CIE Biology International A-level

Plan Experiments and Investigations

Practical Notes

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Planning experiments and investigations

Outlining the plan

A practical plan should be organised into different subsections with these headings: hypothesis,
variables, method, risk assessment, collection and analysis of results.

Variables
The 3 variables that students should identify are the ​dependent​ ​variable​,​ ​independent variable
and controlled variables​. The ​dependent​ variable is what is ​measured​ in the practical, the
independent​ variable is what is ​varied​, and the ​controlled​ variables are what are ​kept constant
in the practical. Students should describe how these variables are ​measured​, ​varied​ or
controlled​, including the ​apparatus​ needed eg. measure length with a ruler. When stating the
dependent variable, state exactly what is being measured rather than the final processed result,
eg. number of bubbles formed rather than the rate of photosynthesis.

Method
Outline the practical procedure. Make sure to specifically state the ​apparatus​ used, eg. ​volume​ of
beakers and measuring cylinders used. It is important to select apparatus of the appropriate
precision​ to make sure the measurements are ​accurate​.

A ​control​ may be necessary. A control is to show the actual effect of the ​independent variable​ on
the ​dependent variable​. For example, this can be done by replacing enzyme solution with distilled
water, or replacing a live organism with a dead organism.

Some examples of important procedures to keep in mind include: when inserting a shoot into a
potometer, make sure the cut of the shoot is slanted and underwater; for respirometer practicals,
the air must be replaced between each set-up.

Risk assessment
Identify any ​safety hazards​ in the practical, and state the ​level of risk​ involved. For every hazard,
suggest a suitable ​precaution​ to take.

Some practicals involving animals may involve ​ethical concerns​. If any, state the ​ethical issues
and the steps you will take to ​minimise​ them. For example, minimise exposure to stressful testing
conditions, and for humans, gain consent before testing and allow participants to stop at any point
during the practical.

Suggested practical topics for paper 5

Respirometer
Potometer
Gel electrophoresis
Reaction time
Enzyme activity
Photosynthesis
Sampling (random and systematic)

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Osmosis
Microscopy
Chromatography

Students can practise planning each of these practicals by outlining the procedure, dependent,
independent and controlled variables, risk assessment and suggest improvements.

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CIE Biology International A-level

Collect, Record and Present Data

Practical Notes

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Collect, record and present observations, measurements and estimates

Tables
Most questions will require data to be presented in suitable ​tables​, whether they are recording
observations or numbers. ‘Prepare your space’ generally indicates that the student should draw a
table to record the data.

Tables must have ​headings​ with ​ruled lines​, where the ​vertical​ column represents the
independent​ variable, while the ​horizontal​ column represents the ​dependent​ variable.
Appropriate ​SI​ ​units​ should be included in the table headings and not next to the recorded data
itself.

Data should be presented in a table according to the order in which it is collected. ​Processed
results should also be presented in a table, including results of ​repetitions​, ​means​, and ​rates​.

Graphs
Data from a table can then be presented in a graph so that any trends or patterns can be easily
visually observed. The x-axis is the independent variable while the y-axis is the dependent
variable. The axes should be labelled appropriate with units if necessary, separated from the
heading with ‘/’ or ‘()’. A title for the graph is not required in an exam.

The 3 types of graphs that students may be tested on are ​line graphs, bar charts, and
histograms​.

Line graphs​ are used when the relationship cannot be clearly shown in a table alone, and when
the ​independent​ variable is ​continuous​. Your axes should go up in multiples of 1,2,5 or 10 (for
every 20mm square). Do not use multiples of 3.

Bar charts​ are used when the ​independent​ variable is ​discontinuous​. The blocks should ​not
touch​ and should be ​equidistant​ from each other with the same width. The ​order​ of the blocks
should be the ​same order as in the table of results​.

Histograms​ are used when the ​independent​ variable is ​continuous​ and ​divided into classes​.
Before drawing the histogram, the number of classes should be determined, where the ​number of
classes = 5 x log​10 total
​ number of readings​, making sure the classes ​do not overlap​. The
blocks should be ​touching​, and the ​area​ of the blocks should be ​proportional to the frequency​.

Drawings
The two types of diagrams students may be asked to draw are ​plan diagrams​ and ​cell diagrams​.
Plan diagrams are drawings of ​tissue​, showing their outlines and ​relative proportions​, without
including cells. Cell diagrams are drawings of a few ​cells​, showing any ​observable cell features​.

For both types of diagrams, the drawing should fill out ​at least half the space provided​. Lines
should be ​sharp, thin and continuous​, with no shading and colouring. Labels should only be
added when necessary, and label lines should be ​ruled​, ​without crossing each other​.

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To find the magnification of the cells/tissues drawn, the ​eyepiece graticule​ should first be
calibrated​ (with a stage micrometer) to measure the actual length of what is drawn. Use the
formula: magnification = length of drawing / actual length. Measurements should be taken in mm.

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CIE Biology International A-level

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Practical Notes

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Analyse and interpret data to reach conclusions

Processing results
Data can be processed in different ways depending on the aim of the practical. Simple processing
methods include calculating ​means​, ​changes​, and ​rates​.

Means are calculated when the practical is repeated or multiple samples are taken. Taking a mean
value of many data points ​allows the variability​ of the results to be assessed. Using means,
standard deviation​ can also be calculated, which is a measure of the ​spread of data​. ​Standard
error​, which is a measure of the ​reliability​ of the ​mean​ i.e. how close the sample mean is to the
real mean, can be calculated from standard deviation. The formula for standard error is:
Standard deviation / ​√n
Standard error​ can be presented on ​graphs​ in ​error bars​, where the range is + and - 2x standard
error. Generally, if the error bars on two values do not overlap, the values are significantly different.

Change​ may be calculated for change of mass, length or temperature eg. in osmosis-related
practicals. ​Percentage change​ may sometimes be required, as this allows comparison when the
starting point is different. The formula of percentage change is:
(final value - initial value) / initial value x 100%

Rates can be ​directly​ or ​inversely proportional​ to the results collected. If time to complete a
certain reaction is measured, often in the case of enzyme reactions, rate is calculated by ​1/time​.
However, rate can also be indicated by the release of a product, eg. volume of gas produced in a
fixed time, then rate is directly proportional to the volume and may not require further processing.

For certain practicals (often involving field investigations and genetic crosses), statistical tests will
have to be used to analyse the significance of the results. There are four statistical tests that
students are expected to use:
● Spearman’s rank coefficient
● Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient
● T-test
● Chi-squared test

The first step to performing a statistical test is to write a ​null hypothesis​. A null hypothesis states
that there is ​no significant correlation​ or ​difference​ between the two data sets students have
collected. Next, whether the data sets are being ​compared​ or ​correlated​, and the nature of the
data - whether it is ​continuous​ or ​discontinuous​. Select the appropriate statistical test using the
table below.

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 Statistical test Purpose Type of data Degrees of Freedom

T-test Compare, find if Continuous, normally (n​1​ - 1) + (n​2​ - 1)

difference is distributed eg. means
significant

Chi-squared Compare observable Frequency, discrete No. of categories - 1

and expected values, and categorical
find if difference is
significant

Spearman’s rank Correlate Ordinal data No. of pairs of data - 2

Pearson’s linear Correlate Continuous, linear, No. of pairs of data - 2

correlation normally distributed

Use the formula provided to calculate a value. Find the critical value in a table provided at ​p=0.05
and the calculated ​degrees of freedom​, where p=0.05 indicates a ​5% probability​ that the
difference or relationship in the data is ​due to chance alone​. If the ​calculated value​ is ​larger​ than
the ​critical value​, the ​null hypothesis is rejected​, and there is a smaller than 5% probability that
the difference or relationship is due to chance alone.

Another statistical test called ​Simpson’s Index of Biodiversity​ is specific to field investigations on
biodiversity​. It gives a value between ​0 and 1​, where values closer to 1 have higher biodiversity.
The formula may or may not be provided in the exam, hence it should be memorised.
D = 1-(​Σ (​n/N)​2​)

Patterns and trends

To describe patterns and trends, first describe the ​overall trend​, ​quoting data​ to support your
observations. Afterwards, move onto describing any particular ​features of the graph​, eg. peaks
and troughs, or data points that do not fit the overall trend.

Students may be asked to​ identify anomalies​. Anomalies are data that ​do not fit the trend​.
When calculating a mean, the anomalies in the data set should be excluded.

Finding unknowns
Certain practicals require students to ​estimate an unknown value​, eg. concentration of an
unknown solution. This often requires students to produce ​a set of standards​ to compare against,
which may be colour standards, time taken for the reaction of a known solution, or a graph plotted
using standard solutions.

To increase the ​accuracy​ of the estimate, the number of different standards used should be
increased at ​smaller intervals​ around the estimate.

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CIE Biology International A-level

Evaluation of Methods and Data

Practical Notes

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Evaluate methods and quality of data and suggest improvements

Errors
The two types of errors are ​random​ and ​systematic errors​. A ​systematic​ error is an error that is
consistently repeated​ throughout the practical, often caused by a ​fault in the apparatus​ used. A
random​ error is an ​unpredictable​, ​spontaneous error​ that cannot be predicted. ​Systematic
errors ​do not affect the trend​ in results, as each result is ​affected in the same way​ by the error,
while ​random errors​ affect the trend as ​not every result is affected the same way​.

Students may be asked to identify the ​significant sources of error​ in their practical. This will most
likely not include simple measuring errors eg. parallax errors in apparatus but rather an error
concerning the method itself​. For example, in practicals that involve a ​colour change​ to
determine the end-point​, a likely error may be that the observation is difficult to determine and
involves a degree of ​subjectivity​.

Students should also understand how to calculate ​uncertainty​. Uncertainty is ​half the smallest
division on the apparatus used​. For example, if the apparatus is a measuring cylinder with the
smallest division of 1cm​3​, then the uncertainty is 0.5cm​3​. However, if two readings are taken using
the same apparatus, eg. a syringe is used to transfer 1 cm​3​ of solution, moving the plunger from
3cm​3​ to 2cm​3​, then the uncertainty is doubled. The ​total uncertainty​ is the ​sum of the
uncertainty of each individual reading​, hence if there are two readings, then the uncertainty is
doubled.

Suggesting improvements
Students may be asked to ​suggest improvements​ regarding the ​reliability​ and ​accuracy​ of a
practical.

One way to ​increase reliability​ is to do ​repeats​ of the same practical. With the results of the
repeats, ​anomalies can be identified​ and ​excluded​ from the mean, hence minimising the effect
of anomalies on the results. While repeats are more often performed to gain quantitative data,
qualitative data​ eg. food tests may sometimes ​require repeats​ as well.

Another way to improve practicals is to ​better standardise the controlled variables​, which are
the variables ​held constant​ in a practical. Common controlled variables include: temperature, pH,
mass, length. Better methods of standardising these variables may include using more ​accurate or
controlled​ equipment, eg. a thermostatically controlled water bath to standardise temperature.

A method to improve the ​accuracy​ of students’ results by using ​different apparatus​ to measure
the ​dependent variable​. This involves using more ​accurate measuring equipment​, eg. a Vernier
calliper as opposed to a ruler, or through using quantitative data rather than qualitative
observations, eg. using a colorimeter to determine colour change rather than using sight.

Lastly, students may be asked to evaluate the ​validity​ of a method. Validity is a measure of how
sound or fair​ the practical is, which is to measure if the variable measured is actually what the
practical aims to. Validity is ​lowered​ due to ​confounding variables​, which is a variable ​other

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than the​ ​independent​ variable that also varies in the practical to ​affect the dependent variable​.
Students may be asked to evaluate the validity of a practical by identifying the possible
confounding variables.

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