Bridge Course (After SEE)

Mathematics

Unit-1

Set, Real Number System and Relation and Function

1.1 Set
Set
A set is well-defined collection of objects
Examples:
i. A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
ii. B= {x:x is a natural number less than 10}

Relation between sets

Subset

A set A is said to be a subset of the set B, if every element of set A is an element of set B. If
A is subset of B, then we write A ⊆B.

Equal sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements. In other word,
two sets A and B are equal if A⊆B and B⊇A.

Proper subset

A subset A of set B is said to be a proper subset of B if there is at least one element of B

which is not an element of A.

Intersecting sets and disjoint sets

Two sets A and B are said to be intersecting sets if they have at least one element in common.

Example:

A = {a, b, c, d} and B= {c, d, e, f} are intersecting sets. Two sets A and B are said to
be disjoint sets if they have no elements in common.

A = {x: x is a natural number, x≤5} and

B= {x: x is a naturel number greater than 5} are disjoint sets.

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Power set

The set of all possible subsets of a set S is said to be the power set of S. It is denoted by P(S)
or 2s.

Example:

If S= {a, b}, then

P(S)={{a}, {b}, {a, b} 𝜙}

Equivalent power set

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they have same number of elements.

Example: A= {a, b, c, d} and B= {1, 2, 3, 4} are equivalent sets.

Universal set

A fixed set U is said to be a universal set if all the sets considered in a discussion are the
subset of U.

Operation on sets

a) Union of two sets

The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which are either in A or B or
both in A and B. We denote it by AUB.
Symbolically, AUB= {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B= {3, 4, 5}, then
AUB = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

b) Intersection of two sets

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belongs to both
sets A and b. We denote it by A∩B= {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B= {3, 4, 5}, then
A∩B= {3}

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c) Difference of two sets

The difference of two sets A and B is the set of all elements of A which are not in B.
We denote it by A-B.
Symbolically, A-B= {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
Similarly, B-A =
Example: If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f} then,
A-B= {a, b}

d) Compliment of a set
The compliment of a set A is the set of all elements in the universal set U but do not
belong to the set A. We denote it by 𝐴̅ or A' or Ac.
Symbolically, 𝐴̅ = {x: x ∈ U or x ∉ A}
Example: If U = {x: x is a natural number less than 5} and
𝐴̅= {3, 4}

e) Symmetric difference
The symmetric difference of two set A and B is the union of the difference A-B and
B-A. We denote it by A∆B.
Symbolically, A∆B = (A – B) U (B – A)
= {x: x ∈ A-B and x ∈ B - A}

Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B= {4, 5, 6, 7}, then
A∆B=(A-B) U (B-A)
= {1, 2, 3} U {5, 6, 7}
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Laws of sets

Let A, B and C be any three subsets of the universal set U. Then,

a) Idempotent laws
i) AUA = A

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Proof:

i) AUA= {x: x∈A or x∈A}

= {x: x∈A} = A

b) Identity Laws
i) AU𝜙 = A
Proof:
i) AU𝜙 = {x: x∈A or x∈ 𝜙}
= {x: x∈A}
=A
c) Communicative laws
i. AUB = BUA

Proof:

i) AUB = BUA
= {x: x∈A or x∈B}
= {x: x∈B or x∈ 𝐴}
= {x: x∈(BUA)}
= BUA

d) Associative laws
i) AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC
Proof:
i) AU(BUC) = {x: x∈AU(BUC)}
= {x: x∈A or x∈(BUC)}
= {x: or (x∈A or x∈C)}
= {x: (x∈A or x∈B) or x ∈c}
= {x: x∈(AUB) or x∈C}
= {x: x∈ (AUB) U C}
= (AUB)UC

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e) Distributive Laws
i) AU(B∩C) = (AUB)∩(AUC)
Proof:
i) AU(B∩C) = {x: x∈A U (B∩C)}
= {x: x∈A or x∈(B∩C)}
= {x: x∈A or (x∈B and x∈C)}
= {x: (x∈A or x∈B) and (x∈A or x∈C)}
= {x: x∈(AUB) and x∈(AUC)}
= {x: x∈(AUB) ∩ (AUC)}
= (AUB) ∩ (AUC)
f) Compliment laws
_
i) ∪=𝜙
Proof:
_
ii) ∪=∪−∪=𝜙
g) De-Morgan's laws
i. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅
Proof:
i. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∪ 𝐵 = {x: x∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 )}
= {𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)}
= {x: x∉ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
= {x: x∈ 𝐴̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ ̅
𝐵}
= {x: x∈ (𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅ )}
= 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅

h) Difference laws
i. A-(BUC)=(A-B)∩(A-C)
Proof
A-(BUC)= {x: x∈A –(BUC)}
= {x: x∈A and x ∉ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)}
= {x: x∈A and x ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉C}
= {x: (x∈A and x ∉ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉C}
= {x: x∈(A -B) and 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 – C)}
= (A-B)∩(A-C)

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1.2 Real Number System

Natural Numbers
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ..........which are used for counting are called natural numbers. The
set of natural numbers is denoted by N. So, N = {1, 2, 3, ..........}

Integers
The set of natural numbers together with their negatives including zero is called the set of
integers. The set of integers is denoted by I.
So, I = {........... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ................}

Rational Numbers
𝑝
The numbers which can be expressed in the form 𝑞
, 𝑞 ≠ 0, p and q are integers is called

a rational number. The set of rational number is denoted by Q.

𝑝
So, Q= {x: 𝑞 , 𝑞 ≠ 0, p and q are integers.}
1
Examples: 2,3, 2 , 6.5, 0.6666, . . . . . . . . . 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Real Numbers
The set of union of rational and irrational numbers is the set of real numbers. It is denoted
by R.
So, R=Q∪ 𝑄̅

Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number x is denoted by |x| and defined by:
𝑥 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑥 ≥ 0
|x|={
−𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
It is also called modulus or numerical value.
Examples: |5|=5
|-5|=-(-5) =5

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1.3 Relation and Function

Order pair
If a pair of elements is written in a specific order, then such a pair is called an ordered
pair.

Cartesian Product
Let A and B be two sets. The set of ordered pairs (a, b) such that a∈A and b∈B is called
the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A×B.
Symbolically, A×B= {(a, b): a∈ 𝐴, b∈ 𝐵}

Relation
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A relation R from set A to B is a subset of A×B.

Domain of a Relation
If R is a relation from a set A to B, then the set of all first elements of all ordered pairs of
R is called the domain of R
Domain R = {a:(a, b) ∈R}

Range of Relation
If R is a relation from a set A to B, then the set of all second elements of all ordered pairs
of R is called the range of R.
Range R = {b:(a, b) ∈R}

Function
A function from a set A to a set B is a relation that associates each element of set A with a
unique element of set B. A function form set A to B is denoted by f: A→B.

Domain and Co-domain

The set A is called the domain of f and the set B is called the co-domain of f.

Range
The set of values of y=f(x) ∈ B for every x is known as the range of f.

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Types of Function
a) One-one function
A function f: A→B is said to be one-one or injective function if distinct elements in
set A have distinct images in the set B.

In symbols, for any x1, x2 ∈A,

x1≠x2⇒ f(x1) ≠f(x2)
for, equivalently f(x1) =f(x2) ⇒x1=x2
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4, 5}
A function f: A→B denoted by f(x) = x+1 is an one-one function.

b) Onto function or Subjective function

A function f: A→B is said to be an onto function if every element of set B is an image
of at least one element of set A or if F(A)=B.
Example:
Let A={-2, -1, 1, 2} and B={1, 4}
A function f: A→B defined by f(x) = x2 is an onto function.

c) Bijective function
A function which is both one-one and onto is called bijective function.
Example:
A function f: R→R defined by f(x) = 2x+1 is a bijective function.

d) Inverse function
Let f: A→B be a bijective function. A function defined from set B to A such that
every element of set B which associates with a unique element of Set A is called the
inverse of the function f. It is denoted by f-1.

e) Composition of function
If f: A→B and g: B→C be two functions, then the composite function of f and g is the
function gof: A→C defined by (gof) (x) = g(f(x)).

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