CHAPTER 2: MINERALOGY crystallography" derives from the Greek word

crystallon which means cold drop or frozen drop, with

its meaning extending to all solids with some degree
OVERVIEW of transparency, and grapho which means write.

Mineralogy is a scientific discipline that is concerned

with all aspects of minerals, including their physical
CRYSTAL is any solid material in which the
properties, chemical composition, internal crystal
component atoms are arranged in a definite patter
structure, and occurrence and distribution in nature
and whose surface regularity reflects its internal
and their origins in terms of the physicochemical
symmetry.
conditions of formation.

UNIT CELL is the smallest unit of volume that

SCIENTIFIC BRANCHES OF MINERALOGY
1.Crystallography studies crystal forms, that is,
forms in which the minerals crystallize, as well as
their internal structure, relations, and distribution of
atoms, ions, or ionic groups in the crystal lattice.
permits. identical cell to be stacked together to fill all
space. By repeating the pattern of the unit cell over
in all directions, the entire crystal lattice can be
constructed.

2.Physical Mineralogy is the study of physical

2.1. SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF
properties of minerals, such as cohesion cleavage,
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
elasticity, color, luster, streak, hardness, and
average density.
3.Optical, thermal, and magnetic properties,
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS are ways of classifying
electrical conductivity and radioactivity
crystals based on the symmetry of their unit cells. It
4.Chemical Mineralogy is the study of chemical
is a set of point groups (a group of geometric
formula, percentage contribution of individual
symmetries with at least one fixed point).
elements, and other chemical properties of the
minerals.
5.Classification of minerals based on
SYMMETRY is a property of an object that allows us
metallic/nonmetallic type (iron ore and quartz),
to divide it into two identical halves, which are mirror
chemistry (oxides, sulfides, arsenide, and silicates).
images of each other.
6.Descriptive Mineralogy deals with the
classification of minerals into groups based on their
common properties, mostly chemical and structural
SPACE GROUP OF A CRYSTAL is mathematically
properties.
described as the total set of symmetry operations
7.Environmental Mineralogy narrates the complex
applicable to the pattern and as such it describes an
and very different conditions of the origin of the
important aspect of the crystal's internal structure. A
minerals, explores the possible hazards associated
Space Group includes two main types of symmetries:
with specific minerals/elements or industry, if any,
optimum consumption, recycling, and sustainable i. The Translational Symmetries
development.
ii. The Point Symmetries

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the experimental science

of the arrangement of atoms in solids. The word "
TRANSLATIONAL SYMMETRY is the invariance of
the equations describing the system under either
continuous or discrete translations. It happens when
something has undergone a movement, a shift or a
slide, in a specified direction through a specified
distance without any rotation or reflection. The
distances between points within the figure will not
change.
POINT SYMMETRY, it takes place when, given a
central point on a shape or object, every point on the
opposite sides have the same distance from the
central point. Other terms for point symmetry include
origin symmetry (origin is another word for the
central point) and rotational symmetry. When viewed
from opposite directions, the opposite sides or parts
will look the same.
POINT SYMMETRY OPERATIONS
1. CENTER OF SYMMETRY - Reflection in a
point (Inversion)
2. MIRROR SYMMETRY- Reflection in a plane
3. ROTATIONAL SYMMETRY-Rotation about
an imaginary axis
4. ROTO INVERSION A combination of rotation
with a center of inversion.
THE SEVEN (7) CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
1. CUBIC (ISOMETRIC) SYSTEM
It is the most symmetrical one. out of the
seven crystal system. All three angles intersect at
right angles and are of equal length. Crystal shapes
of a cubic system based on inner structure (square)
include octahedron, Hexaciscoherdron and cube.
2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
It consists of three axes. The main axis varies
in length; it can either be short or long. The two-axis
lie in the same plane and are of the same length.
Based on the rectangular inner structure the shapes
of crystal in tetragonal include double and eight-
sided pyramids, four-sided prism, trapezohedrons,
and pyrite.
3. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
It comprises four axes. Hexagonal The three a1, a2
and a3 axes are all contained within a single plane
(called the basal plane) and are at 120°. They
intersect each other at an angle of sixty degrees. The
fourth axis intersects other axes at right angles.
Crystal shapes of hexagonal systems include Double
Pyramids, Double-Sided Pyramids, and Four-Sided
Pyramids.
4. RHOMBOHEDRAL (TRIGONAL) SYSTEM
Angles and axis in a rhombohedral system are
similar to Hexagonal Systems. At the base of a
hexagonal system (ross-section of a prism), there will
be six sides. In the trigonal system (base cross-
section) there will be three sides.
5. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM
It comprises three axes Orthorhombic and is at right
angles to each other. There are different lengths,
Based on their Rhombic structure the orthorhombic
system includes various crystal shapes namely
pyramids, double pyramids, rhombic pyramids, and
pinacoids. Some common orthorhombic crystals
include Topaz, Tanzanite, lolite, Zoisite, Danburite
and more.
6. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
It comprises three axes where two are at right angles
to each other, and the third axis is inclined. All three
axes are of different length. Based on the inner
structure the monoclinic system includes Basal
pinacoids and prisms with inclined end faces.
7. TRICLINIC SYSTEM
It is the most unsymmetrical crystal system. All three
axes are inclined towards each other, and they are of
the same length. Based on the three inclined angles
the various forms of crystals are in the paired faces.
2.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. TENACITY
- refers to a mineral's toughness or resistance to
breaking or being deformed. Minerals such as halite,
calcite and fluorite are brittle, as their molecules are
held together by weak ionic bonds.
2. HARDNESS
-has traditionally been defined as the level of
difficulty with which a smooth surface of a mineral
specimen may be scratched. The hardness of a
mineral species is dependent upon the strength of
the bonds which compose its crystal structure.
3. FRACTURE
-if the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will
break along random directions called fracture.
Several different kinds of fracture patterns are
observed.
• Conchoidal fracture breaks along smooth curved
surfaces.
• Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood
breaks.
• Hackly-jagged fractures with sharp edges.
• Uneven or Irregular rough irregular surfaces
4. CLEAVAGE
- is the property of a mineral that allows it to break
smoothly along specific internal planes (called
cleavage planes) when the mineral is struck sharply
with a hammer.
5. STREAK
- is the color produced by a fine powder of the
mineral when scratched on a streak plate. Often it is
different than the color of the mineral in
nonpowdered form Hematite: red; Limonite: brown;
Magnetite: dark gray; Chromite: brown.
6. LUSTER
-refers to the general appearance of a mineral
surface to reflected light.
7. DENSITY
-is an intrinsic physical property of minerals that
relates to the composition of the mineral and to the
pattern in which the mineral's atoms are arranged.
"Intrinsic" means that the property is the same for the
mineral, no matter what the size or shape of the
sample.
 Rock-forming minerals are minerals that are
commonly found in the Earth’s crust and are
responsible for the formation of various types of
rocks. These minerals make up the majority of
the Earth’s crust and are the building blocks of
rocks, which are aggregates of minerals.
ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK
FORMING MINERALS
The civil engineers need to know the properties of
rocks precisely to enable them to consider different
rocks for any required purpose, i.e., as foundation
rocks, as road meta, as concrete aggregate, as
building stones, as flooring or roofing material, as
decorative material. Thus, properties of civil
engineering importance such as their strength,
durability and appearance of rocks can be assessed
only with the knowledge of the minerals that form
rock-forming minerals.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCK FORMING
MINERALS
 QUARTZ FAMILY
 FELDSPAR FAMILY
 AUGITE
 HORNBLENDE
 BIOTITE
 MUSCOVITE
 CALCITE
 GARNET
QUARTZ FAMILY
  occurs in essentially all mineral environments,
and is the crucial constituent of many rocks
 is the maximum abundant and widely allotted
mineral determined at Earth’s surface
 is ubiquitous, wide and durable
 is highly resistant to both mechanical and
chemical weathering
 the name QUARTZ is a German word of
ancient derivation
GEOLOGICAL SETTINGS AND FORMATIO
PROCESSES
 form as a result of the slow cooling and
crystallization of magma
 formed by the recrystallization of pre-existing
rocks under high pressure and temperature
 formed from the accumulation and
cementation of sand-sized grains
 can form as a result of biomineralization,
which is the process by which living
organisms produce minerals
OCCURRENCE
 occurs as an important constituent of those
igneous rocks which have an excess of silica
 is extremely resistant to both mechanical and
chemical attack, and thus the breakdown of
igneous rocks
 occurs in metamorphic rocks, as gneisses
and schists, while it forms practically the only
mineral of quartzites.
MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 is composed of silicon and oxygen atoms in a
continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen
tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared
between two tetrahedra, giving an overall
chemical formula of SiO2
 crystal system is trigonal, meaning it has
threefold symmetry around an axis
perpendicular to its basal plane.
USES
 Quartz sand is used inside the production of
field glass, flat plate glass, uniqueness glass,
and fiberglass
 Quartz sands and finely floor silica sand are
used for sand blasting, scouring cleansers,
grinding media, and grit for sanding and
sawing.
 Refractory bricks are often made of quartz
sand because of its excessive warmth
resistance. Quartz sand is likewise used as a
flux in the smelting of metals.
 Quartz sand has an excessive resistance to
being beaten.
 These are used to provide abrasive gear,
deburring media, grinding stones, hones,
oilstones, stone files, tube-mill liners, and
whetstones.
FELDSPAR FAMILY
PRODUCTION AND USES
About 20 million tonnes of feldspar have been
produced in 2010, primarily by three countries:
 Italy (4.7 Mt)
 Turkey (4.5 Mt)
 China (2 Mt)
Feldspar is a common uncooked fabric utilized in
glassmaking, ceramics, and to a point as a filler
and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber.
In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves
product’s hardness, sturdiness, and resistance to
chemical corrosion.
In cermaics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium oxide,
potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as a flux,
decreasing the melting temperature of a
combination.
 In the US, approximately 66% of feldspar is
consumed in gllassmaking, including glass
container and glass fiber.
MONOCLINIC PYROXENE (AUGITE)
 The name Augite is derived from the Greek
word augites, “brightness”, in reference to
the bright luster this mineral occasionally
exhibits.
 Augite usually occurs in dull crystals that are
ugly and uninteresting.
 Augite is an important rock-forming mineral,
and large crystals are fairly common.
 It is the most widespread member of the
pyroxene group, and it frequently alters to
many other minerals, including Hornblende.
OCCURRENCE
 Augite is found primarily in major rock forming
mineral in mafic igneous rocks, ultramafic
rocks and some high grade metamorphic
rocks.
 It occurs in basalts, gabbros, andesites,
diorites, and peridotites.
 The augites in layered ultramafic intrusions
show compositional trends of increasing iron
and decreasing magnesium contents with
fractionation.
CRYSTAL SYSTEM:MONOCLINIC
 Any mineral that falls under the following
specifications belongs to the monoclinic
crystal system:
Three axes, all of them are unequal in length. (Two
of them are at right angles to each other, while the
third lies at an angle other than 90 degrees.)
USES
 Augite is a dark green to black mineral that is
used for ceramics
 It contains large amounts of aluminum, iron,
and magnesium and can be found in meteroic
stones.
 ceramic glazing, manufacturing aluminum,
purifying water.
How can we relate Augite in Engineering field?
 The rocks that contain augite can have
various engineering applications, including
construction, asphalt production, geothermal
energy, and CO2 sequestration. The
properties of these rocks, such as their
strength, durability, and mineral composition,
make them valuable materials in various
engineering contexts.
HORNBLENDE
 Any of a subgroup of amphibole minerals that
are calcium-iron-magnesium-rich and mono
clinic in crystal structure.
 Hornblende, occurs widely in metamorphic
and igneous rocks.
 Common hornblende is dark green to black in
color and usually found in middle-grade
metamorphic rocks (formed under medium
conditions of temperature and pressure.
  Such metamorphic rocks with abundant
hornblende are called amphibolite’s.
block diagram showing the relationship between
the crystallographic axes and the indicatrix axes.
How can we relate Hornblende in Engineering
field?
USES
 The hornblende mineral is used in a variety of
common things that we use everyday.
 These things include: Steel, soap, oil,
buildings and statues.
 The rocks that contain hornblende itself is not
directly used in engineering applications, the
rocks that contain it can have various uses in
the engineering field, including construction
materials, geotechnical engineering, mineral
exploration, environmental engineering, and
energy resources.
BIOTITE
 Biotite is a group of common rock-forming
minerals forming a series between phlogopite
and annite. The name is best used as a field
name for dark micas for which the exact
composition has not been determined.
 Biotite survives a certain amount of
weathering and is found in soils, sediments
and sedimentary rocks. Weathered Biotite
becomes relatively brassy of bronzy in color
and has been mistaken for gold.
 Is lower density, cleavage, and other
properties are soon apparent to the careful
observer. Finally Biotite can form as a result
of hydrothermal processes, especially wall-
rock alteration around ore veins.

USES
 Biotite has very limited commercial use.
 Biotite particles are sometimes used as a
surface treatment in decorative concrete,
plaster and other construction materials.
 It is also used in the potassium-argon method
of dating igneous rock.
How can we relate Hornblende in Engineering
field?
 The rocks that contain biotite itself is not
directly used in engineering applications, the
rocks that contain it can have various uses in
the engineering field, including construction
materials, geotechnical engineering, mineral
exploration, energy resources, and
environmental engineering. Understanding
the properties and occurrence of biotite-
bearing rocks can help engineers and
geologists make informed decisions in
various projects and applications.
KEYPOINTS:
 Mineralogy is the scientific study of minerals,
their properties, and their occurrences in
nature.
 It is a branch of geology that focuses on
understanding the composition, structure,
physical properties, and formation of minerals,
as well as their distribution and economic
significance.
 Rock-forming minerals are minerals that are
commonly found in the Earth’s crust and are
responsible for the formation of various types
of rocks.
 there are different types of rock-forming
minerals, which are QUARTZ FAMILY,
FELDSPAR FAMILY,AUGITE,
HORNBLENDE, BIOTITE, MUSCOVITE,
CALCITE and GARNET.
MUSCOVITE
 The name “Muscovite” comes from the term
“Muscovy-glass”, a name formerly given to
the mineral because it was actually used in
Russia for windows.
 Muscovite reflects light strongly from broken
fragments. This is caused by a natural
cleavage resulting in thin sheets (“Basal
Cleavage”).
 Muscovite is a common mineral that belongs
to the mica group. It is a silicate mineral that
is characterized by its thin, sheet-like
structure.
 Muscovite is composed of potassium (K),
aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O)
atoms arranged in sheets, and it is known for
its excellent cleavage, which allows it to be
easily split into thin, flexible sheets. These
sheets are often transparent to translucent
and have a pearly luster.
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
 The crystal structure of muscovite consists of 2:l
layers or tetrahedral–octahedral–tetrahedral
(TOT) layers bonded together by large interlayer
cations.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Hardness - 2-2.5
 Specific gravity - 2.8
 Transparency - Transparent to translucent
 Colour - White, silver, yellow, green and
brown
 Streak - White
 Lustre - Vitreous to pearly
 Cleavage/fracture - Perfect in one direction
producing thin sheets or flakes / uneven
 Crystal habit/mode of occurrence - Tabular
(sheets or flakes)
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
 Transparency: Muscovite is transparent to
translucent, allowing light to pass through its
thin sheets.
 Refractive Index: The refractive index of
muscovite ranges from approximately 1.559
to 1.597, depending on the wavelength of
light and the specific composition of the
mineral sample.
 Birefringence: Muscovite is typically
birefringent, meaning it can split light into two
polarized rays that travel at different speeds
through the mineral.
 Pleochroism: In some cases, muscovite may
exhibit pleochroism, where it appears to have
different colors when viewed from different
angles due to variations in light absorption.
OCCURRENCE
Muscovite is a common mineral found in a variety of
geological settings. Its occurrence and formation can
be attributed to specific geological processes and
environments.
Igneous Rocks: Muscovite can form in igneous
rocks, particularly in granites and pegmatites.
Metamorphic Rocks: Muscovite is a common
mineral in certain types of metamorphic rocks,
including schist and gneiss.
Hydrothermal Veins: Muscovite can also occur in
hydrothermal vein deposits.
FORMATION
The formation of muscovite involves the interaction
of various geological processes:
Crystallization: In igneous rocks, muscovite forms
during the crystallization of molten magma.
Metamorphism: In metamorphic rocks, muscovite
forms as a result of the metamorphic process, which
involves high temperature and pressure conditions.
Hydrothermal Activity: In hydrothermal vein
deposits, muscovite forms when hot, hydrothermal
fluids rich in dissolved minerals migrate through
rocks.
USES
 Muscovite can be cleaved into very thin
transparent sheets that can substitute for
glass, particularly for high-temperature
applications such as industrial furnace or
oven windows.
 It is also used in the manufacture of a wide
variety of electronics
 Use as a filler in paints, plastic, and
wallboard.It is also used in tire manufacture
as a mold release agent, in drilling mud, and
in various cosmetics for its luster.
How can we relate Muscovite in Engineering
Field?
  In the construction industry, Muscovite mica
is primarily used as a reinforcing agent in
plaster, cement, and asphalt. Its unique
combination of flexibility and heat resistance
improves the durability of these materials.
 It is also used as a coating for roofing
materials, making them more weather-
resistant and reflective, which can reduce
energy consumption in buildings.
CALCITE
 The name “Calcite” is derived from the Latin
word “calx,” which means lime, highlighting its
close association with limestone and other
calcium-rich rocks.
 Calcite is a carbonate mineral, which means
it contains the carbonate ion as a
fundamental building block. It is one of the
most common minerals on Earth and can be
found in various geological settings.
 Calcite is the most common form of natural
calcium carbonate , a widely distributed
mineral known for the beautiful development
and great variety of its crystals.
 Calcite is one of the most ubiquitous minerals,
being an important rock forming mineral in
sedimentary environments. It is an essential
component of limestones, and occurs in other
sedimentary rocks.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Hardness - 3
 Specific gravity - 2.7
 Transparency - Transparent to translucent
 Colour - Generally white or colourless, but
also with light shades of yellow, orange, blue,
pink, red, brown, green, black and grey
 Streak - White
 Lustre - Vitreous to resinous
 Cleavage/fracture - Perfect in three
directions at oblique angles / conchoidal
 Crystal habit/mode of occurrence -
Prismatic (rhombohedral crystals) / granular,
massive
OCCURRENCE
1. Sedimentary Rocks: Calcite is a major
component of various sedimentary rocks, most
notably limestone and its metamorphic counterpart,
marble.
2. Karst Landscapes: Calcite’s solubility in water
leads to the formation of unique geological
landscapes called karst landscapes.
3. Mineral Deposits: Calcite can be associated with
various types of mineral deposits. In hydrothermal
veins, where hot fluids circulate through fractures in
rocks, calcite can precipitate along with other
minerals.
FORMATION
 Formation Processes in Sedimentary
Environments: Calcite commonly forms in
sedimentary environments where the
accumulation of minerals and organic
material occurs over time.
 Influence of Temperature, Pressure, and
Fluid Composition: Calcite formation can be
influenced by temperature, pressure, and the
composition of fluids present in the geological
environment.
 Other Environments: Calcite can also form
in other geological settings. For instance, it
can precipitate from groundwater in caves,
forming stalactites and stalagmites.
USES
 It is used as a building material, abrasive,
agricultural soil treatment, construction
aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical, and
other applications.
  Calcite is used as a pigment material to
prevent steel wear, increasing water and
chemical resistance
 Used as filler and coating material in most
paper-producing industries to harden or
smoothen.
 Calcite is used as a pigment material to
prevent steel wear, increasing water and
chemical resistance.
How can we relate Calcite in Engineering Field?
 The construction industry is the primary
consumer of calcite in the form of limestone
and marble.
 Modern construction uses calcite in the form
of limestone and marble to produce cement
and concrete.
 These materials are easily mixed, transported,
and placed in the form of a slurry that will
harden into a durable construction material.
Concrete is used to make buildings, highways,
bridges, walls, and many other structures.
GARNET
 The word ‘garnet’ comes from the Latin word
granatus, which means ‘seed-like’.
 Garnet refers to a group of minerals that
share a common crystal structure but come in
a variety of colors and compositions. These
minerals belong to the nesosilicate family.
 Garnets are characterized by their distinct
crystal structure, which is often referred to as
the “garnet structure.” .
 Garnet is commonly found in highly
metamorphosed rocks and in some igneous
rocks.
 They form under the same high temperatures
and / or pressures that form those types of
rocks.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 Hardness - 6.5-7.5
 Specific gravity - 3.6-4.3
 Transparency - Transparent to opaque
 Colour - Variable - most commonly red,
reddish brown
 Streak - White
 Lustre - Vitreous to resinous
 Cleavage/fracture - Non-existent /
conchoidal
 Crystal habit/mode of occurrence -
Prismatic (12-sided rhombic, 24-sided
trapezoidal) / granular, massive
OCCURRENCE
 Extensively found across the world in igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
 Most garnet stones are found near Earth's
surface when a sedimentary rock with greater
aluminium content, such as shale, is put
through heat and pressure intense enough to
form schist or gneiss.
 Garnet is also found in the rocks of contact
metamorphism, lava flows, deep-source
volcanic outbreaks, subsurface magma
chambers, and the soils and sediments
formed when garnet-carrying rocks are
eroded.
FORMATION
 Metamorphism: Garnets commonly form
during regional or contact metamorphism,
where rocks are subjected to high
temperatures and pressures over time.
 Parent Rocks: Garnets can form from
various parent rocks, such as shale, schist,
gneiss, and mica-rich rocks.
 Subduction Zones: In subduction zones,
where one tectonic plate is forced beneath
another, high-pressure conditions are present.
These environments can facilitate the
formation of garnets as well.
 Igneous Intrusions: Garnets can crystallize
from cooling magma under specific conditions.
USES
 Garnets have been used since the Bronze
Age as gemstones for jewellery and
ornaments and as abrasives.
 Garnets are used for industrial blast-cleaning,
polishing, filtration and water jet cutting.
 Garnet crystals with a large number of lithium
atoms in the crystal structure are called
lithium-stuffed garnets, and these have been
used in rechargeable battery technologies.
How can we relate Garnets in Engineering Field?
 Garnet Sand is a popular name in the
chemical, mineral and construction industry.
 It is used to provide friction while constructing
anti skid surfaces. Garnet Sand is an
excellent abrasive.
 The properties of this waste material with
higher hardness and finer size makes it
feasible to be utilized as partial fine
aggregate in concrete or brick production.
Properties And Process of Formation Of Minerals
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic
substances with specific chemical compositions and
crystalline structures. They form through various
geological processes over extended periods. These
processes include crystallization from molten rock
(igneous), precipitation from solutions (sedimentary),
and alteration due to heat and pressure
(metamorphic). The properties of minerals, such as
hardness, strength, and chemical composition, are
crucial in civil engineering for material selection,
structural design, and environmental assessment.
Understanding mineral formation processes is vital
for sustainable resource management and the
development of resilient infrastructure.
Minerals play a crucial role in civil engineering due to
their diverse properties and formation processes,
which influence the performance and behavior of
construction materials. Here's a breakdown of the
properties and formation processes of minerals in
relation to civil engineering:
Properties of Minerals:
General Properties:
Hardness: Hardness determines a mineral's
resistance to abrasion and wear, crucial for
construction materials like aggregates and dimension
stones.
Color and Appearance: Could be very helpful and
distinctive. Appearance can influence material
selection for aesthetic purposes in construction.
Chemical Composition: Different minerals have
different chemical compositions, affecting their
reaction to environmental conditions, durability, and
corrosion resistance.
Quarts: Is made up of Silicon and Oxygen. However
in galena there is lead and sulfur. And then in peridot
there’s magnesium, iron, silicon and oxygen. In Talc,
there is magnesium, silicon, oxygen and including
hydroxide. The hematite has iron and oxygen. And
lastly, the corundum is made up of aluminum,
oxygen and chromium
Crystal Structure: A set of faces that have a definite
geometric relationship to each other.
Cubic/Isometric: Most symmetrical and all three
axes have equal length.
Tetragonal: similar to isometric, three axes, two
equal length, the third is longer
Hexagonal: Three equal axes in the same plane,
intersect at angles of 60 degrees and a fourth axis is
at a right angle to the other three.
Orthorhombic: Three axes all unequal to each other
and all axes intersect at right angles
Monoclinic: Two non-equal axes at right angles to
each other and a third axis is inclined to one of the
first two axes
Triclinic: All three axes are inclined with respect to
each other
Strength: Minerals vary in strength, impacting the
durability and load-bearing capacity of construction
materials such as concrete and asphalt.
Other Properties That is Crucial in the Field of
Engineering:
Density: Density affects the weight of construction
materials and influences structural design and
stability.
Porosity: Porous minerals affect the permeability of
materials like soils and rocks, impacting drainage,
groundwater movement, and stability.
Thermal Properties: Thermal conductivity and
expansion coefficients influence a material's
response to temperature changes, critical in
infrastructure exposed to extreme conditions.
Formation Processes of Minerals:
General Formation Processes of Minerals:
Crystallization: Minerals form through the
solidification of molten rock (igneous), precipitation
from solution (sedimentary), or metamorphism
(metamorphic), each process influencing mineral
properties.
Pressure and Temperature Changes: Metamorphic
minerals form due to changes in pressure and
temperature deep within the Earth's crust, altering
the mineral composition and structure.
Weathering and Erosion: Physical and chemical
weathering processes break down rocks into mineral
particles, contributing to the formation of soils and
sediments.
Additional Formation Processes of Minerals:
Hydrothermal Processes: Minerals precipitate from
hot aqueous solutions, often in association with
volcanic activity or deep-sea hydrothermal vents,
contributing to the formation of economically
important mineral deposits.
Importance in Civil Engineering:
Material Selection: Understanding mineral
properties helps engineers select appropriate
construction materials for specific applications,
considering factors like strength, durability, and
environmental conditions.
Structural Design: Knowledge of mineral properties
informs structural design, ensuring structures can
withstand loads, temperature changes, and other
environmental stresses.
Foundation Engineering: Understanding soil
mineralogy is crucial for foundation design, as it
influences soil stability, settlement behavior, and
bearing capacity.
Construction Techniques: Mineral properties
influence construction techniques, such as blasting
methods for rock excavation or concrete curing
processes.
Environmental Impact Assessment:
Understanding mineral formation processes helps
assess the environmental impact of construction
activities, including soil erosion, habitat disruption,
and groundwater contamination.
Resource Management: Knowledge of mineral
resources and their distribution informs sustainable
resource management practices and mineral
extraction techniques.
In summary, the properties and formation processes
of minerals are fundamental to civil engineering,
influencing material selection, structural design,
construction techniques, and environmental
management practices. A thorough understanding of
these aspects is essential for ensuring the safety,
durability, and sustainability of infrastructure projects.
COAL AND PETROLEUM
COAL
Coa is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is combusted
and used to generate electricity.
Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more
than 50% by weight of carbon.
They can be formed depending on the amount of
oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen they contain.
TYPES OF COALS

Oil and gas had already been used in some

PETROLEUM capacity, such as in lamps or as a material for
construction, for thousands of years before the
-also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel.
modern era, with the earliest known oil wells being
-Like coal and natural gas, petroleum was formed
drilled in China in 347 AD.
from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such
as plants, algae, and bacteria.
-Over millions of years of intense heat and pressure,
COALIFICATION
these organic remains (fossils) transformed into
carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials
for fuel and a wide variety of products.

ORIGIN OF COAL AND PETROLEUM

Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of

degradation of ancient plant life which lived
millions of years ago.

These dead plant matter started to pile up, eventually
forming a substance called peat.
Over time, heat and pressure from geological
processes transformed these materials into coal.
OCCURRENCE OF COAL AND PETROLEUM
They are obtained in igneous and metamorphic rocks
at the cracks, crevices, faults, or joints. the ringed
planet and a gas giant.

In sedimentary rocks, several minerals like Coal,

petroleum, and some forms of iron ore have been
PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM PETROLEUM
concentrated as a result of deposition,
accumulation, and concentration for long periods
under great heat and pressure.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

COAL
 As for its chemical composition, coal is a mixture of
high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic
compounds, such as benzene C6H6, toluene
C6H5CH3, xylene C6H4(CH3)2, naphthalene
C10H8, anthracene C14H10, pyrene C16H10 and
their derivatives with high mass fraction of carbon, as
well as of water and volatile substances

PETROLEUM

Chemically, petroleum consists principally of

hydrogen and carbon, but also contains small
percentages of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and
traces of metals, such as vanadium, cobalt, and
nickel.

The common organic compounds include alkanes

(paraffins), naphthenes, aromatics, and
heterocompounds.