INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
Structural analysis is the prediction of the
performance of the given structure under
prescribed loads and/or other external effects, such
as support movements and temperature changes.
Historical Background:
Before mid-seventeenth century,
engineering
structures were designed by trial and error and by
using rules of thumb using past experience.
Some
of these structures were Egyptian pyramids ( about
3000 B.C.), Greek temples (500-200 B.C.), Roman
coliseums and aqueducts (200 B.C.-A.D. 200) and
Gothic Cathedrals (A.D. 1000-1500). The fact that
some of them still stand today is a testimonial to the
ingenuity of their builders.
Galileo Galilei is generally considered to be
the originator of the Theory of structures. In his
book entitled Two New Sciences which was
published in 1638, he analyzed the failure of some
simple structures, including cantilever beams.
Robert Hooke- law of linear relationships
between the force and deformation of materials
( Hooke’s Law)
Isaac Newton- Laws of Motion and
developed Calculus.
John Bernoulli- Principle of Virtual Work
Leonhard Euler- Theory of Buckling
Columns.
Charles- Agustin de Coulomb- Analysis
of elastic beams
Claude-Louis Navier- treatise on elastic
behavior of structures (considered the first
textbook in modern theory of strength & materials.
Benoit Paul Emile Clapeyron formulated
the three-moment equation.
James Clerk Maxwell- method of
consistent deformations and the law of
reciprocal deflections.
Otto Mohr- the conjugate beam method
and Mohr’s circles.
Alberto Castigliano- theorem of least
work.
Charles Greene developed the moment-
area method.
H. Muller Breslau presented a principle for
constructing influence lines.
George Maney developed the slope-
deflection method.
Hardy Cross developed the moment
distribution method.
The development of current computer
methods of structural analysis can be attributed
to, among others, J. H. Argyris, R.W. Clough, S.
Kelsey, R.K. Livesley, H.C. Martin, M.T. Turner,
E.L. Wilson, and O.C. Zienkiewicz.
Once a preliminary design of a structure is
proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to
ensure that it has its required stiffness and
strength. To analyze a structure properly, certain
idealizations must be made as to how the members
are supported and connected together. The
loadings are determined from codes and local
specifications, and the forces in the members and
their displacements are found using the theory of
structural analysis. The results of this analysis then
can be used to redesign the structure, accounting
for a more accurate determination of the weight of
the members and their size. Structural design,
therefore, follows a series of successive
approximations in which every cycle requires a
structural analysis.
STRUCTURAL FORMS
A structure refers to a system of connected
parts used to support a load. When designing a
structure to serve a specified function for public
use, the engineer must account for its safety,
esthetics, and serviceability, while taking into
consideration economic and environmental
constraints.
Trusses
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually
arranged in triangular fashion. Planar trusses are
composed of members that lie in the same plane
and are frequently used for bridge and roof support,
whereas space trusses have members extending
in three dimensions and are suitable for derricks
and towers.
Cables
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in
tension. They are commonly used to support
bridges and building roofs. When used for these
purposes, the cable has an advantage over the
beam and the truss, especially for spans that are
greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are
always in tension, cables will not become unstable
and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams
or trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require
added costs for construction and increased depth
as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other
hand, is limited only by their sag, weight, and
methods of anchorage.
Arches
The arch achieves its strength in
compression, since it has a reverse curvature to
that of the cable. The arch must be rigid, however,
in order to maintain its shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and moment,
which must be considered in its design. Arches are
frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs,
and for openings in masonry walls.
Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are
composed of beams and columns that are either
pin or fixed connected. Like trusses, frames extend
in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame
cause bending of its members, and if it has rigid
joint connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The
strength of such a frame is derived from the
moment interactions between the beams and the
columns at the rigid joints.
Shear Structure
Shear structure such as shear walls are used in
multi-story buildings to reduce lateral movements
due to wind loads and earthquake excitations.
Bending Structure
Some of the commonly used bending structures are
beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates. They
develop mainly bending stress under the action of
external load.
NATURE OF LOADS
The design loading for a structure is often
specified in codes. In general, the structural
engineer works with two types of codes: general
building codes and design codes.
General building codes specify the
requirements of governmental bodies for minimum
design loads on structures and minimum standards
for construction.
Design codes provide detailed technical
standards and are used to establish the
requirements for the actual structural design. It
should be realized, however, that codes provide
only a general guide for design. The ultimate
responsibility for the design lies with the structural
engineer.
The loads that act on common civil engineering
structures can be grouped according to their nature
and source into three classes:
Dead Loads
 due to the weight of the structural system
itself and any other material permanently
attached to it.
 include the weights of the columns, beams,
and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls,
 windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and
other miscellaneous attachments
Live Loads
 movable or moving loads due to the use of
the structure
 include building loads, highway bridge
loads, railroad bridge loads and impact
loads
Environmental Loads
 caused by environmental effects, such as
wind, snow, hydrostatic and soil pressure,
earthquakes and other natural loads (effect
of blast, temperature changes and
differential settlement of the foundation)
CONCEPT OF AXIAL, SHEAR, TORSIONAL,
FLEXURAL RIGIDITIES, AND STIFFNESS OF
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

When you pull (or push) a member along its

axis, it creates deformation. Resistance towards
axial deformation due to the applied tension (or
compression) is called Axial Stiffness.
Mathematically, K = AE/L where AE is called as
Axial Rigidity.

Shear Rigidity or also known as Modulus

of Rigidity, is a measure of material resistance
against shear distortion. Its value is equal to the
slope of the shear stress-strain curve in the elastic
region. It is usually denoted by G and has units of
N/m2.

Torsional rigidity is the product of shear

modulus (G) and polar moment of inertia (J). It
shows the resistance offered by a material to
angular deformation.

Flexural rigidity is defined as the force

couple required to bend a fixed non-rigid structure
by one unit of curvature, or as the resistance
offered by a structure while undergoing bending.

Stiffness is the extent to which an object

resists deformation in response to an applied force.
DEGREE OF STATIC & KINEMATIC DEGREE OF STATIC & KINEMATIC
INDETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES INDETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES
Degree of Static Indeterminacy
A structural system that can be analyzed by Ds = Dse + Dsi - No. of Internal Hinges/R’
using the equation of static equilibrium only is
called statically determinate structure. If it cannot where:
be analyzed by the equation of static equilibrium Dse = r - 3 for 2D beams, frames and trusses
alone, then it is called a statically indeterminate
structure. = r - 6 for 3D space beams, frames and
trusses
A structural system is said to be
kinematically indeterminate if the displacement Dsi = 0 for beams
components of its joints cannot be determined by
= 3C for 2D frames
the compatibility equation alone. If those unknown
quantities can be found by using compatibility = 6C for 3D frames
equations alone then the structure is called
kinematically determinate structure. = m-2j+3 for trusses

If a structure is unstable, then it doesn't

matter whether it is statically determinate or Degree of Kinematic Indeterminacy
indeterminate. In all cases, such types of structures
should be avoided in practice.
Dk = 3j - r + I.H. for beams and trusses

External Static Indeterminacy Dk = 2j - r + I.H. for trusses

It is called externally statically indeterminate if the

number of support reactions exceeds the number of where:
independent equations. The plane structures are
externally statically indeterminate if the number of r = 3 for 2D
support reactions is greater than 3 and it is greater
= 6 for 3D
than 6 if the structure is spatial.
j = number of joints
Internal Static Indeterminacy (Dsi)
I.H. = number of internal hinges
It is called internally statically indeterminate if the
number of interna forces cannot be evaluated from
the static equilibrium equations alone.

Degree of Static Indeterminacy (Ds)

External Static Indeterminacy (Dse) + Internal
Static Indeterminacy (Dsi) - No. of Internal Hinges
Degree of Kinematic Indeterminacy (Dk)
It is defined as the number of non-zero joint
displacement of the structure. It is also called as
degree of freedom.
 When a structure is loaded, specified points Redundancy of the Structure
on it, called nodes, will undergo unknown
Any constrain in a structure when removed
displacements. These displacements are referred
and do not cause instability to the structure is
to as the degrees of freedom for the structure, and
known as redundant.
in the displacement method of analysis it is
important to specify these degrees of freedom External Redundants
since they become the unknowns when the method
is applied. The number of these unknowns is The excess reactions of those necessary for
referred to as the degree in which the structure is equilibrium.
kinematically indeterminate.
External stability and instability for structures

 If r<3n , the structure is unstable.

 if the three reactions will meet at a common
point, the structure is unstable.
 If the three reactions are parallel to each
other, the structure is unstable.

Stability and Instability for Truss

 r+b < 2J (The truss is unstable)

 r +b= 2J (The truss is determinate, if stable)
 r+b > 2J (The truss is indeterminate, if
stable)

Stability and Instability for Frames

 If 3b+r > 3j + C (The frame is indeterminate,

if stable)
 3b+r = 3j + C (The frame is determinate, if
stable)
 3b+r < 3j + C (The frame is unstable)

where C = Number of members connected

at joint – 1