4/3/20

1 BEHAVIOR & ATTITUDES

Rudy M. Danganan Jr., MA

2 QUESTIONS WE WANT TO ANSWER
§WHAT IS ATTITUDE?
§DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR?
§DOES BEHAVIOR PREDICT ATTITUDES?
§IF YES/NO, WHY?
3 I. WHAT IS ATTITUDE?
4 ATTITUDE DEFINED
§Attitude- Favorable or unfavorable evaluation towards an object.
§Like or dislike?
§Positive or negative?
§Approve or disapprove?
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20 ATTITUDE FURTHER DEFINED

§Attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a
particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993)
§Psychological tendency = internal to a person
§Evaluating = all evaluative responses, e.g., overt/covert, affective (A),
behavioral (B), cognitive (C)
§A bias that predisposes an individual towards positive or negative
evaluative responses
21 ABCS OF ATTITUDE
§Affect- Feelings, emotions, moods. -“How I feel”
§Behavior- Actions, intentions to act -“What I would do”
§Cognitive- Thoughts, beliefs
-“What I think”
22 APPLY THE ABCS
AFFECTIVE – I love ice cream. I feel wonderful when I eat ice cream.
BEHAVIORAL – I eat ice cream all the time.
COGNITIVE – Ice cream has high sugar content.

23 II. DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR?

24

25 A CLASSIC STUDY: RICHARD LAPIERE, 1934

§LaPiere travelled with a Chinese couple through the USA in 1930.
§They made 251 visits to the hotels and restaurants, and in only one
case were they refused service.
§Six months later, he sent a letter to each establishment inquiring
whether they would accept members of the Chinese race as guests in
their establishment.
§
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28 WHEN ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR

§Explicit and implicit attitudes both help predict people’s behaviors and
judgments (Greenwald & others, 2008)
§We are not only guided by our attitudes but also by the situation.

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judgments (Greenwald & others, 2008)

§We are not only guided by our attitudes but also by the situation.
§Attitude could be more measured if the situation is more specific and
other factors are minimized.
§Your general attitude to marijuana vs. marijuana to treat cancer?
§Attitude towards health fitness vs. paying thousands for gym
membership.
§Attitude towards family planning vs. condom use
§
§
29 WHEN ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR
1 Implicit
2 §Unconscious
§Automatic
§“RH bill is bad because it prevents procreation.”
§“First impressions.”
§Can be measured using IATs.
3 Explicit
4 §Conscious
§Tedious
§“RH bill could alleviate the rapid growth of population.”
§
30 THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR
31 WHEN ATTITUDES ARE POTENT
BRINGING ATTITUDES TO MIND
§Our attitudes become potent if we think about them.
§Also, if we try to make ourselves aware of them.
§Self-conscious people usually are in touch with their attitudes (Miller &
Grush, 1986).
§Strong attitudes if it is easily accessible.
§
§
32

33 WHEN ATTITUDES ARE POTENT

FORGING STRONG ATTITUDES THROUGH EXPERIENCE
§The attitudes that best predict behavior are accessible (easily brought
to mind) as well as stable (Glasman & Albarracin, 2006).

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§The attitudes that best predict behavior are accessible (easily brought
to mind) as well as stable (Glasman & Albarracin, 2006).
§Attitudes are amplified if experienced.
§Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
§Have you ever tried riding a roller coaster?

34 SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER…

(Macapagal, 2014)
§Personality differences
§Difference between attitudes toward behavior and attitudes toward
targets
§Attitudes are only one determinant of behavior
§It is attitudes toward behavior that is effective in predicting behavior
§
35 III. DOES BEHAVIOR PREDICT ATTITUDES?
36

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40 A. ROLE PLAYING
§Role -A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position
ought to behave.
§Roles are contingent.
§Stanford Prison Experiment
§Our roles (a behavior) can eventually affect our attitudes.
§
41

42 REMEMBER THIS DAY?

First day of school
43 B. SAYING BECOMES BELIEVING
§We often adapt what we say to please our listeners.
§Higgins & McCann, 1984; Higgins & Rholes (1978) had university
students read a personality description of someone and then

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§Higgins & McCann, 1984; Higgins & Rholes (1978) had university
students read a personality description of someone and then
summarize it for someone else, who was believed either to like or to
dislike that person .
§After exposure to positive descriptions, they eventually liked the
person as well.
§In short, people tend to adjust their messages to their listeners, and,
having done so, to believe the altered message.
§
§
44 C. FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR PHENOMENON
§foot-in-the-door phenomenon- The tendency for people who have first
agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.
§Can you give me 1 peso?
§“Big things start with small things.”
§Door-in-the-face phenomenon- tendency for people to ask for a huge
favor (that’s surely “refusable”) then make a smaller reasonable
request afterwards.
§”Can I ask for 5 hours a week of your time for charity? If no, then you
can donate money instead.”
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46 C. FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR PHENOMENON
§Low-ball technique- A tactic for getting people to agree to something.
People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the
requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request
are less likely to comply with it.
§Prevalent in sales and hotel reservations.
§When researchers invited psychology students to participate in an
experiment at 7:00 A.M., only 24% showed up. But if the students first
agreed to participate without knowing the time and only then were
asked to participate at 7:00 A.M., 53% came.
§
§
§
47 D. MORAL & EVIL ACTS
§Small moral or evil acts can lead to a bigger one.
§Killing Begets Killing. Students who initially perceived themselves as
killing several bugs, by dropping them in this apparent killing machine,
later killed an increased number of bugs during a self-paced killing

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killing several bugs, by dropping them in this apparent killing machine,

later killed an increased number of bugs during a self-paced killing
period. (In reality, no bugs were harmed.)
§Moral action, especially when chosen rather than coerced, affects
moral thinking.
§
§
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49 E. RACIAL ATTITUDES
§Would positive racial behavior decrease racial prejudice?
§YES! As we act more alike, we come to think more alike (Greeley &
Sheatsley, 1971; Taylor & others, 1978).
§
50 F. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
§During the19830s, doing Nazi acts (salute, raising the flag, and etc.)
lead to ambivalence in belief and behavior.
§Does singing the Philippine national anthem make you more
nationalistic?
§
51

52 IV. WHY DOES OUR BEHAVIOR AFFECT OUR ATTITUDE?

53 A. SELF-PRESENTATION: IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
§Sad reality: we are people pleasers.
§“The world is a big stage play” (Shakespeare).
§No one wants to look foolishly inconsistent!
§In turn, we express attitudes that is parallel to our actions.
§Can lead to hypocrisy and insincerity.

54 B. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
§Cognitive Dissonance- Tension that arises when one is simultaneously
aware of two inconsistent cognitions.
§Ambivalence or conflict of ideas.
§British and U.S. cigarette smokers have been much less likely than
nonsmokers to believe that smoking is dangerous (Eiser & others,
1979; Saad, 2002).
§Because if we sense some inconsistency, perhaps some hypocrisy,
we feel pressure for change.

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§Because if we sense some inconsistency, perhaps some hypocrisy,

we feel pressure for change.
§
§
§
55 B. COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
§Insufficient Justification- Reduction of dissonance by internally
justifying one’s behavior when external justification is “insufficient.”
§How would feel, after sleepless nights of studying, failing the final
exam?
§“At least I learned from my experience”
§Cognitive Dissonance can also happen after making decisions.
§Big major decisions can produce big dissonance when one later
ponders the negative aspects of what is chosen and the positive
aspects of what was not chosen.
§
§
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57 SELF-PERCEPTION
§Self-perception theory- When unsure of attitudes we observe or look
into our own behavior.
§We become conscious of our behaviors!
§“I agreed in the earlier request, so I must be really helpful?”
§“I have a lot of red shirts, I
must love red!”
§
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59 EXPRESSIONS AND ATTITUDES

2 People find cartoons funnier while holding with their teeth (smiling
muscle) than while holding it with their lips ( muscles not for smiling)
(Strack, et al., 1988).

60 SELF-PERCEPTION
§Overjustification effect- The result of “bribing” people to do what they
already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally
controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.
§
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61 SELF-AFFIRMATION THEORY
§Self-affirmation theory- (a)people often experience a self-image threat,
after engaging in an undesirable behavior. Consequently, (b) they can
compensate by affirming another aspect of the self.
§“Manalo, matalo cute pa rin kami!”
62 IN SUM…
63 DISSONANCE THEORYè ATTITUDE CHANGE

SELF-PERCEPTION THEORYè ATTITUDE

FORMATION
64 LASTLY…
65 VERY LASTLY…

Attitude Behavior
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15 SOCIAL INFLUENCE, CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE
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27 I. WAYS IN WHICH SOCIAL INFLUENCE OCCURS
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28 Conformity
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■ Conformity- when an Individual accepts the group’s view.
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29 Obedience
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■ Obedience- Acting in accord with a direct order or command.
– Compliance to an explicit command.
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30 Compliance
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■ Compliance- Conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with
an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing.
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31 Acceptance
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■ Acceptance- Conformity that involves both acting and believing in
accord with social pressure.
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33 II. CLASSIC CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE STUDIES
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33 II. CLASSIC CONFORMITY & OBEDIENCE STUDIES

34 A. Sherif’s Studies of Norm Formation
■ Tried to observe the emergence of norms in a laboratory.
■ (a) a Participant will sit in a dark room, (b) suddenly a pinpoint of light
will appear, (c) then for a few seconds the light will move erratically
and finally disappears, (d) consequently the participant will guess
how far it moved.
■ (e)The next day the participant will return to the darkened room,
joined by two other participants who had the same experience the
day before. (f) Then, they will all make a guess-- (g) this will be
repeated for the next two days.
■
■
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■
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37 What really happened…

■ The participants actually experienced Autokinetic Phenomenon.
■ Autokinetic Phenomenon- Self (auto) motion (kinetic). The apparent
movement of a stationary point of light in the dark.
■ The Light never Moved!
■
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39 B. Asch’s Studies of Group Pressure

-All participants agreed at the same answer during the first two trials.
However, during the third trial most of them did not. Would participant 6
agree if all other participants (confederates) agreed to the wrong
comparison line?

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42 C. Milgram’s Obedience Experiments

- The Teacher (participant) was asked to increase voltage if the learner
(confederate) got the wrong word pairing.
- The Learner will grunt more and utter different “complaints” as the

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(confederate) got the wrong word pairing.

- The Learner will grunt more and utter different “complaints” as the
voltage gets higher.
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45 Reflections on the classic studies

■ Behavior and attitudes
– External forces override internal one.
– In the obedience experiments, a powerful social pressure (the
experimenter’s commands) overcame a weaker one (the remote
victim’s pleas).
– People will sometimes choose to be a good participant rather than
avoid doing harm.
– Foot-in-the-door phenomenon!
■
46 Reflections on the classic studies
■ Power of the situation
– In trying to break with social norms, we suddenly realize how strong
they are.
– Milgram’s experiments also offer a lesson about evil.
– “Big things start with small things”– Remember this?!!
■
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49 III. WHAT PREDICTS CONFORMITY?

50 1. GROUP SIZE
2. UNANIMITY
3. COHESION
4. STATUS
5. PUBLIC RESPONSE
6. PRIOR COMMITMENT
51 1. Group Size
■ “The more the merrier”

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51 1. Group Size
■ “The more the merrier”
■ The more the people the more it can elicit conformity.
■ The way the group is “packaged” also makes a difference. (E.g. 6 vs.
2 +2+2)
■ 3 groups of 2 members each
=more conformity
■ 1 group of 6 members
= less confromity
■
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53 2. Unanimity
■ In a group, it’s often difficult to stand for what you believe if most are
not parallel with yours.
■ However, people will usually voice their own convictions if just one
other person has also differed from the majority.

54 3. Cohesion
■ Cohesiveness- A “we feeling”; the extent to which members of a
group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another.
■ In-group bias- the tendency to perceive one’s group more favorably.
■ Ingroup: We value more the minority opinion
Outgroup: We value less the minority opinion
■ This applies to school, religion, & race.
■ Kababayan concept in the Filipino culture.
■
■
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56 4. Status
■ Milgram (1974) reported that in his obedience experiments, people of
lower status accepted the experimenter’s commands more readily
than people of higher status.
■ Stuart Costello (1980) found that Sydney pedestrians were more
compliant when approached by a well-dressed survey taker than one
who was poorly dressed.
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■
57 5. Public Response
■ In experiments, people conform more when they must respond in
front of others rather than writing their answers privately.
■ People would speak their true opinion more in private than in public.
■
58 6. Prior Commitment
■ Imagine yourself in an Asch-type experiment. The experimenter
displays the lines and asks you to respond first. After you give your
judgment and then hear everyone else disagree, the experimenter
offers you an opportunity to reconsider. In the face of group pressure,
do you now back down?
■ People almost never do (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955). Once having
made a public commitment, we stick to it!
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61 IV. WHY CONFORM?

62 Because…
■ Normative Influence- Conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill
others’ expectations, often to gain acceptance.
– Salient when we are in public.
■ Informational Influence- Conformity occurring when people accept
evidence about reality provided by other people.
– Salient when we feel incompetent & when task is difficult.
■ Concern for social image produces normative influence.
■ The desire to be correct produces informational influence.
■
63 V. WHO CONFORMS?
64 (1) Personality
■ In contrast with the demonstrable power of situational factors,
personality scores were poor predictors of individuals’ behavior.
■ Internal factors such as personality can predict a person’s average
behavior across situations.
■ Personality also predicts behavior better when social influences are
weak.
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weak.
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66 (2) Culture
■ Can cultural background help predict how conforming people will be?
■ Collectivism Vs. Individualism?
■ Cultures may change over time.
■ Hence, conformity and obedience are universal phenomena, yet they
vary across cultures and eras.
■
67 (3) Roles
■ As students what are your expected behaviors in class?
■ Class presidents? Org officers?
■ Roles have much to do with conformity!
■ Social roles allow some freedom of interpretation to those who act
them out, but some aspects of any role must be performed.
■ A student must at least show up for exams J, turn in papers J,
maintain some minimum grade point average J, and behave
appropriately in class J.
■
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71 VI. DO WE EVER WANT TO BE DIFFERENT?

72 Reactance
■ We value our sense of freedom and self-efficacy.
■ Reactance- A motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom.
■ Boomerang effect- a theory of reactance wherein attempts to restrict
freedom leads to anti-conforming behaviors.
– Arises when someone threatens our freedom of action.
– E.g. Hindering a teenager to drink alcohol tends to make him/her to
more likely to drink.
–
■
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74 Asserting Uniqueness
■ We all give high regard to our sense of uniqueness.
■ However, we are not comfortable being too different from a group, but
neither do we want to appear the same as everyone else.
■ In a group, we are most conscious of how we differ from the others.
– E.g. In a group, we tend to be aware of our gender when we are
dominated by the other sex.
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76 Conclusion…
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1 GENES, CULTURE, & GENDER

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7 I. How are we influenced by human nature and cultural diversity?

8 2 PERSPECTIVES
1 EVOLUTIONARY
2 ØHuman kinship.
ØNature
ØWe share a common biology.
ØCommon needs and wants (?).
ØCommon morality.
Ø
3 CULTURAL
4 ØHuman diversity.
ØNurture
ØDifferent attitudes and beliefs.
ØDifferent family backgrounds.
Ø
Ø
9 “…Anthropologists tell us that if we could trace our ancestors back 100,000 or more years,
we would see that we are all Africans.” (shipman, 2003).

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we would see that we are all Africans.” (shipman, 2003).

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11 NATURAL SELECTION
§ Natural Selection- The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable
organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing
generations.
§ “Survival of the fittest”
§ Evolutionary Psychology- The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using
principles of natural selection.
§ We humans are the way we are because nature selected those who had our traits
§ We carry the psychological legacy of our ancestors.
§
§
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Natural selection
source: http://evolution.Berkeley.Edu/evolibrary/article/evo_25
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14 CULTURAL DIVERSITY
§ Culture- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of
people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
§ Our shared human biology gives us the sense of diversity.
§ Because our adapting nature gives us the ability to be attuned to different environments.
§ The concept of “bayanihan” might not be possible if the Philippines is not a disaster-prone
country.
§ We all have different, manners or etiquette.
§ E.g. Middle Eastern heads of state greet each other with a kiss on the cheeks.
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§ E.g. Middle Eastern heads of state greet each other with a kiss on the cheeks.
15 Greetings in the middle east…
16 Bayanihan in the Philippines…
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19 NORMS
Norms- Standards for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.
(What most others do—what is normal.)
ØEXPRESSIVENESS- Some are expressive some are not.
ØPUNCTUALITY- “Filipino time” vs. Japanese’s
ØRULE-BREAKING- sometimes graffiti or littering could be a norm if most people do it.
ØPERSONAL SPACE- The buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends
on our familiarity with whoever is near us. (e.g. in comfort rooms)
Ø
Ø
Ø

20 CULTURAL SIMILARITY
ØUNIVERSAL FRIENDSHIP NORMS- Don’t embarrass a friend, respect friend’s privacy, etc.
ØUNIVERSAL TRAIT DIMENSIONS- “The Big Five” Personality traits.
ØUNIVERSAL SOCIAL BELIEF DIMENSIONS- This guides our everyday living.
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22 CULTURAL SIMILARITY
ØUNIVERSAL STATUS NORMS- We universally believe in Hierarchy. We address people
“Dr.”, “Ma’am”, “Sir”.
ØTHE INCEST TABOO- NO TO SEXUAL RELATIONS WITH YOUR FAMILY!
ØNORMS OF WAR- You are to wear identifiable uniforms, surrender with a gesture of

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ØTHE INCEST TABOO- NO TO SEXUAL RELATIONS WITH YOUR FAMILY!
ØNORMS OF WAR- You are to wear identifiable uniforms, surrender with a gesture of
submission, and treat prisoners humanely.
Ø
23

24 II. How are gender similarities and differences explained?

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26 What is the first question when you were born?,,, Is it a boy or a girl?

27 Fun Facts
28 Fun Facts
29 Fun Facts
30 Fun Facts
31 Fun Facts
32 Fun Facts
33 Fun Facts
34

35 REFLEXIVITY CHECK…
36 INTEREST IN GENDER
• Shift in using “sex” and “gender”
• social psychologists opt to use the term gender because it encompasses the range of
difference between men and women and emphasizes the social construction of maleness and
femaleness (Burn, 1996)
•
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femaleness (Burn, 1996)
•
37 SEX
• Biological Sex- Biologically sex prescribed characteristics that differentiate males and females
in terms of reproductive organs and chromosomes.
• Multidimensional Model of Sex (Crawford & Unger, 2000):
• 1. Chromosomes (XY, XX)
• 2. Gonads (Ovaries & Testes)
• 3. Gonadal hormones (Estrogens or androgens)
• 4. Internal accessory organs (fallopian tubes, vas deferens)
• 5. External Genitalia (Penis, Clitoris)
• People who fall outside the male and female dichotomy are generally called intersexuals (1.7
% of the population)
•
•
38 GENDER
• Gender- is commonly defined as socially or culturally prescribed characteristics, behaviors,
and interests appropriate for women and men (Howard & Hollander, 1997).
• Males are expected to be masculine in appearance, behavior, and personality, and females
are expected to be feminine.
•
39 SEX & GENDER
1 SEX
ØBiological
ØDetermined at birth
ØUniversal
ØPresent in either
ØFixed
ØMale or Female

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ØFixed
ØMale or Female

2 GENDER
ØSocial, contextual
Ø Social expectations for males and females
ØPresent in both
ØChanging
ØFeminine or masculine

40 GENDER IDENTITY
§ Gender Identity- The personal psychological sense of being male or female.
§ Often assumed to match one’s biological sex
§ Transsexuals - people who have literally changed their sex
§ They have been surgically and hormonally altered so that they appear to be a sex different
from the one they were born in.
§ Transgender- In general, people whose gender identity or gender expression differs from
what is associated with their assigned sex at birth.
§
§
§
41 GENDER ROLE
• Social sex role or Gender role –adherence to set of culturally created behaviors and attitudes
deemed appropriate for females or males
• Descriptive- what they usually do
• Prescriptive- what they should do
• Gender belief system- People’s expectations what it means to be male and female.
• “Men should have big biceps”

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• Gender belief system- People’s expectations what it means to be male and female.
• “Men should have big biceps”
• Gender Stereotypes- Generalized beliefs about the characteristics of men and women.
• “Women are emotional”
• “Manloloko lahat ng lalake”
•
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44 GENDER ROLE
• Gender Roles vary with culture.
• To some country, spouses prefer that both of them share the labor in providing and nurturing
their children.
45 GENDER ROLE
• Gender roles vary over time.
• In 1965 the Harvard Business School had never granted a degree to a woman. At the turn of
the twenty- first century, 30 percent of its graduates were women.
• Even in the Philippines before, women were not allowed for schooling– gave birth to exclusive
schools.

46 GENDER ROLE
• How is culture transmitted from one generation to another?
• Peer influence suggests that who we are not mostly because of how our parent’s raised us–
but because of the peers that surround us.
• Much of culture’s influence is transmitted to children by their peers.
•
•
47 TRANSGENDER & TRANSSEXUAL
1 TRANSGENDER
2
3
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47 TRANSGENDER & TRANSSEXUAL
1 TRANSGENDER
2 ØPerson whose gender identity or gender expression does not match their assigned birth sex
3 TRANSSEXUAL
4 ØPerson whose gender identity is opposite to his or her biological sex to the extent that he/she
will seek surgical sex reassignment
48 SEXUAL ORIENTATION
• Sexuality- Fuzzy term used to refer to sexual behaviors (what you do), eroticism (what turns
you on), sexual orientation (who turns you on), as well as desires to engage in sexual activity.
• sexual orientation - the sexual and emotional attraction to the same and/or opposite sex
•
49 TRADITIONAL BINARY GENDER MODEL
50 MODERN CONTINUUM GENDER MODEL
51 IN THE PHILIPPINES…
• Bakla- males who are feminine or effeminate and who cross-dress
• A contraction of the words babae (female) and lalaki (male) (Tan, 1995a)
• Refers to male homosexual or gay man.
• Tomboy- females who are masculine and who cross-dress
• Refers to female homosexual or lesbian.
Ø**Gender and sexual orientation are fused into same the same words/labels in Filipino culture
(Ofreneo, 2000)
Ø**Which means that gender expression is used to signify sexual orientation.
•
52 BISEXUAL & SILAHIS
• Bisexual – person who is attracted to both male and female
• Silahis- a male who is erotically attracted to both males and females (male bisexual)

• *There is no distinct term for the Filipino female bisexual

•
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• *There is no distinct term for the Filipino female bisexual
•
53 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO GENDER
1.Essentialist approach- Difference bet. Male and female are biologically determined.
üNature
2.Socialization approach- gender is not innate, but rather learned from the environment.
3.Social Constructionist approach- gender is created through our social interactions.
üGender is fluid.
4.Structuralist approach- gender as a form of a social structure or the basis for the systematic
allocation of resources.
üResources shape gendered behaviors.
1.
5.
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“Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus”

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“Your ‘opposite sex’ is actually your nearly identical sex.”
- Hyde (2005)
57 HOWEVER…
1 MALE
2 § slower to enter puberty (by about two years) but quicker to die (by four years, worldwide).
§ three times more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD (attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder),
four times more likely to commit suicide, and five times more likely to be killed by lightning.
§ more capable of wiggling the ears.
Ø
3 FEMALE
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Ø
3 FEMALE
4 § has 70 percent more fat, has 40 percent less muscle, is 5 inches shorter, and weighs 40
pounds less.
§ is more sensitive to smells and sounds.
§ is doubly vulnerable to anxiety disorders and depression.

58 INDEPENDENCE & CONNECTDNESS

1 MALE
2 • Prefer larger groups than more intimate one.
• Less emotional in relationships.
• More independent
3 FEMALE
4 • More intimate– because they tend to read other’s emotions.
• Skilled at expressing emotions nonverbally.
• More caring.
• More “connected”
59 SOCIAL DOMINANCE
1 MALE
2 • More dominant, driven, and aggressive.
• Takes more risks.
• Tend to talk louder and interrupt more.
3 FEMALE
4 • More dependent & submissive.
• Less interruptive, more sensitive, more polite, less cocky.

•
60 AGGRESSION- Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

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60 AGGRESSION- Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

1 MALE
2 • Throughout the world, hunting, fighting, and warring are primarily male activities.
• More aggressive in general.
•
3 FEMALE
4 • Less aggressive.
• Caveat: Aggression is also contingent.
• slapping a family member, throwing
something, or verbally attacking someone—women
are no less aggressive than men.
•
•
•
•
61 SEXUALITY
1 MALE
2 • More likely to initiate sexual activity.
• Desire sex more often.
3 FEMALE
4 • Wants more commitment than intercourse.
• Wants more emotional passion.
62 III. Evolution & gender: doing what comes naturally?

63 GENDER AND MATING PREFERENCES

• We all have hidden evolutionary predispositions.
• We want to send our genes into the future.
• Everywhere, men preferred attractive physical features suggesting youth and health— and

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• We want to send our genes into the future.
• Everywhere, men preferred attractive physical features suggesting youth and health— and
reproductive fitness. Everywhere, women preferred men with resources and status.
•
•
•
64 GENDER AND MATING PREFERENCES
• Females invest their reproductive opportunities carefully, by looking for signs of resources and
commitment.
• Males compete with other males for chances to win the genetic sweepstakes by sending their
genes into the future, and thus look for healthy, fertile soil in which to plant their seed.

65 GENDER AND MATING PREFERENCES

• Why are men attracted to beautiful (physically) women?
• Evolutionary perspective: Because it suggest peak of fertility.
• Why women are attracted to men with stature?
• Evolutionary perspective: Women everywhere feel attracted to men whose wealth, power,
and ambition promise resources for protecting and nurturing offspring.

66 GENDER & HORMONES

• Are we all just biological beings?
• All our actions or thinking are due to hormonal secretions?
67 GENDER & HORMONES
We could not deny the social forces that influence us!
68

69

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1
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2
8 Pineapples on pizza.
3
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11 IS PERSUASION GOOD OR BAD?

5
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13
7
14
8
15
9
16 DO WE EXPERIENCE PERSUASION EVERYDAY?
10
17
11
18 Persuasion defined
12 • Persuasion- The process by which a message induces change in
13 beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.
–Attitude change – assessed relative to the person’s initial attitude
14 •Polarization – when people move in the direction of their initial
15 attitude
•Depolarization – move towards neutrality
16 • The good we call “education.”
17 • The bad we call “propaganda.”
•
18
19 I. WHAT PATHS LEAD TO PERSUASION?
20 The Dual-process Models
• Peripheral Route Persuasion- Occurs when people are influenced by
incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.
–Provides a quick accept or reject decision without deep
consideration.
–Heuristics- mental shortcuts.
–Assumes that people are less motivated to elaborate the message.
–Results to snap judgments
19 •
•
20 •
21

22

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21 •
21
22 Heuristics?
22
23 Heuristics?
23 The Dual-process Models
• Central Route Persuasion- Occurs when interested people focus on
the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
–Involves message elaboration.
–Requires active thinking.
–Assumes that we are motivated enough to process the message.
•
•
24 •
24
25 Central or Peripheral?
25
26 Central or Peripheral?
26
27 Central or Peripheral?
27
28 Central or Peripheral?
28
29 II. WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION?
29
30 True or False?
30
• 1. Fear-arousing messages are generally ineffective.
• 2. Speakers who talk fast are viewed as less credible than those who
talk with occasional hesitation.
• 3. Messages that acknowledge opposing arguments are always more
effective than messages which are one-sided.
• 4. In a debate, it is usually advantageous to be the last to present
your side of the issue.
• 5. Commercials for toothpaste and aspirin have little effect on the
buying habits of the general public.
•
•
31 1. COMMUNICATOR
2. MESSAGE
31
3. FORM OF DELIVERY
4. AUDIENCE
32 1. The Communicator
32
Who would you rather believe?
33

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32 1. The Communicator
Who would you rather believe?
33 1. The Communicator
• Credibility- Believability. A credible communicator is perceived as
both expert and trustworthy.
• Sleeper Effect- A delayed impact of a message that occurs when an
initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the
message but forget the reason for discounting it.

•
34

35

36 1. The Communicator (cont’d)

• Perceived Trustworthiness
• Looks straight in the eye
• Not trying to persuade
• Argues against one’s self-interest
• Talks fast
•
37 1. The Communicator (cont’d)
• Attractiveness- Having qualities that
appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone
similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective
preference.
–Physical attractiveness & Similarity
–“Birds of the same feather flock together?”
38 2. The Message
• Messages also become more persuasive through association with
good feelings.
• Messages can also be effective by evoking negative emotions.
•
•
39

40

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41

42 2. The Message
• Discrepancy or Cognitive Dissonance!
–Disagreement produces discomfort, and discomfort prompts people
to change their opinions.
–However, credibility of the communicator interplays.
• Primacy effect- Information presented first. **Has more influence.
“first is the best”
• Recency effect- Information presented last. **Has less influence.
•
43

44 3. How it is delivered
• Channel of Communication- The way the message is delivered—
whether face-to- face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.
• Active experience or passive reception?
–After anti-litering campaign Raymond Paloutzian (1979) placed litter
near a trash can along a well-traveled sidewalk.
•
•
45 3. How it is delivered (Cont’d)
Personal or media influence?

46 3. How it is delivered (Cont’d)

Personal or media influence?
• Two-step flow of communication- The process by which media
influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence
others.
•
47 4. The Audience
• Age: different attitudes and beliefs.
–Life cycle explanation: Attitudes change (for example, become more
conservative) as people grow older.
–Generational explanation: Attitudes do not change; older people
largely hold onto the attitudes they adopted when they were young.
• Thinking: If the message summons favorable thoughts, it persuades
us. If it provokes us to think of contrary arguments, we remain not

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• Thinking: If the message summons favorable thoughts, it persuades

us. If it provokes us to think of contrary arguments, we remain not
persuaded.
•
48 4. The Audience (continued)
• Forewarned is forearmed
–Being warned that someone’s going to persuade you inclines you to
create counterarguments
• Distraction disarms counterarguing
–Advertisements keep us occupied with images so we don’t analyze
the message
• Uninvolved audiences use peripheral cues
–Some people are not motivated enough to contemplate on the
message
49 Other explanations…
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Mere exposure effect- Increase ‘liking’ of a stimulus the more you are
exposed to it.
50

51 III. EXTREME PERSUASION: HOW DO CULTS INDOCTRINATE?

52 “Hundreds of thousands of people in recent years have been
recruited by members of some 2,500 religious cults, but seldom
through an abrupt decision.”
- Charles Addams
53 Cults
• Cults- “New religious movement”
1) Distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a
person
2) Isolation from the surrounding “evil” culture
3) Charismatic leader

54
*Koresh persuaded the men to live celibately while he slept with their
wives and daughters, and he convinced his 19 “wives” that they should
bear his children.

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54

wives and daughters, and he convinced his 19 “wives” that they should
bear his children.

•
55
*Under siege after a shootout that killed 6 members and 4 federal
agents, Koresh told his followers they would soon die and go with him
straight to heaven. Federal agents rammed the compound with tanks,
hoping to inject tear gas. By the end of the assault, 86 people were
consumed in a fire that engulfed the compound.

56 Attitudes follow behavior

• Compliance breeds acceptance
–Behaviors such as rituals strengthen identities as members.
• Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
–First voluntary then mandatory.

•
57 Persuasive Elements

• The communicator
–Charismatic, trust
• The message
–Heartwarming, vivid, emotional
• The audience
– 25yrs, personal crises

•
58 Group Effects
• Separates members from their previous social support systems and
isolates them with other cult members.
• Cut off from families and former friends, they lose access to
counterarguments.
• Stress and emotional arousal can cause more susceptibility to
argument and pressure.
•
•
•
59

60

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•
•
59 *Military training creates cohesion & commitment– same tactics
used in cults!
60 IV. HOW CAN PERSUASION BE RESISTED?
61 Strengthening Personal Commitment
• Challenging Beliefs
–Committed people when their beliefs are attacked they become
more committed.
• Developing Counterarguments
–Attitudes Inoculation- Exposing people to weak attacks upon their
attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have
refutations available.
•
•
62 Strengthening Personal Commitment
–Resisting persuasion can drain energy. Thus weakened by
tiredness we become more susceptible to persuasion.
–Poison Parasite- Combines a poison (strong counterarguments)
with a parasite (retrieval cues that bring those arguments to mind
when seeing the opponent’s ads).
–
63

64 Implications of Attitude Inoculation

• Don’t create a “Germ- free ideological environment”!
• People who live amid diverse views become more discerning and
more likely to modify their views in response to strong but not weak
arguments (Levitan & Visser, 2008).
•
65 TO STRENGTHEN ATTITUDE IS TO CHALLENGE THEM.
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1 Social Psychology
Aggression: Intending to Hurting others

“…nothing so threatening to humanity as humanity itself.” (Lewis

2 True or False
Thomas 1981)
2
3 Aggression
3
—Defined
—Theories of aggression
—Influences (causes)
—How it can be reduced
—Reforming a violent culture
4 What Is Aggression?
4
—Aggression
—Physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm
—Hostile Aggression (“social”)
—Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure
—Instrumental Aggression (“silent”)
—Aggression that is a means to some other end
—E.g. terrorism,
—To displace occupiers or get to heaven
—E.g. boxing
—For $$$ reward
—E.g. war
5 Aggression
5
6

6
7 Defining Aggression
7
v Aggression is a behavior directed toward another individual carried
out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm
vThe target is motivated to avoid such behavior
vKey elements:
ØHarm against another
ØIntentional
ØVictim regards harm as aversive and unwanted
ØFocus on intent and not the specific behavior
v

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ØFocus on intent and not the specific behavior

v
—
8

9 Aggression in the PH
v Aggression is a foreign word with no exact translation in Filipino or
any other local languages
v
—
10

11

12 2 Main Types of Aggression

1 Hostile/Affective Aggression
2 ØAggression motivated by negative emotions such as anger
ØIntent is to inflict injury because of the anger
ØImpulsive, unplanned
3 Instrumental Aggression
4 ØAggression used to achieve a goal.
ØNot emotional.
13 Other types of Aggression
v Physical aggression – pushing, hitting, biting
v Relational aggression – using relationships to harm each other,
using covert behavior like exclusion, silent treatment and gossip
—
14 Other types of Aggression (cont’d)
v Self-instigated (proactive) – aggression without provocation (such as
bullying)
v Retaliatory (reactive) – attack in reaction to some provocation
v Impulsive – thoughtless & reactive
vPremeditated – thoughtful, deliberate, proactive
v
v
15 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Aggression as a Biological Phenomenon
—Thomas Hobbes – “by nature” (also Freud)
—Jean-Jacques Rousseau – “society causes it”

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—Thomas Hobbes – “by nature” (also Freud)

—Jean-Jacques Rousseau – “society causes it”
—Instinct theory and evolutionary psychology
—Innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a
species (Lorenz)
—“naming error”
—Its adaptive
—What happened with Charles Barkley?
—Neural influences
—Abnormal brains can contribute to abnormally aggressive behavior
—Genetic Influences
—Heredity influences the neural system’s sensitivity to aggressive
cues
16 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Aggression as a Biological Phenomenon
—Biochemical influences
—Alcohol –
—reduces self-awareness,
—accuracy of social perception
—Testosterone
—Poor diet –eat a lot of omega-3-fatty acids and calcium
—Biology and behavior interact
17 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Aggression as a Response to Frustration
—Frustration
—Blocking of goal-directed behavior
—Frustration-aggression theory (Dollard, .39)
—Theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
—Displacement

—
—
18 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Frustration-Aggression Theory Revised (L. Berkowitz, ’78)
—Original theory overstated the frustration-aggression connection
—Frustration produces anger, an emotional readiness to aggress
Frustration-> Anger> Responses (lots possible)
—Theory is designed to explain hostile aggression, not instrumental

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Frustration-> Anger> Responses (lots possible)

—Theory is designed to explain hostile aggression, not instrumental
aggression
19 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Aggression as a Response to Frustration
—Relative deprivation
—Perception that one is less well off than others with whom one
compares oneself (notice the cognitive component here)
—Explains why happiness tends to be lower and crime rates higher
in communities and nations with large income inequality
—But must consider perceptions of
— “justice” & “perceived equity”
20 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Aggression as Learned Social Behavior
—Rewards of aggression
—Through experience and by observing others, we learn that
aggression often pays
—
—
21 What Are Some Theories of Aggression?
—Observational Learning
—Social learning theory (Bandura)
—We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being
rewarded and punished
—Bandura’s bobo doll experiment
—Family
—Culture
—
—
22 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Aversive Incidents
—Physical pain
—Psychological pain
—Heat
—Attacks
—Includes insults
—Southern vs. northern reactions (Cohen et al., ‘96)
—What are some other “cultures of honor” other than the southern

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—Southern vs. northern reactions (Cohen et al., ‘96)

—What are some other “cultures of honor” other than the southern
U.S.?
—
23 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Arousal
—A given state of bodily arousal feeds one emotion or another,
depending on how the person interprets and labels the arousal
—Schachter & Singer, ‘62
—Without a known source of arousal, we look or external sources &
our mood.
24 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Aggression Cues
—Violence is more likely when aggressive cues release pent-up anger
(Berkowitz, ‘68)
—Re: incidence of violence and gun possession rates
—We must look closer
—Cf Maryland and Montana
—Guns are owned and used for different purposes
25 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence
—Distorted perceptions of sexual reality
—Studies confirm that exposure to pornography increases
acceptance of the rape myth
26 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence
—Distorted perceptions of sexual reality
—Aggression against women
—Studies suggest that the exposure to violent pornography
increase punitive behavior toward women
—Ted Bundy was not “normal” –so he can not speak for others
—“…the most damaging kinds of pornography...involving sexual
violence……you keep craving something [more) …which gives
you a greater sense of excitement..”
Impulse control (e.g. sex and violence) varies among individuals.
“Exposure to violence porn increases punitive behavior toward
women”….for some who are predisposed….not all
27

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women”….for some who are predisposed….not all

27 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Pornography and Sexual Violence
—Distorted perceptions of sexual reality
—Medial awareness education
—Media awareness training as an alternative to censorship
—Should violent porn be banned?
28 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Television and the Internet
—Television’s effects on behavior
—Correlating TV viewing and behavior
—Frequent result of correlating children’s TV viewing with
aggressiveness is the more violent the content the more
aggressive the child
—Extends to indirect aggression
—Should media violence be banned?
29 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Television and the Internet
—Television’s effects on behavior
—TV viewing experiments
—Ross Parke (1977) and Jacques Leyens (1975)
—Showed institutionalized American and Belgian delinquent boys
a series of either aggressive or nonaggressive commercial films
• Findings: Exposure to more violence led to an increase
in viewer aggression
30 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Television and the Internet
—Television’s effects on behavior
—Why does TV viewing affect behavior?
—The arousal that it produces
—Viewing violence disinhibits
—Media portrayals evoke imitation
—
31 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Television and the Internet
—Television’s effects on thinking
—Desensitization

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31

—Television’s effects on thinking

—Desensitization
—Social scripts
—Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various
situations
—Altered perceptions
—Media portrayals shape perceptions of reality
—Cognitive priming
—Media portrayals prime thinking
—Time drain
—
—
32 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Video Games
—The games kids play
—Games are becoming more violent and sometimes include
—Carjacking
—Shooting
—Sex
—Murder
—Games that are rated “M” for mature are often marketed to those
younger
33 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Media Influences: Video Games
—Effects of the games kids play
—Increases aggressive behaviors
—Increases aggressive thoughts
—Increases aggressive feelings
—Decreases helping others
—Decreases empathy for others
—Desensitized to violence
—Should violent video games be banned?
34 What Are Some Influences on Aggression?
—Group Influences
—Can amplify aggressive reactions partly by diffusing responsibility
—Increases with distance and number
—deindividuation
—Social contagion

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—deindividuation
—Social contagion

35 How Can Aggression Be Reduced?

—Catharsis?
—Contrary to the catharsis hypothesis, expressing aggression by
catharsis tends to breed further aggression, not reduce it
36 How Can Aggression Be Reduced?

—A Social Learning Approach

—Controlling aggression by counteracting the factors that provoke it
—Reducing aversive stimulation
—Rewarding nonaggression
—Modeling nonaggression
—Eliciting reactions incompatible with aggression
—
37 How Can Aggression Be Reduced?
—Culture Change and World Violence
—Cultures can change