STI Myanmar University

&

University of Bedfordshire

BEng (Hons:) Civil Engineering

Department of Engineering and Technology

Student Name: Soe Sandar Thaw

UOB ID: 2332471
Degree Pathway: Undergraduate
Unit Name: Geotechnical Engineering
Unit Coordinator: Ms. Yin Mar Kyaw
Title of Project: Geotechnical Design of Shallow Foundations and Pile
Foundations
 ABSTRACT

Foundation engineering is one of the most important and crucial branches of civil
engineering field as it deals with soil mechanics, geotechnical engineering, and structural
engineering principles in its concepts. In this project, we carried out the calculations and
evaluations to check the suitability of different foundation types and sizes for a given soil data
using the principles of geotechnical engineering and foundation engineering. Soil investigation
and analysis were firstly implemented, followed by the analysis of foundation design options which
included two isolated footings, one strip footing, one mat foundation, and two pile foundations.
Ultimate bearing capacity, allowable bearing capacity, and elastic settlements were precisely
calculated for all design options which later were checked by comparing with design loads of 20
columns. However, the final foundation selection went beyond the strength of the soil as it also
replied on project-specific requirements and cost estimates.

Keywords: foundation design, foundation engineering, geotechnical engineering, isolated

footing, strip footing, mat foundation, pile foundation

2
 Contents
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.2 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Scopes of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Outlines of the Research.............................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................... 7
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Geotechnical Engineering ................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Foundation Engineering ................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Soil Properties .................................................................................................................. 8
2.5 Soil Investigation .............................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Types of Foundation ......................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Shallow Foundation .......................................................................................................... 9
2.8 Mat Foundation ...............................................................................................................10
2.9 Pile Foundation ............................................................................................................... 11
2.10 Sustainability, Climate Emergency, Health and Safety Risk Management, Professionalism,
Ethics, Diversity, and Inclusion ..............................................................................................12
2.10.1 Sustainability ..........................................................................................................12
2.10.2 Climate Emergency ................................................................................................12
2.10.3 Health and Safety Risk Management......................................................................12
2.10.4 Ethics and Professionalism .....................................................................................13
2.10.5 Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI)....................................................................13
CHAPTER 3 ..............................................................................................................................14
METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................14
3.1 Contact Pressure or Load Per Unit Area (q) ....................................................................14
3.2 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Strip Foundation ................................................14
3.3 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Square Foundation ............................................14
3.4 Factor of Safety ...............................................................................................................15
3.5 General Bearing Capacity Equation ................................................................................15
3
 3.6 Effects of a Rigid Layer on the Settlements of Surface Foundations................................15
3.7 Effect of Embedment .......................................................................................................15
3.8 Pile Foundation ...............................................................................................................16
3.8.1 Calculation of Qp.......................................................................................................16
3.8.2 Calculation of Qs .......................................................................................................16
3.9 Settlement of Pile Foundation with Vesic’s Method..........................................................17
CHAPTER 4 ..............................................................................................................................18
RESEARCH DATA, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................18
4.1 Subsoil Stratification ........................................................................................................18
4.2 Soil Design Parameter ....................................................................................................19
4.3 Result ..............................................................................................................................20
4.3.1 Isolated Spread (1m x 1m) ...........................................................................................20
4.3.2 Isolated Spread (2m x 2m) ...........................................................................................23
4.3.3 Strip Foundation ...........................................................................................................26
4.3.4 Mat Foundation ............................................................................................................29
4.4 Pile Foundation ...............................................................................................................32
4.4.1 The area of the foundation is 0.3 m x 0.3 m ..................................................................32
4.4.2 The area of the foundation is 0.5 m x 0.5 m ..................................................................34
4.5 Discussion .......................................................................................................................36
4.5.1 Design Checking ..........................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 5 ..............................................................................................................................38
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION....................................................................................38
5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................38
5.2 Recommendations ..........................................................................................................38
REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................40
APPENDIX................................................................................................................................42

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General
A proper design and construction of foundations is crucial in a variety of civil engineering
projects such as bridges, dams, high-rise infrastructures, mid-rise and low-rise buildings. In
designing a foundation, geotechnical engineering plays an important role as it deals with soil
mechanics and their relations to structures. This project dives deep into the design process of
shallow foundations and pile foundations using the geotechnical engineering principles and
knowledge while also considering about safety and sustainability of the structures.

1.2 Objectives of the Study

• To learn more about shallow foundations and pile foundations
• To design suitable, solid, and economical foundations for a given soil data
• To apply the knowledge of geotechnical engineering in foundation design
• To consider the safety and risk management in the design process
• To design a sustainable foundation system to avoid repairing and reduce maintenance
costs
• To take factors such as climate change emergency, ethics, diversity, and inclusion (EDI)
into consideration

1.3 Problem Statement

Even though foundation engineering has been developed throughout the years with the
advancement of modern technology, it remains as one of the most important and challenging
process in a construction project. Since an inadequate soil investigation or a slight error in a soil
test can result in the failure of the whole superstructure, the whole procedure of soil analysis and
the choice of suitable foundation must be carried out carefully and precisely. Moreover, the
durability, sustainability and economy of the foundation design should be considered to minimise
further challenges such as maintaining, repairing, or replacing.

1.4 Scopes of the Study

The main focus of the study is to apply the knowledge and concepts of geotechnical
engineering and soil mechanics to calculate and select a suitable foundation system for both

5
shallow foundations and pile foundations. A soil analysis of the given soil data for its properties
and characteristics will be conducted before the design of foundation. Apart from that, the
importance of climate change resilience and equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) will also be
addressed to overcome environmental and social problems. Moreover, sustainability, health and
safety risk management will be considered throughout the whole process.

1.5 Outlines of the Research

This research will dive deep into the study of foundations and their types which are
shallow foundations and pile foundations. The selection criteria and the design considerations
based on the soil data and geotechnical engineering aspects will be also covered in this project
along with actual soil data and real-world case studies. All through the project, sustainable
features, climate change resilience strategies, and health and safety considerations will be
implemented in the design. The comparative analysis between foundation types is also going to
be carried out at the end of the project.

6
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
Foundations are the most important parts of a building or an infrastructure because they
are the ones in direct contact with the ground beneath the building and the rest of the building are
going to be built upon them. Moreover, the repair of any foundation after construction must be
avoided as much as possible since it is expensive and difficult to fix. Therefore, a careful
calculation and consideration of foundation design is crucial before starting a construction project.
In order to achieve a suitable foundation design, a thorough investigation of soil must be
undertaken beforehand to determine its geotechnical properties. That is why a decent knowledge
of geotechnical and soil mechanics is essential in the field of foundation engineering.

2.2 Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is one of the major branches of civil engineering and it deals
with soil and rock mechanics (Das and Sivakugan, 2019). The discipline mostly replies on the
knowledge and concepts of geology, geophysics, hydrology and so forth. Geotechnical
engineering is also applied in a different variety of fields such as mining engineering, petroleum
engineering, coastal engineering apart from ordinary building construction projects. The experts
of this field are responsible for investigating properties of soil, their classification and correlation
to structures to utilize in the design of foundations, dams, retaining walls and so on.

2.3 Foundation Engineering

Foundation engineering is a branch of geotechnical engineering which is a combination
of soil mechanics and structural engineering. Foundations are the parts of the structure which
take all the loads from superstructure and transfer them to the soils beneath them. So, the major
role of a foundation engineer is to design and construct a solid, practical, and economical
substructure system to support the superstructure through the lifetime by analysing the soil
properties and choosing the right type of foundation for the respective structure. Failure of a
foundation can lead to the collapse of the whole structure, so a foundation engineer needs to be
extra careful and precise in every step of their job from handling soil data and choosing a
foundation type to calculation of a foundation size.

7
2.4 Soil Properties
Soils and rocks have different and unique properties which can be physically,
chemically, mechanically, or biologically. These properties play a major important role in the fields
of geotechnical engineering and foundation engineering as they give the determination about soil
behaviours and their relationship to the structures such as strength characteristics,
compressibility, bearing capacity, etc. In civil engineering, we mostly deal with geotechnical
properties like plasticity and liquidity indexes, properties of consolidation and compaction, shear
strength parameters, specific gravity, and characteristics of permeability (Balasubramanian,
2017). All these geotechnical properties rely and have an impact on each other, so learning about
these properties will be a great help in making decisions, overall costs and designing of
foundations and other civil engineering projects which can be achieved through several
successful soil investigations.

2.5 Soil Investigation

In geotechnical engineering field, soil investigations are conducted to assess the
ground conditions such as the type of soils, soil properties, characteristics, and load-bearing
capacity to determine the type of foundation and its depth. A proper soil analysis ensures the
stability and performance of the foundation and prevents structural failures and potential problems
such as soil settlements. A solid and suitable foundation design can strengthen the longevity of
the structure making it sustainable and avoiding all the unnecessary repairing or replacement
costs.
There are several ways to carry out soil investigation these days:
• Sampling of the soil – including split spoon sampler, auger boring, shelby tube
• In situ testing – including cone penetration test (CPT), standard penetration test (SPT),
dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP)
• Testing at the laboratory – including grain size analysis, testing of shear strength, triaxial
test

Figure 1: Cone Penetration Test (Legion

Drilling, 2023)

8
 Figure 2: Grain size analysis Figure 3: Split soon sampler
(Brewing Forward, 2021) (Geoprobe, 2023)

2.6 Types of Foundation

Foundations are the major supporting elements below a structure which connect the
superstructure to the underlying soil. They transfer all the loads from the superstructure to the
ground safely without causing any settlements. Therefore, stability and durability of the whole
infrastructure depends on the foundation which makes choosing a right foundation a very
important step in a construction project. Foundations can be mainly classified as two groups:
shallow foundations and deep foundations.

2.7 Shallow Foundation

In a shallow foundation, the depth of the foundation (Df) is less than the footing width,
so this type of foundation is located not too far deep down the ground surface. Shallow
foundations are also known as footings, and they are commonly used in most construction
projects because of their economy and their simplicity to design and construct. Even though it is
quite simple and cost-effective to choose a shallow foundation system, a thorough site
investigation and detailed soil analysis are necessary beforehand for the foundation design and
its performance throughout its life span (Constro Facilitator, 2021).
Shallow foundations can be divided into four more categories as below:
• Individual or isolated footing – rectangular, square, or circular shaped slab supporting an
individual column
• Combined footing – rectangular or trapezoidal shaped slab supporting two or more columns

9
• Strip foundation or wall footing – a continuous strip foundation supporting all columns and
walls above it
• Raft or mat foundation – a continuous slab that covers the entire building

Figure 4: Isolated Footing Figure 5: Combined Footing

(Housing, 2023) (Daily Civil, 2023)

Figure 6: Strip Footing Figure 7: Mat Footing

(Constro Facilitator, 2021) (Constro Facilitator, 2021)

2.8 Mat Foundation

Mat foundations, also known as raft foundations, are the types of foundation design that
spread across the entire building area to support all the loads from the structure. This type of
foundation is mostly used when the structural loads from columns and walls are massive, and the
bearing capacity of the soil is too low to use a wall or strip footing (Constro Facilitator, 2021).

10
There is less differential settlement in mat foundations than in individual footings, thus providing
a stable base for the structure. Moreover, labour costs and time to excavate the foundation can
be reduced when using a mat foundation as it does not need much digging as other foundation
types. However, raft foundations are found to be vulnerable to forces caused by water pressure,
earthquake, or mining activity.

2.9 Pile Foundation

Pile foundations fall in the category of deep foundation where they transfer heavy
superstructure loads through the columns to stiffer and more compact layer of soil or rock that is
located below the ground level, increasing the stability of the structure, and making it resistant to
horizontal loads like earthquakes. When the soil conditions at the shallow depth are not suitable
for massive structural loads and the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, pile foundation is the
right choice to use. Since pile foundations have to carry heavy amounts of loads, the design for
them must be carried out carefully with a proper soil investigation.
There are two types of pile foundations namely (1) Friction Piles and (2) End Bearing
Piles. End bearing piles transfer the structural loads directly to the soil or rock layer at the end
meanwhile friction piles transfer them by frictional forces between their surface and the soil.

Figure 8: Pile Foundations (Constro Facilitator, 2021)

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2.10 Sustainability, Climate Emergency, Health and Safety Risk Management,
Professionalism, Ethics, Diversity, and Inclusion
Throughout this research, the emerging problems of climate change emergency and
respective actions will be addressed along with environmental aspects and sustainable practices.
Health and safety risk management will be also carried out ensuring the safety of workers and
residents. Moreover, equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) and professionalism will be also
considered in order to build a better society.

2.10.1 Sustainability
In the field of geotechnical engineering, consideration for sustainability extends far
beyond the construction stage of a foundation or a structure. A proper stable, durable and efficient
foundation system can have a longer life span than usual and save a lot of time and costs for
maintenance, repairing or replacement of the foundation, making it a sustainable and long-term
resilient structure throughout its lifetime. Sustainable practices such as the use of eco-friendly
local materials, responsible and careful use of energy and resources, and the implementation of
green technologies can minimize the impacts on the environment and reduce carbon footprint.

2.10.2 Climate Emergency

Climate change has become a major threat to all species on the planet with current
frequent and extreme weather events including heat waves, floods, wildfires, storms, hurricanes
these days. These events of climate changes have an impact on the behaviour and characteristics
of soils, precipitation pattern changes, rising sea levels, and overall stability of civil engineering
structures. Therefore, geotechnical engineers must act accordingly to the changing conditions
and design climate resilient foundation systems for structures that can withstand the effects of
climate changes and environmental impacts.

2.10.3 Health and Safety Risk Management

Health and safety considerations are crucial in any civil engineering projects. In
geotechnical engineering projects, processes such as soil excavation, soil sampling and testing,
and construction process of the foundation got several risks to workers and the environment. So,
risk assessments should be conducted throughout the project according to the types of
foundations resulting with suitable health and safety protection protocols and plans for emergency
response to ensure the safety of both workers and other associates.

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2.10.4 Ethics and Professionalism
Ethical conduct and professionalism play an important role in geotechnical and civil
engineering practices. It is crucial for everyone in the workplace to adhere to codes of ethics and
standard engineering principles in their respective fields in all stages of design and construction
throughout the project. Considerations for ethics and professionalism also include transparent
communication, honesty, reliability, competence and being respectful and open towards
colleagues and team members. Unethical behaviours like lying, bullying, taking bribes, using child
labour, sexual harassment should be avoided at all costs.

2.10.5 Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI)

Application of equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) principles to a project will bring the
enhancement of the project outcome because of an ethical, inclusive, and creative working
environment. All team members should be treated equally without bias and have opportunities to
training programs, professional and personal development regardless of their workplace position,
gender, cultural background, or other characteristics. Moreover, professionals with different
educational or cultural backgrounds and experiences should be included in the project team to
create a diversified working environment and bring innovative ideas from different perspectives.
Most importantly, all individuals taking part in this project should feel included in the working
environment and treated fairly with respect without discrimination.

13
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

In the study of this project, shallow foundation (square footing and strip footing), mat
foundation and pile foundation will be designed and calculated for a given actual soil data. In the
calculation of shallow foundation, Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory and General Bearing
Capacity Equation will be applied, and for mat foundation, General Bearing Capacity Equation
will be used. The soil settlements of both shallow and mat foundations will be computed
afterwards. At the end of this project, pile foundation design and its settlement will be calculated.
3.1 Contact Pressure or Load Per Unit Area (q)
Q
q= (3.1)
BL
q = contact pressure or load per unit area
Q = column load
B = width of foundation
L= length of foundation

3.2 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Strip Foundation

1
qu = c’Nc + qNq + BN (3.2)
2
qu = ultimate bearing capacity
c’ = cohesion of soil
 = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = bearing capacity factors

3.3 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory for Square Foundation

qu = 1.3c’Nc + qNq + 0.4BN (3.3)
qu = ultimate bearing capacity
c’ = cohesion of soil
 = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation

14
Nc, Nq, N = bearing capacity factors

3.4 Factor of Safety

qu
qall = (3.4)
FS
qall = allowable bearing capacity
qu = ultimate bearing capacity
FS = factor of safety

3.5 General Bearing Capacity Equation

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi +  BNFsFdFi (3.5)
2

qu = ultimate bearing capacity

c’ = cohesion of soil
 = unit weight of soil
q = effective stress at foundation bottom
B = width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = bearing capacity factors
Fcs, Fqs, Fs = shape factors
Fcd, Fqd, Fd = depth factors
Fci, Fqi, Fi = load inclination factors

3.6 Effects of a Rigid Layer on the Settlements of Surface Foundations

1− 2µ𝑠
Is = F1 + ( ) F2 (3.6)
1− µ𝑠
Is = influence factor for the corner of a rectangular flexible surface foundation
µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil

3.7 Effect of Embedment

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B

µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil

15
q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q

𝛴𝐸𝑠(𝑖)∆𝑧
Es = (3.8)
𝑧
Es(i) = soil modulus of elasticity within a depth of ∆z
z̅ = H or 5B, whichever is smaller

3.8 Pile Foundation

Qu = Qp + Qs (3.9)
Qp = load carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs = frictional resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil–pile interface

3.8.1 Calculation of Qp
For granular soil and sand,
𝐿
qp = 0.4paN60 ≤ 4paN60 (3.10)
𝐷
N60 = the average value of the standard penetration number near the pile point (about 10D above
to 4D below the pile point)
pa = atmospheric pressure (≈ 100 kN/m2)
qp = ultimate point resistance

For cohesive soil and saturated clays under undrained conditions (ø=0), the net ultimate load can
be given as
Qp ≈ Nc* cu Ap = 9 cu Ap (3.11)
cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile

3.8.2 Calculation of Qs
For granular soil and sand,
fav = 0.02pa (N̅60) (3.12)
Qs = pL fav (3.13)
fav = average unit frictional resistance
N̅60 = average value of standard penetration resistance
pa = atmospheric pressure (≈ 100 kN/m2)

For cohesive soil and clay,

16
 Qs = Σfp∆L = Σα cup∆L (3.14)
cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of the pile

3.9 Settlement of Pile Foundation with Vesic’s Method

se = se(1) + se(2) + se(3) (3.15)
se = total elastic settlement of the pile head
se(1) = elastic shortening of the pile
se(2) = settlement of the pile due to the working load (Qwp) at the pile point
se(3) = settlement of the pile due to the working load (Qws) along the pile shaft

(𝑄𝑤𝑝 +𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠) 𝐿
se(1) = (3.16)
𝐴𝑝𝐸𝑝

Qwp = working load at the pile point

Qws = working load along the pile shaft
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pile point
L = pile length
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
𝜉 = a constant in the range of 0.50–0.67, depending on the skin friction distribution
𝑞𝑤𝑝𝐷
se(2) = (1-µs2) Iwp (3.17)
𝐸𝑠
D = width or diameter of pile
qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
Iwp = influence factor ≈ 0.85
µs = Poisson’s ratio of soil
𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷
se(3) = ( ) (1-µs2) Iws (3.18)
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠

p = perimeter of the pile

L = embedded length of pile
Iws = influence factor

𝐿
Iws = 2 + 0.35 √ (3.19)
𝐷

Iws = influence factor

L = embedded length of pile
D = width or diameter of pile
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 CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH DATA, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Subsoil Stratification
Subsoil Stratification

BH No. Layer Depth (m) Subsoil SPT Range Average Description

Type SPT value
Top soil 0-1.5 - - - -

I 1.5-7.5 CL 4, 15, 10, 25 14 Firm to very

stiff
BH-01 II 7.5-9 CL 8 8 Firm

III 9-10.5 SM 35 35 Dense

IV 10.5-13.5 SM 32,50 41 Dense to

very dense
V 13.5-19.5 SM 50, 50, 45, 31, 44 Dense to
45 very dense
VI 19.5-21 SM 45 45 Dense

VII 21-22.5 SM 42 42 Dense

VIII 22.5-27 SM 50, 50, 50 50 Very dense

IV 27-30.37 SM 50, 50, 50 50 Very dense

Ground Water table

BH No. Ground Water table Termination Depth Remark

(m) (BGL) (m)
BH-01 3.26 30.37 Max: 6.8 m
Min: 0.5 m
There is no loose/soft soil layer at the project site.

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4.2 Soil Design Parameter
Soil Design Parameter

BH No. Layer Depth Moisture Unit Weight C Ø Specific

(m) Content (lb/ft3) (lb/in2) (deg) Gravity
(%)
Top soil 0-1.5 - - - - -

I 1.5-7.5 26.914 101.474 8.52 13°2’ 2.684

BH-01 II 7.5-9 32.29 102.02 2.27 15°45’ 2.67

III 9-10.5 29.78 106.30 1.18 36°03’ 2.64

IV 10.5-13.5 19.695 106.325 1.67 38°22’30” 2.645

V 13.5-19.5 17.15 111.0125 2.24 24°20’ 2.6375

VI 19.5-21 12.83 113.8 1.6 35°20’ 2.62

VII 21-22.5 28.32 116.10 1.88 36°55’ 2.65

VIII 22.5-27 15.53 115.78 1.67 36°13’40” 2.63

IV 27-30.37 16.71 112.72 2.31 36°14’ 2.63

19
4.3 Result
4.3.1 Isolated Spread (1m x 1m)

B = 1m x 1m
Df = 1.5 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 58.74 kN/m2
Ø = 13°2’= 13.03° ≈ 13°
 = 15.94 kN/m3
sat = 20.2 kN/m3
’ = sat - w = 20.2 – 9.81 = 10.39 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 3.26 – 1.5 = 1.76 m
𝑑
 = ’ + ( - ’)
𝐵
1.76
= 10.39 + (15.94 – 10.39) = 20.16
1
q = Df = 20.16 x 1.5 = 30.24 kN/m2

General Bearing Capacity Equation (Meyerhof’s Equation)

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFI (3.5)

Using Table 1 and Table 2,

Nc = 9.81

20
Nq = 3.26
N = 1.97

Fcs = 1 + (B/L) (Nq/Nc) = 1.332

Fqs = 1 + (B/L) tan Ø’ = 1.23
Fs = 1 – 0.4 (B/L) = 0.6
For Df/B > 1, Ø > 0,
1−𝐹𝑞𝑑
Fcd = Fqd - 𝑁𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ø’ = 1.61

Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ø’ (1 - sin Ø’)2 tan-1(Df/B) = 1.42

Fd = 1

Fci = 1
Fqi = 1
Fi = 1

Ultimate bearing capacity qu,

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFI (3.5)

= (58.74 x 9.81 x 1.332 x 1.61 x 1) + (30.24 x 3.26 x 1.23 x 1.42 x 1) + (0.5 x 15.94 x 1 x 1.97 x
0.6 x 1 x 1)
= 1417.36 kN/m2

qu
qall = (3.4)
FS
= 1417.36 / 3
= 472.45 kN/m2

Settlement of Isolated Spread (1m x 1m)

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B

µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3

q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q

21
q0= qu - q = 1417.36 – 30.24 = 1387.12 kN/m2

L = B = 1 m, H = z = 5B =5 m
Df/B = 1.5, µs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =1/1 = 1
n’ = H/B =5/1 = 5
From Table 4, F1=0.437, and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031
1− 2µ𝑠
Is = F1 + ( ) F2 (3.6)
1− µ𝑠

=0.437+ (1−2 x 0.3 / 1−0.3) *0.031 =0.455

From Figure 1, If = 0.61

Es = Pa α N60
z = 5B = 5 x 1 = 5 m
Es equation for each layer of soil,
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 100 kN/m2, α = 10

z (m) ∆z (m) N60 Es (kN/m2)

0 – 1.5 1.5 0 0
1.5 – 5 3.5 14 14000
Total 5

𝛴𝐸𝑠(𝑖)∆𝑧
Es = (3.8)
𝑧
= (14000 x 3.5) / 5
= 9800 kN/m2

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = 𝐸𝑠 (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)

= 0.035 m = 35 mm

22
4.3.2 Isolated Spread (2m x 2m)

B = 2m x 2m
Df = 1.5 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 58.74 kN/m2
Ø = 13°2’= 13.03° ≈ 13°
 = 15.94 kN/m3
sat = 20.2 kN/m3
’ = sat - w = 20.2 – 9.81 = 10.39 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 3.26 – 1.5 = 1.76 m
𝑑
 = ’ + ( - ’)
𝐵
1.76
= 10.39 + (15.94 – 10.39) = 15.274
2
q = Df = 15.274 x 1.5 = 22.91 kN/m2

General Bearing Capacity Equation (Meyerhof’s Equation)

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFI (3.5)

Using Table 1 and Table 2,

Nc = 9.81
Nq = 3.26

23
N = 1.97

Fcs = 1 + (B/L) (Nq/Nc) = 1.332

Fqs = 1 + (B/L) tan Ø’ = 1.23
Fs = 1 – 0.4 (B/L) = 0.6
For Df/B < 1, Ø > 0,
1−𝐹𝑞𝑑
Fcd = Fqd - 𝑁𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ø’ = 1.303

Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ø’ (1 - sin Ø’)2 (Df/B) = 1.21

Fd = 1

Fci = 1
Fqi = 1
Fi = 1

Ultimate bearing capacity qu,

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi +  BNFsFdFI (3.4)
2

= (58.74 x 9.81 x 1.332 x 1.303 x 1) + (22.91 x 3.26 x 1.23 x 1.21 x 1) + (0.5 x 15.94 x 2 x 1.97 x
0.6 x 1 x 1)
= 1130.12 kN/m2

qu
qall =
FS
= 1130.12 / 3
= 376.7 kN/m2

Settlement of Isolated Spread (2m x 2m)

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B

µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3

q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q

q0= qu - q = 1130.12 - 22.91 = 1107.21 kN/m2

24
L = B = 2 m, H = z = 5B = 5 x 2 = 10 m
Df/B = 0.75, µs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =2/2 = 1
n’ = H/B =10/2 = 5
From Table 4, F1=0.437, and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031
1− 2µ𝑠
Is = F1 + ( ) F2 (3.6)
1− µ𝑠

=0.437+ (1−2 x 0.3 / 1−0.3) *0.031 =0.455

From Figure 1, If = 0.7

Es = Pa α N60
z = 5B = 5 x 2 = 10 m
Es equation for each layer of soil,
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 100 kN/m2, α = 10

z (m) ∆z (m) N60 Es (kN/m2)

0 – 1.5 1.5 0 0
1.5 – 7.5 6 14 14000
7.5 – 9 1.5 8 8000
9 – 10 1 35 35000
Total 10

𝛴𝐸𝑠(𝑖)∆𝑧
Es = (3.8)
𝑧
= [(14000 x 6) + (8000 x 1.5) + (35000 x 1)] / 10
= 13100 kN/m2

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
= 0.0492 m = 49.2 mm

25
4.3.3 Strip Foundation

B = 2 m, L = 
Df = 1.5 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 58.74 kN/m2
Ø = 13°2’= 13.03° ≈ 13°
 = 15.94 kN/m3
sat = 20.2 kN/m3
’ = sat - w = 20.2 – 9.81 = 10.39 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 3.26 – 1.5 = 1.76 m
𝑑
 = ’ + ( - ’)
𝐵
1.76
= 10.39 + (15.94 – 10.39) = 15.274
2
q = Df = 15.274 x 1.5 = 22.91 kN/m2

General Bearing Capacity Equation (Meyerhof’s Equation)

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi +  BNFsFdFI (3.5)
2

Using Table 1 and Table 2,

Nc = 9.81
Nq = 3.26

26
N = 1.97

Fcs = 1 + (B/L) (Nq/Nc) = 1

Fqs = 1 + (B/L) tan Ø’ = 1
Fs = 1 – 0.4 (B/L) = 1

For Df/B < 1, Ø > 0,

1−𝐹𝑞𝑑
Fcd = Fqd - 𝑁𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ø’ = 1.303

Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ø’ (1 - sin Ø’)2 (Df/B) = 1.21

Fd = 1

Fci = 1
Fqi = 1
Fi = 1

Ultimate bearing capacity qu,

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFI (3.5)

= (58.74 x 9.81 x 1 x 1.303 x 1) + (22.91 x 3.26 x 1 x 1.21 x 1) + (0.5 x 15.94 x 2 x 1.97 x 1 x 1 x

1)
= 872.61 kN/m2

qu
qall = (3.4)
FS
= 872.61 / 3
= 290.87 kN/m2

Settlement of Strip Foundation

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B

µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3

q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q

27
q0= qu - q = 872.61 - 22.91 = 849.7 kN/m2

L = B = 2 m, H = z = 5B = 5 x 2 = 10 m
Df/B = 0.75, µs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =2/2 = 1
n’ = H/B =10/2 = 5
From Table 4, F1=0.437, and From Table 5, F2 = 0.031
1− 2µ𝑠
Is = F1 + ( ) F2 (3.6)
1− µ𝑠

=0.437+ (1−2 x 0.3 / 1−0.3) *0.031 =0.455

From Figure 1, If = 0.7

Es = Pa α N60
z = 5B = 5 x 2 = 10 m
Es equation for each layer of soil,
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 100 kN/m2, α = 10

z (m) ∆z (m) N60 Es (kN/m2)

0 – 1.5 1.5 0 0
1.5 – 7.5 6 14 14000
7.5 – 9 1.5 8 8000
9 – 10 1 35 35000
Total 10

𝛴𝐸𝑠(𝑖)∆𝑧
Es = (3.8)
𝑧
= [(14000 x 6) + (8000 x 1.5) + (35000 x 1)] / 10
= 13100 kN/m2

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
= 0.0377 m = 37.7 mm

28
4.3.4 Mat Foundation

B = 15 m, L = 15 m
Df = 1.5 m
FS= 3
From soil data,
c’ = 58.74 kN/m2
Ø = 13°2’= 13.03° ≈ 13°
 = 15.94 kN/m3
sat = 20.2 kN/m3
’ = sat - w = 20.2 – 9.81 = 10.39 kN/m3
d = D - Df = 3.26 – 1.5 = 1.76 m
𝑑
 = ’ + ( - ’)
𝐵
1.76
= 10.39 + (15.94 – 10.39) = 11.04
15
q = Df = 11.04 x 1.5 = 16.56 kN/m2

General Bearing Capacity Equation (Meyerhof’s Equation)

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFI (3.5)

Using Table 1 and Table 2,

Nc = 9.81
Nq = 3.26

29
N = 1.97

Fcs = 1 + (B/L) (Nq/Nc) = 1.332

Fqs = 1 + (B/L) tan Ø’ = 1.23
Fs = 1 – 0.4 (B/L) = 0.6

For Df/B < 1, Ø > 0,

1−𝐹𝑞𝑑
Fcd = Fqd - 𝑁𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛Ø’ = 1.04

Fqd = 1 + 2 tan Ø’ (1 - sin Ø’)2 (Df/B) = 1.028

Fd = 1

Fci = 1
Fqi = 1
Fi = 1

Ultimate bearing capacity qu,

1
qu = c’NcFcsFcdFci + qNqFqsFqdFqi + 2  BNFsFdFi (3.5)

= (58.74 x 9.81 x 1.332 x 1.04 x 1) + (16.56 x 3.26 x 1.23 x 1.028 x 1) + (0.5 x 15.94 x 15 x 1.97
x 0.6 x 1 x 1)
= 1007.82 kN/m2

qu
qall = (3.4)
FS
= 1007.82 / 3
= 335.94 kN/m2

Settlement of Mat Foundation

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
Se = elastic settlement of soil
Es = average modulus of elasticity of the soil under the foundation, measured from z = 0 to
about z = 5B

µs = Poisson’s ratio of the soil = 0.3

q0= net applied pressure on the foundation = qu-q

30
q0= qu - q = 1007.82 – 16.56 = 991.26 kN/m2

L = B = 15 m, H = z = 12 m
Df/B = 0.1, µs = 0.3
m’ =L/B =15/15 = 1
n’ = H/B =12/15 = 0.8
From Table 4, F1= 0.1044, and From Table 5, F2 = 0.083
1− 2µ𝑠
Is = F1 + ( ) F2 (3.6)
1− µ𝑠

=0.1044 + (1−2 x 0.3 / 1−0.3) *0.083 = 0.152

From Figure 1, If = 0.96

Es = Pa α N60
z = 12 m
Es equation for each layer of soil,
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 100 kN/m2, α = 10

z (m) ∆z (m) N60 Es (kN/m2)

0 – 1.5 1.5 0 0
1.5 – 7.5 6 14 14000
7.5 – 9 1.5 8 8000
9 – 10.5 1.5 35 35000
10.5 – 12 1.5 41 41000
Total 12

𝛴𝐸𝑠(𝑖)∆𝑧
Es = (3.8)
𝑧
= [(14000 x 6) + (8000 x 1.5) + (35000 x 1.5) + (41000 x 1.5)] / 12
= 17500 kN/m2

𝑞𝑜𝐵
Se = (1 - µs2) Is If (3.7)
𝐸𝑠
= 0.116 m = 116 mm
75
If Se = 75 mm, qall = 346.04 x = 223.73 kN/m2
116

31
4.4 Pile Foundation
4.4.1 The area of the foundation is 0.3 m x 0.3 m
Pile Length, L = 10 m
D = 0.3 m
10D = 3 m
Pile Length – 10D = 10 – 3 = 7 m
5D = 1.5 m
Pile Length + 5D = 10 + 1.5 = 11.5 m

Depth below ground surface (m) N60

0-1.5 -

1.5-7.5 14

7.5-9 8

9-10.5 35

10.5-13.5 41

The tip of the pile is 10 m below the ground surface. For the pile, D = 0.3 m. The average of N60
10D above and about 5D below the pile tip is
14+8+35+41
N60 = = 24.5
4

Pa = 100 kN/m2
𝐿
𝑞𝑝 = 0.4PaN60 𝐷 ≤ 4PaN60 (3.10)
𝐿
0.4PaN60 𝐷 = 32666.67 kN/m2

4PaN60 = 9800 kN/m2

Thus, 𝑞𝑝 = 9800 kN/m2

𝑸𝒑 = Ap x 𝑞𝑝
= (0.3 x 0.3) x 9800
= 882 kN

32
 14+8+35
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁60 = = 19
3
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 0.02 𝑃𝑎 (𝑁 60 ) = 38 kN/m
2
(3.12)
𝑸𝒔 = pL𝑓𝑎𝑣 (3.13)
= (4 x 0.3) x 10 x 38 = 456 kN

Qu= Qp +Qs (3.9)

= 882 + 456
= 1338 kN

FS = 4
Qall = Qu / FS
= 1338 / 4
= 334.5 kN

Settlement of Pile Foundation

Iwp = 0.85
𝜇 = 0.3
𝜉 = 0.62
Es = 25000 kN/m2
Ep = 21000000 kN/m2
𝑄𝑝
𝑄𝑤𝑝 = = 882 / 3 = 294 kN
𝐹𝑆
𝑄
𝑄𝑤𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 456 / 3 = 152 kN

qwp = Qwp / Ap = 294 / (0.3 x 0.3) = 3266.67 kN/m2

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) (3.15)

(𝑄𝑤𝑝+ 𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠)𝐿
Se (1) = 𝐴𝑝𝐸𝑝
(3.16)
(294+0.62 𝑥 152)10
= (0.3
𝑥 0.3) 21000000

= 0.00205 m = 2.05 mm

𝑞𝑤𝑝𝐷
Se (2) = 𝐸𝑠
(1-µs2) Iwp (3.17)
3266.67 𝑥 0.3
= (1 - 0.32) 0.85
25000
33
= 0.0303 m = 30.3 mm

𝐿
Iws = 2 + 0.35 √ (3.19)
𝐷

10
= 2 + 0.35 √ = 4.02
0.3

𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷
Se (3) =( )( )(1-µs2) Iws
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠
(3.18)
152 0.3
=( )( )(1-0.32) 4.02
4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 10 25000

= 0.000556 m = 0.556 mm

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) (3.15)

= 2.05 + 30.3 + 0.556
= 32.9 mm

4.4.2 The area of the foundation is 0.5 m x 0.5 m

Pile Length, L = 10 m
D = 0.5 m
10D = 5 m
Pile Length – 10D = 10 – 5 = 5 m
5D = 2.5 m
Pile Length + 5D = 10 + 2.5 = 12.5 m

Depth below ground surface (m) N60

0-1.5 -

1.5-7.5 14

7.5-9 8

9-10.5 35

10.5-12.5 41

The tip of the pile is 10 m below the ground surface. For the pile, D = 0.5 m. The average of N60
10D above and about 5D below the pile tip is

34
 14+8+35+41
N60 = 4
= 24.5

Pa = 100 kN/m2
𝐿
𝑞𝑝 = 0.4PaN60 𝐷 ≤ 4PaN60 (3.10)
𝐿
0.4PaN60 𝐷 = 19600 kN/m2

4PaN60 = 9800 kN/m2

Thus, 𝑞𝑝 = 9800 kN/m2
𝑸𝒑 = Ap x 𝑞𝑝
= (0.5 x 0.5) x 9800
= 2450 kN

14+8+35
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑁60 = = 19
3
̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = 0.02 𝑃𝑎 (𝑁 60 ) = 38 kN/m
2
(3.12)
𝑸𝒔 = pL𝑓𝑎𝑣 (3.13)
= (4 x 0.5) x 10 x 38 = 760 kN

Qu= Qp +Qs (3.10)

= 2450 + 760
= 3210 kN

FS = 4
Qall = Qu / FS
= 3210 / 4
= 802.5 kN

Settlement of Pile Foundation

Iwp = 0.85
𝜇 = 0.3
𝜉 = 0.62
Es = 25000 kN/m2
Ep = 21000000 kN/m2
𝑄𝑝
𝑄𝑤𝑝 = 𝐹𝑆 = 2450 / 3 = 816.67 kN
𝑄
𝑄𝑤𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 760 / 3 = 253.33 kN

35
qwp = Qwp / Ap = 816.67 / (0.5 x 0.5) = 3266.68 kN/m2

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) (3.15)

(𝑄𝑤𝑝+ 𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠)𝐿
Se (1) = 𝐴𝑝𝐸𝑝
(3.16)
(816.67 +0.62 𝑥 253.33 )10
= (0.5 𝑥 0.5) 21000000

= 0.00185 m = 1.85 mm

𝑞𝑤𝑝𝐷
Se (2) = 𝐸𝑠
(1-µs2) Iwp (3.17)
3266.68 𝑥 0.5
= (1 - 0.32) 0.85
25000

= 0.0505 m = 50.5 mm

𝐿
Iws = 2 + 0.35 √ (3.19)
𝐷

10
= 2 + 0.35 √ = 3.56
0.5

𝑄𝑤𝑠 𝐷
Se (3) =( )( )(1-µs2) Iws
𝑝𝐿 𝐸𝑠
(3.18)
253.33 0.5
=( 4 𝑥 0.5 𝑥 10)(25000)(1-0.32) 3.56

= 0.00082 m = 0.82 mm

Se = Se (1) + Se (2) + Se (3) (3.15)

= 1.85 + 50.5 + 0.82
= 53.17 mm

4.5 Discussion
4.5.1 Design Checking
Assume the number of columns = 20

Spread Footing Strip Footing Mat Foundation Pile Foundation

Design Load 3500 kN 420 kN/m 7042 kN 7550 kN

36
 Foundation Type Foundation Size Settlement Foundation Capacity
(mm)

1mx1m 35 mm 9449 kN
Spread Footing
2mx2m 49.2 mm 30136 kN

Strip Footing B=2m 37.7 mm 11634.8 kN/m

Mat Foundation 15 m x 15 m 75 mm 1511730 kN

0.3 m x 0.3 m 32.9 mm 6690 kN

Pile Foundation
0.5 x 0.5 m 53.17 mm 16050 kN

The foundation capacity of spread footing (1m x 1m) with general bearing capacity is 9449 kN
which is higher than the design load (3500kN). So, the spread footing size with the general bearing
capacity in the dimension of (1m x 1m) is satisfied.

The foundation capacity of spread footing (2m x 2m) with general bearing capacity is 30136 kN
which is greater than the design load (3500kN). So, the spread footing size (2m x 2m) with the
general bearing capacity is satisfied.

The foundation capacity of strip footing (B=2m) in general bearing capacity is 11634.8 kN/m which
is greater than the design load (420 kN/m). The strip footing size (B=2m) and the settlement is
satisfied in general bearing capacity equation.

The foundation capacity of Mat Foundation size (15m x 15m) is 1511730 kN which is greater than
the design load (7042 kN). So, the Mat Foundation size (15m x 15m) is satisfied with my design
in general bearing capacity equation.

The foundation capacity of Pile foundation size (0.3m x 0.3m) is 6690 kN which is smaller than
the design load (7550 kN). So, the size of pile foundation is not suitable for this designated area.

The foundation capacity of Pile foundation size (0.5m x 0.5m) is 16050 kN which is greater than
the design load (7550 kN). So, the size of pile foundation is suitable for this designated area.
37
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
Foundations are the most crucial part of any civil infrastructure because they are the
load transferring components between the superstructure and the soil beneath them and having
a stable and reliable foundation can extend a building’s lifespan and durability. Therefore, a careful
soil analysis, design, and construction of a foundation is important in a construction process. To
determine the most suitable type of foundation, a foundation engineer must analyse and evaluate
the soil conditions and calculate different types of foundations in terms of settlement, bearing
capacity and structural integrity. After that, the most suitable foundation type would be chosen not
only based on their structural capacity but also on economic point of view and project-specific
requirements.
In obtained data of borehole BH-1 for this project, we got favourable soil conditions as
they are mostly dense and stiff sand which results in excellent bearing capacity for all types of
foundations considered. The only unsuitable design is the pile foundation with 0.3 m diameter due
to the comparison with design load. However, since pile foundation is expensive and mostly used
in soft soils which require deep excavations, it can be considered unnecessary due to the strong
soil.
For buildings with low to moderate design loads, isolated footings and strip footings can
be used according to economic perspective. In this project, 1m x 1m isolated footing is found to
be the most economical out of all designs considered, so this design should be utilized in case of
low design loads. For isolated and strip foundations, settlements should be carefully considered
beforehand to check the foundation’s suitability and durability. For buildings with high design
loads, mat foundation should be used as it has minimum differential settlements and uniform
support.

5.2 Recommendations
Depending on the scope and complexity of a construction project, further geotechnical
investigations and soil analysis should be carried out to ensure the foundation suitability and
design parameters. Based on economic points of view, cost estimates for the chosen foundation
design should be precisely calculated in consideration of required materials, amount of excavation
and construction process. In case of strip footings, differential settlements must be further
considered to prevent unfavourable design instability. For choosing the right type of foundation,
38
all kinds of factors should be considered including design loads, soil conditions, and respective
building codes and standards to optimize the design for durability and structural integrity. For this
particular project, I recommend using isolated footings for small to medium buildings and a mat
foundation for large construction projects as the soil is mostly dense sand and mat foundations
are suitable for it.

39
 REFERENCES

Eslami, A. et al. (2019) Piezocone penetration and Cone Test application in Foundation
Engineering: CPT and CPTU. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Das, B.M. and Sivakugan, N. (2019) Principles of Foundation Engineering. 9th edn. Boston, MA:
Cengage Learning.

Das, B.M. and Sobhan, K. (2014) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 8th edn. Stamford:
Cengage Learning.

Young, R. (2012) Soil properties and behaviour. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Mishra, G. (2020) Types of foundation and their uses in building construction, The Constructor.
Available at: https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundation-types-and-uses/9237/ (Accessed:
21 December 2023).

Constro Facilitator (2021) Different types of foundation used in building and structures, Constro
Facilitator. Available at: https://constrofacilitator.com/different-types-of-foundation-used-in-
building-and-structures/ (Accessed: 21 December 2023).

Balasubramanian, A. (2017) ‘Geotechnical properties of soils’, Slide Share. Centre for Advanced
Studies in Earth Science, Mysore: University of Mysore. Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/bala1957/geotechnical-properties-of-soils (Accessed: 23 December
2023).

Utilities One (2023) Geotechnical soil investigation for foundation design and construction, Utilities
One. Available at: https://utilitiesone.com/geotechnical-soil-investigation-for-foundation-design-
and-construction (Accessed: 23 December 2023).

Whittle, A.J. (2020) ‘Responding to Climate Change Through Geotechnical Engineering

Research’, Webinar for NASEM Committee on Geological and Geotechnical Engineering,
December.

40
Verma, M. (2023) The importance of ethics in Civil Engineering, LinkedIn. Available at:
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(Accessed: 24 December 2023).

41
 APPENDIX

Table 1 Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Table 2 Bearing Capacity Factor

Table 3 Shape, Depth, and inclination factors [DeBeer (1970); Hansen (1970); Meyerhof (1963);
Meyerhof and Hanna (1981)]
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Figure 1 Variation of If with Df/B; (a)L/B=1; (b)L/B=2; (c)L/B= 5

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Table 4 Variation of F1 with m’ and n’

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Table 4 Variation of F1 with m’ and n’ (Continued)

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Table 5 Variation of F2 with m’ and n’

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Table 5 Variation of F2 with m’ and n’ (Continued)

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Figure 2. Soil Data 1

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Figure 3. Soil Data 2

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