary of these worms.
Direct and indirect

parasite cycle in carrier bird
Caecal worm eggs develop

into larvae in the soil/litter
where they are deposited.
Earthworms ingest caecal
worm larvae containing histo-
monads and serve as a host.
Infection by the histo-

monads often results in
death.
Indirect infection: Direct infection:

Earthworms are ingested by Caecal worm larvae are ingested by
the chicken. the chicken or Histomonas parasites
enter by cloacal suction.
185
Non-infectious diseases
Ruptured tendon (RT)

Several predisposing factors may contribute to RT, and
it is when these factors are sufficient in number and/or
severity that one or both gastrocnemius tendons rupture.
Although RT most commonly occurs during early to mid-
lay, tendon damage (i.e. loss of tensile strength) will most
likely have occurred earlier in the bird’s life, i.e. during
rear. Reovirus and Staphylococcus bacterial infections
are possible contributors to RT: some strains of Staph
bacteria produce proteinase enzymes which weaken the
surrounding tissue potentially resulting in subsequent
tendon ruptures. There is clear evidence that nutrient
delivery to the tissue is critically important and that a fast
body weight gain is a risk. Diseases that impact intestinal
health (e.g. coccidiosis, viral enteritis, dysbacteriosis)
may adversely affect nutrient absorption and therefore,
delivery of nutrients to tendon tissue.
Top: Ruptured tendon with a haemorrhage just above the

hock joint. Bottom: Dissection of a complete rupture of
the tendon. Acute trauma with haemorrhage due to the
rupture of blood vessels.
Cloacitis
Sometimes an alteration of the deep layers of the cloaca
is responsible for a malfunction of the cloaca with typical
white excretion of the vent (pasty vent) and more bloody
excretion on the eggshell. The real cause is currently un-
clear. Possibly an early onset of lay and an immaturity of
the hens’ reproduction apparatus are factors to consider.
As a consequence cannibalism may take place.
Very dirty back end of a chicken due to cloacitis.
Fatty Liver-Haemorrhagic Syndrome (FLHS)

Typical is the sudden death of heavy birds with pale
heads, often with a sudden drop in egg production. Dead
birds have large blood clots in the abdomen originating
from the liver and often partially enveloping the liver. The
liver of other birds is generally enlarged, yellow and friable,
sometimes with smaller haemorrhages. Also the amount
of fat in the abdomen is excessive. FLHS is associated
with high-energy diets together with restricted exercise,
and is most common during hot weather. Suppletions in
drinking water or feed with anti-fatty-liver-syndrome mixes
(containing choline, Selenium and Vitamin E) during several
weeks have shown benefits.
Enlarged liver due to FLHS.

Index
abnormal behaviour 12, 52, 172 drinking water 48, 79, 112 heat stress 114, 115 posture 118, 172
activity 12 drinking water vaccination 170 height indicator 107 preening 14
aggressive behaviour 16, 128 dry cleaning 25 house temperature 39 preparation 38
all-in all-out 20 drying 26, 150 humidity 45, 156 production chain 5
amyloidosis dust baths 14 immature female 84 production index 135
(amyloid arthropathy) 181 dwarf breeds 10, 12 immature male 84 progress 9
artificial insemination (AI) 129 E. coli peritonitis infectious bronchitis (IBV) 174 protein 136
automatic weighing 108 syndrome (EPS) 179 infectious laryngotracheitis puberty 66
avian influenza eat-drink-ovoposition 94 (ILT) 175 quality time 129
(AI, bird flu or fowl pest) 174 eating behaviour 105 intake time 109 ranking 17
bacterial diseases 178 egg collection 151 intra muscular injection 171 ratio male/females 84
beak treatment 30, 31 egg grading 152 intra-spiking 138 red mite 182
bell drinkers 36 egg handling 144 laboratory diagnosis 173 reovirus infections 176
biosecurity 20, 164 egg laying behaviour 95 laying curve 117, 131 rodents 23
blackhead (histomonosis) 182 egg weight 109, 140, 145, 148 laying nest 93, 132 ruptured tendon (RT) 186
body development 48, 57, 88 end of lay 143 laying pattern 140 salmonellosis 178
body temperature 39, 114 energy requirement 136 leg length 120 satiated 13
body weight 12, 58, 130 epidemic tremor (avian encepha- leukosis (ALV) 177 scratching 14
boiler breeder 8 lomyelitis) 176 light intensity 47, 91 selection 10, 11
brachyspira infection 182 equipment 22, 25 light programme 88 separate feeding 74
break-out 159 external parasites 182 light stimulation 89 sexing 29
breast meat 57, 63, 103, 137 eye-nose drop vaccination 170 linoleic acid 106 sexing errors 61
breeder dilemma 11 fatty liver-haemorrhagic litter quality 133 sexual activity 122
breeding pyramid 9 syndrome (FLHS) 186 lysine 60, 103, 110 shell quality 149
broiler characteristics 10 feather eating 60 male feed 100 signals concept 6
calcium 13, 106, 110 feather sucking/stripping 17, 80 male grading 118 slats 67, 68
candling 159 feather pecking 80 male hierarchy 119 slow(er) growing 11
chain feeder 33 feather sexing 29 male house 83 social hierarchy 17
chick distribution 44 feathering 55, 60, 141 male management 85 sounds 17
chicken anaemia feed 48, 73 male persistency 139 sperm quality 126
(CAV, blue wing disease) 175 feed intake time 135 male-female interaction 124 spiking 138
cleaning 24-26 feed restriction 12, 52 malnutrition 109 spinfeeders 35
climatic conditions 43, 163 feed stress 54 manual egg collecting 151 stimulation 89
clinical inspection 172 feeding errors 110 manual weighing 108 stocking density 72
cloacitis 186 feeding management 55, 106, 135 marek’s disease 177 storage 144, 155
clostridial diseases 181 feeding pans 34 mating behaviour 15, 126, 127 tapeworm infections
clothing 22 feeding programme 13, 52 mature female 82 (cestodes) 183
coarse spray vaccination 167, 170 feeding systems 33 mature male 86 toe treatment 32, 84
coccidiosis 184 feeding time 101 mollier diagram 163 transfer 69
colibacillosis 179 feedless day 53 moment of mating 126 transport movement 162
colour sexing 29 femur head necrosis, monitoring 107 transport of chicks 40
competition 119 synovitis and bumblefoot 181 moulting 142 transport of hatching eggs 160
condition 64, 65, 103, 137 fine spray vaccination music 17 uniformity 12, 28, 58
controlled feeding 52-54 (aerosol) 170 mycoplasmosis (CRD: chronic unrestricted feeding 11
cool down 150, 154 flank damage 84 respiratory disease) 180 vaccination 166-170
cooling 116 flies 23 nail 84 vaccination methods 170
coryza (avibacteriom floor eggs 91, 96-99 natural behaviour 14 variation 58
paragallinarum) 180 foot bath 22 natural light 90 vent sexing 29
cracks 147 footwear 22 negative pressure 19 ventilation 18
crop filling 49 foraging behaviour 54 nematodes 183 vermin 23
daily routine 14 forced moulting 143 newcastle disease, viral diseases 174
darkling beetle 23 fowl cholera (pasteurellosis) 180 ND (pseudo-fowl pest) 174 washing eggs 157, 158
daylight houses 68 fowlpox/avian diphtheria 176 observations 7 water 48
day-old-chicks 41 genetic 9-11 on-farm transport 160 water consumption 102
development 81, 82, 95 germinal disc 144 packing eggs 153 water restriction 56
disease symptoms 172 grading 58, 59, 118 pecking 17 weighing 107, 108
diseases 164 growth 103 pelvic bones 87 weight 53
disinfectants 27 growth control 12 perches 50 welfare 11
disinfection 22, 24, 27 gumboro disease (infectious personal hygiene 22 wet cleaning 26
down time 24 bursal disease IBD) 175 pest control 23 wing-web vaccination 170
drinking cups 36 harem 128 phase feeding 13 worms 183
drinking nipples 36 hatching egg 146 pin bones 87 yolk sac infection 179
drinking systems 36, 79 health 164 point setting 154

Breeder Signals, A Practical Guide To Optimal Management of Broiler Breeders (VetBooks - Ir)

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BREEDER SIGNALS

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO OPTIMAL MANAGEMENT OF BROILER BREEDERS

Breeder Signals Photography

1. Introduction 4 5. Puberty (17-22 weeks) 66 8. Peak production to end of lay 130

If no artificial insemination method is applied,

Look from flock to individual

The broiler breeder

140 bred in Cornwall from Indian game breeds. The

Not all genetics

Increasing difference in body weight between Influence of genetics and nutrition

breed 2001+ diet 1957

2,000 breed 1957 + diet 2001

500 breeders 1,000

If you let the parent stock grow like a broiler, the

Effect of unrestricted feeding on performance

females need more time to consume their feed.

Water supply is often cut off two hours after the

Activity feed is finished to avoid overconsumption of water

Examples of phase feeding programmes

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

100% 0% 75% 25% 25% 75% 0% 100%

Morning Noon Afternoon Evening

Egg laying Dust bathing

Did you know that?

Stages in aggressive behaviour

Hopping and threatening

Leaping Wing flapping

Kicking Aggressive pecking

As soon as you walk into the poultry house,

These ventilators can be closed off to better control the

air getting in,

The dirty route is used by trucks to unload the feed, or to

feed silo ﬁlling pipe

DIRTY ZONE BUFFER ZONE

buﬀer zone CLEAN ZONE

clean zone poultry house

dead bird vehicle hygienic lock fence around the

Using disposable latex or nitrile gloves is the best option,

When footwear per poultry house is used, a ‘step-over partition

Downtime reduces infection pressure

Dry disinfection Wet disinfecting/spraying Dry disinfecting/fogging

Types of disinfectants and their effects

First weeks of rearing

60 divided into three phases:

Feather sexing Colour sexing Vent sexing

Genetic scheme for colour sexing Female line Male line

I = dominant for white Ii I- Ii I- Ii I-

LOOK-THINK-ACT one-third of the beak between nostril and beak tip.

Grading and mortality/week (%)

A day-old-chick before and after IR beak treatment.

Toe treatment in males

No treatment Microwave treatment Hot-blade treatment

Day 1, no treatment. Day 1, microwave treatment. Day 2, hot-blade treatment.

Males and females housed separately

Peace and quiet during feeding, no birds are still looking

Advantages and disadvantages of drinking systems

Pros Pros Pros

Until one week of age One week and older

Heating up the house decreases relative humidity. Day-old-

Taking body temperature is a good way to check whether the ambient

Take samples from chick paper or transport box lining to

Temperature signals of chick distribution in a brooding ring

How did this litter get so damp?

1. Introduction 4 5. Puberty (17-22 weeks) 66 8. Peak production to end of lay 130