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ABM MODULE - A
Chapter 3: Measures of Central Tendency & Dispersion,
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-I)
What we will study?
*What is Measure of Central Tendency?
*What is objectives of Measure of Central Tendency?
* What are the types of average?
*What is mean?
*What is Arithmetic Mean?
*How to calculate Arithmetic Mean?
INTRODUCTION TO MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
Statistical data is first collected (primary or secondary) and
then classified into different groups according to common
characteristics and presented in a form of a table.
It is easy for us to study the different characteristics of data
from a tabular form.
Further, graphs and diagrams can also be drawn to convey a
better impression to the mind about the data.
Classified and Tabulated data need to be analysed using
different statistical methods and tools and then draw
conclusions from it.
Central Tendency and Dispersion are the most common and
widely used statistical tool which handles large quantity of
data and reduces the data to a single value used for doing
comparative studies and draw conclusion with accuracy and
clarity.
According to the statistician, Professor Bowley “Measures of
Central Tendency (averages) are statistical constants which
enable us to comprehend in single effort the significant of the
whole”.
The main objectives of Measure of Central Tendency are:
1. To condense data in a single value.
2. To facilitate comparisons between data.
In other words, the tendency of data to cluster around a
central (center) or mid value is called central tendency of
data, central tendency is measured by averages.
There are different types of averages, each has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Requisites of a Good Measure of Central Tendency:
1. It should be rigidly defined.
2. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate.
3. It should be based on all the observations of the data.
4. It should be capable of further mathematical treatment.
5. It should be least affected by the fluctuations of the
sampling.
6. It should not be affected by the extreme values.
7. It should be easy to interpret.
Three types of averages are:
1. Mean
3. Median
3. Mode
Mean:
Mean or Average is the most commonly used single
descriptive measure of Central Tendency.
Mean is simple to compute, easy to understand and interpret.
Mean is of three types:
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Geometric Mean
3. Harmonic Mean
ARITHMETIC MEAN:
The arithmetic mean is the simplest and most widely used
measure of a mean, or average.
It simply involves taking the sum of a group of numbers, then
dividing that sum by the count of the numbers used in the
series.
Arithmetic Mean of ungrouped Raw Data:
∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊
x̄ =
𝒏
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 +𝒙𝟒 +𝒙𝟓 …..+𝒙𝒏
x̄ =
𝒏
∑𝒙
x̄ =
𝒏
where x1, x2, x3, x4 …, xn, are n observations of x.
Example 1: Consider the marks scored by 10 students in

Mathematics in a certain examination 35, 30, 18, 15, 40, 30,
52, x, 47, 10.
If the arithmetic mean is 30, find the value of x.
Solution:
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 +𝒙𝟒 +𝒙𝟓 +𝒙𝟔 +𝒙𝟕 +𝒙𝟖 +𝒙𝟗 +𝒙𝟏𝟎
x̄ = 𝒏
x̄ =30 [given]
𝟑𝟓+𝟑𝟎+𝟏𝟖+𝟏𝟓+𝟒𝟎+𝟑𝟎+𝟓𝟐+𝒙+𝟒𝟕+𝟏𝟎
30 = 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝟕+𝒙
30= 𝟏𝟎
300 = 277+ 𝒙 => 𝒙 = 300-277 =23

Arithmetic Mean of Grouped Raw Data:
If a variate x take values x1, x2…,xn with corresponding
frequencies f1, f2…,fn respectively, then the arithmetic mean of
these values is given by:
∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊
x̄ = ∑ 𝒇𝒊
∑ 𝒇𝒙
x̄ =
𝑵
xi are the class marks (mid-point) of the class intervals for
grouped continuous data.
Example 2: Find the Arithmetic mean for following:

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
F 5 6 5 10 8 4 3 2
Solution:
x f
1 5
2 6
3 5
4 10
5 8
6 4
7 3
8 2
x f x*f
1 5 5
2 6 12
3 5 15
4 10 40
5 8 40
6 4 24
7 3 21
8 2 16
Total= N= 43 ∑ 𝒇𝒙 = 173
∑ 𝒇𝒙 𝟏𝟕𝟑
Arithmetic Mean = = = 4.02
𝑵 𝟒𝟑
Example 3: Find Arithmetic Mean of the Following data.

Class 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90
Interval
Frequency 5 12 10 14 5 8 4
Class Interval Frequency
20-30 5
30-40 12
40-50 10
50-60 14
60-70 5
70-80 8
80-90 4
Class Interval Class Mark Frequency (f) f*x
(x)
20-30 25 5 125
30-40 35 12 420
40-50 45 10 450
50-60 55 14 770
60-70 65 5 325
70-80 75 8 600
80-90 85 4 340
Total= ∑ 𝒇𝒊 = 58 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊 =3030
∑𝒏 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊 3030
̅
𝒙 = 𝒊=𝟏
∑ 𝒇𝒊
= = 52.24
58
Example 4: If the mean of the following distribution is 54, find

the value of x.
Class Interval 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100

Frequency 7 x 10 9 13
Class Interval Frequency
0-20 7
20-40 x
40-60 10
60-80 9
80-100 13
Class Interval Class Mark Frequency (f) f*x

(x)
0-20 10 7 70
20-40 30 x 30x
40-60 50 10 500
60-80 70 9 630
80-100 90 13 1170
Total = ∑ 𝒇𝒊 = 39+x ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊 =2370+30x
̅ =54 [ Given]
𝒙
∑𝒏 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊
̅
𝒙 = 𝒊=𝟏
∑ 𝒇𝒊
𝟐𝟑𝟕𝟎+𝟑𝟎𝒙
54 = 𝟑𝟗+𝒙
54* (39+x) = 2370 + 30x
2106+54x = 2370 + 30x
54x-30x = 2370 - 2106
24x = 264
𝟐𝟔𝟒
x= = 11
𝟐𝟒
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-II)
What we will study?
*What is combined arithmetic mean?
*What are the merits of Arithmetic Mean?
*What are the demerits of Arithmetic Mean?
*What is Geometric Mean?
*How to calculate Geometric mean?
*What are the merits of Geometric Mean?
*What are the demerits of Geometric Mean?
COMBINED ARITHMETIC MEAN:
If 𝒙
̅̅̅𝟏 , and 𝒙
̅̅̅𝟐 are the If arithmetic mean of two samples of size
n1 and n2 respectively then, the Combined arithmetic mean 𝑥̅
of the distribution combining the two can be calculated as
𝒏𝟏 𝒙̅𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝒙̅𝟐
̅=
𝒙
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
Example 5: The average marks of a group of 100 students in

Mathematics are 60 and for other group of 50 students, the
average marks are 90. Find the average marks combined
group of 150 students.
Solution 5:
𝒏𝟏 = 100, 𝒙𝟏 = 60
𝒏𝟐 = 50, 𝒙𝟐 = 90
𝒏𝟏 𝒙̅𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝒙̅𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐱 𝟔𝟎 +𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝟗𝟎
̅=
𝒙 = = 70
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝟎
Example 6: In private health club, there are 200 members, 100

men, 80 women and 20 children. The average weight of men,
women and children are 60 kgs, 50 kgs and 35 kgs
respectively. Find the average weight of the combined group.
Solution 6:
n1 = 100, 𝒙
̅̅̅𝟏 = 60
n2 = 80, 𝒙
̅̅̅𝟐 = 50
n3 = 20, 𝒙
̅̅̅𝟑 = 35
𝒏𝟏 𝒙̅𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝒙̅𝟐 +𝒏𝟑 𝒙̅𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐱𝟔𝟎 + 𝟖𝟎𝐱𝟓𝟎+ 𝟐𝟎𝐱𝟑𝟓

̅=
Combined means = 𝒙 =
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 +𝒏𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟖𝟎+𝟐𝟎
𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎+ 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎

= = 53.5
𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝟖𝟎+𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎
Example 7: An average daily wage of all the 90 workers in a

factory is Rs. 60.An average daily wage of female workers is
Rs. 45. Calculate an average daily wage of male workers if one
third workers are male.
Solution:
Given: One third workers are male.

𝟏
n1 = No. of male workers = 90 × 𝟑 = 30
𝟐
n2 = No. of female workers = 90 × 𝟑 = 60
̅ = Avg. daily wages of all workers = 60

𝒙
̅̅̅𝟏 = Avg. daily wages of male workers = ?

𝒙
̅̅̅𝟐 = Avg. daily wages of female workers = 45

𝒙
𝒏𝟏 𝒙̅𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝒙̅𝟐
̅=
𝒙 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
𝟑𝟎∗ 𝒙̅𝟏 + 𝟔𝟎 ∗ 𝟒𝟓
60 = 𝟑𝟎+𝟔𝟎
𝟑𝟎𝒙̅𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎
60 = 𝟗𝟎
60*90 = 𝟑𝟎𝒙̅𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝟎
5400-2700 = 𝟑𝟎𝒙̅𝟏
𝟑𝟎𝒙̅𝟏 = 2700
𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎
𝒙̅𝟏 = = 90
𝟑𝟎
Example 8: Mean of 25 observations was found to be 78.4. But

later on, it was found that 96 was misread as 69.
Find the corrected mean.
Solution 8: We have n = 25
̅ = 78.4
𝒙
𝚺𝐱
̅=
Formula: 𝒙
𝒏
𝚺𝐱
78.4 =
𝟐𝟓
𝚺𝐱 = 78.4*25 = 1960
Total of all the observation= 1960

Correct total of all observations = Σx – Wrong Observation +
Correct Observation
Correct total of all observations (Σx) = 1960-69+96 = 1987

𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝚺𝐱 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟕
So, Corrected Mean= 𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = = = 79.48
𝒏 𝟐𝟓
Example 9: The mean salary of 50 employees of a company

was computed as Rs. 680 per month. Later it was found that
salary of Mr X was taken as Rs. 270 instead of 720. What will
be the correct mean salary?
Ans:
̅ = Rs. 680
𝒙
n = 50,
𝚺𝐱
̅=
Formula: 𝒙
𝒏
𝚺𝐱
680 =
𝟓𝟎
∑x = 680*50 = 34000
The sum of observation = ∑x =34000
Corrected total = ∑x – wrong value + correct value
= 34000 – 270 + 720 = 34450

𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝟑𝟒𝟒𝟓𝟎
Corrected mean = 𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = = 689.
𝟓𝟎
Merits of Arithmetic Mean:
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is easy to calculate and simple to follow.
3. It is based on all the observations.
4. It is determined for almost every kind of data.
5. It is finite.
6. It is readily put to algebraic treatment.
7. It is least affected by fluctuations of sampling.

Demerits of Arithmetic Mean:
1. It is highly affected by extreme values.
2. It cannot average the ratios and percentages properly.
3. It is not an appropriate average for highly skewed

distribution.
4. It cannot be computed accurately if any item is missing.
5. The mean sometimes does not coincide with any of the

observed value.
6. Mean cannot be calculated when open-end class intervals

are present in the data.
GEOMETRIC MEAN:
The Geometric Mean (GM) is the average value or mean

which measures the central tendency of the set of numbers by
taking the root of the product of their values.
Geometric mean takes into account the compounding effect

of the data that occurs from period to period.
Geometric mean is always less than Arithmetic Mean and is

calculated only for positive values.
Applications of Geometric Mean:
• It is used in stock indexes.
• It is used to calculate the annual return on the portfolio.
• It is used in finance to find the average growth rates which

are also referred to the compounded annual growth rate.
• It is also used in studies like cell division and bacterial

growth, etc.
Geometric Mean of ungrouped Raw Data:
G.M. = 𝑛√ 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 … . 𝒙𝒏
𝟏
G.M. = (𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 … . 𝒙𝒏 )𝒏
where x1, x2…....,xn are n observations of x.
Note: n is total number of observation.
Example 10: Find the G.M. of the values 10, 24, 15, and 32.
Solution: Given 10, 24, 15, 32
We know that
G.M. = 𝑛√ 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 … . 𝒙𝒏
𝟏
G.M. = (𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 . . . 𝒙𝒏 ) 𝒏
1 1
= (10 x 24 x 15 x 32)4 = (115200)4 = 18.423
Geometric Mean of Grouped Raw Data:

𝑛
G.M. = √ 𝑥1𝑓1 𝑥2𝑓2 … … . 𝑥𝑛𝑓𝑛
1
G.M. = (𝑥1𝑓1 𝑥2𝑓2 …….𝑥𝑛𝑓𝑛 )𝑛
where x1, x2…,xn are n observations of x with frequencies f1,

f2…,fn respectively and
n = f1 + f2…+ fn
Example 11: Find the G.M. for the following data.
X 1 2 3 4
F 5 6 5 10
x f 𝒙𝒇
1 5 𝟏𝟓 = 1
2 6 𝟐𝟔 = 64
3 5 𝟑𝟓 = 243
4 10 𝟒𝟏𝟎 = 1048576
1 1
Solution: G.M. = (𝑥1𝑓1 𝑥2𝑓2 ..𝑥𝑛𝑓𝑛 )𝑛 5 5 5
= (1 𝑥 2 x 3 x 410 )(5+6+5+10)
𝟏
= (1 x 64 x 243 x 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟔) (𝟐𝟔)
= 2.4705
How to calculate 26th root:
Step 1: type the number you want to find fifth root of on

calculator
Step 2: now press the “√” on calculator for 12 times
Step 3: now deduct 1 from the result
Step 4: If you have to find “fifth” root therefore you will divide
the result by 5 and if 26th root then by 26.
Step 5: now add 1 in the result
Step 6: now press the “X” button and then “=' button for
12 times.
Like this X = X = X= and so on for 9 more times.
Merits of Geometric Mean:
1. It is useful in the construction of index numbers.
2. It is not much affected by the fluctuations of sampling.
3. It is based on all the observations.
Demerits of Geometric Mean:
1. It cannot be easily understood.
2. It is relatively difficult to compute as it requires some

special knowledge of logarithms.
3. It cannot be calculated when any item or value is zero or

negative.
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-III)
What we will study?
*What is Harmonic Mean?
*What are the applications of Harmonic Mean?
*How to calculate Harmonic Mean?
*What is the relationship among A.M, G.M and H.M?
HARMONIC MEAN:
Harmonic Mean is defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic

mean of reciprocals of the observations.
Arithmetic mean is appropriate measure of central tendency

when the values have the same units whereas the Harmonic
mean is appropriate measure of central tendency when the
values are the ratios of two variables and have different
measures.
So, generally Harmonic mean is used to calculate the average

of ratios or rates.
Applications of Harmonic Mean:
• It is used in finance to find average of different rates.
• It can be used to calculate quantities such as speed.
This is because speed is expressed as a ratio of two measuring

units such as km/hr.
Harmonic Mean of ungrouped Raw data:
𝒏
H.M. = 𝟏
∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊
𝒏
H.M. = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 +𝒙𝟒 +𝒙𝟓…….+𝒙𝒏
where x1, x2…,x are n observations of x.
Example 12: Find the HM of the values 10, 24, 15, and 32.
Solution:
Given 10, 24, 15, 32

𝒏
We know that H.M. = 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 +𝒙𝟑 +𝒙𝟒+𝒙𝟓 …….+𝒙𝒏
𝟒 𝟒
= 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 = 𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟔 = 16.69
+ + +
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟒 𝟏𝟓 𝟑𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Total of reciprocal= + 𝟐𝟒 + 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟑𝟐
𝟏𝟎
= 0.1+0.0417+0.0667+0.0312 = 0.2396
𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟔
Mean of reciprocal = = 0.0599
𝟒
𝟏
Reciprocal Again = 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟗 = 16.69
Harmonic Mean of Grouped Raw data:
𝒏
H.M. = 𝒇𝒊
∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊
𝒏
H.M. = 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇
+ + …..+ 𝒏
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝒏
where x1, x2…,xn are n observations of x with frequencies f1,

f2…,fn respectively and
n = f1, + f2…, + fn
Example 13: Find the H.M. for the following data.
X 1 2 3 4
F 5 6 5 10
𝒏
Solution: H.M. = 𝒇𝟏 𝒇 𝒇 𝒇
+ 𝟐 + 𝟑 …..+ 𝒏
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝒏
26 26
=5 6 5 10 = = 2.136
+ + + 12.7
1 2 3 4
Comparison between Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic
Mean:
• The arithmetic mean is appropriate if the values have the

same units(ex. Age or height), whereas
The geometric mean is appropriate if the data contains values

with different units of measure, e.g. some measure are height,
some are dollars, some are miles, etc.) and
Harmonic mean is appropriate if the data values are rate or

ratios of two variables with different measures, called rates
(Km/h).
Arithmetic Mean > Harmonic Mean > Geometric Mean
A.M. × H.M. = (G.M.)2
Example 14: Find the Harmonic mean of two numbers a and b,

if their Arithmetic mean is 16 and Geometric mean is 8.
Solution: Let's say a and b are the two numbers.
A.M. × H.M. = (G.M.)2

Solution:
Given: A.M. = 16 and G.M. = 8
The relation between A.M. G.M. H.M. is given as:
A.M. × H.M. = G.M.2
16 × H.M. = 82
16 × H.M. = 64
𝟔𝟒
H.M. = 𝟏𝟔 = 4
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-IV)
What we will study?
*What is Median?
*How to calculate Median?
MEDIAN:
The median is the middle value of a distribution, i.e., median

of a distribution is the value of the variable which divides it
into two equal parts.
It is the value of the variable such that the number of

observations above it is equal to the number of observations
below it.
Observations are arranged either in ascending order or

descending order of their magnitude.
Median is a position average whereas the arithmetic mean is a

calculated average.
Median of Ungrouped Raw data:
The formula to calculate the median of the data is different

for odd and even number of observations.
Median of odd Number of Observations:
If the total number of given observations is odd, then the

formula to calculate the median for a number of "n
observations" is:
𝑛+1
Median = th observation
2
Example 15: Find the median of the daily wages of ten
workers from the following data: 20, 25, 17, 18, 8, 15, 22, 11,
9, 14.
Solution: First arrange the wages in ascending order:
8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, 22
Total number of observation (n) = 9

𝑛+1 9+1
Median = 2
th observation = 2
th = 5th
Median= 5th observation = 15
Median of even Number of Observations:
If the total number of given observations is even, then the

median formula to calculate the median for n number of
observations is:
𝑛 𝑛
2
th 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 +( +1)th 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
2
Median = 𝟐
Example 16: Find Median of 34, 32, 48, 38, 24, 30, 27, 21,
35,58.
Solution: Arranging the data in ascending order, we have
21, 24, 27, 30, 32, 34, 35, 38, 48,58.
n = 10 i.e., even number of observations.

𝑛 𝑛
2
th 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 +( +1)th 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
2
Median = 𝟐
𝑛 𝟏𝟎
th observation = = 5th
2 𝟐
𝑛 𝟏𝟎
(2 + 1)th observation = ( 𝟐 +1) = 6th
(5𝑡ℎ 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 + 6𝑡ℎ 𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧) 𝟑𝟐+𝟑𝟒

Median= = = 33
𝟐 𝟐
Median of Grouped data:
If variable X takes values x1,x2,x3,x4,.....xn and corresponding

frequencies f1, f2…....,fn respectively, then the median of these
values is given by
𝑵
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )( −𝒄𝒇)
𝟐
Median = 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒇
Where,
𝒍𝟏 = lower limit of the median class,
𝒍𝟐 = upper limit of the median class,
f= frequency of the median class,
cf= cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median

class,
N= total frequency.
Median class is the class in which the corresponding value of

𝑵
less than cumulative frequency just exceeds the value of .
𝟐
Example 17: Find Median for the following data.
Class interval 20–30 30–40 40–50 50–60 60–70
Frequency 8 26 30 20 16
Solution:
CI Frequency Cumulative Frequency

(cf)
20-30 8 8
30-40 26 34
40-50 30 64
50-60 20 84
60-70 16 100
Total = 100
N= ∑ f = 100
𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟎
So, 𝟐 = = 50
𝟐
𝑵
less than cumulative frequency just exceeds the value of 𝟐 =50
Now, 64 is first cf just exceeding 50.
So, the Median class is 40-50.
𝒍𝟏 = 40 & 𝒍𝟐 = 50
f = 30
cf = 34
𝑵
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )( −𝒄𝒇) (𝟓𝟎−𝟒𝟎)(𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟒)
𝟐
Median = 𝒍𝟏 + = 40 +
𝒇 𝟑𝟎
(𝟏𝟎)(𝟏𝟔) 𝟏𝟔𝟎
= 40 + = 40 + = 40 + 5.33 = 45.33
𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎
Example 18: Find the median for the following:
x 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f 14 20 40 54 40 18 7 7
Solution:
x f cf
3 14 14
4 20 34
5 40 74
6 54 128
7 40 168
8 18 186
9 7 193
10 7 200
N= 200
N= ∑ f= 200,
𝑵 𝟐𝟎𝟎
So, = = 100
𝟐 𝟐
Now, 128 is first cf just exceeding 100.
The value of x, corresponding to cf 128 is 6.
So the median is 6.
Example 19: Find Median for the following data.
Class 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-24 35-39

interval
Frequency 8 18 27 21 10 8 7
Solution:
Class Frequency Class Interval Class

Interval (exclusive) Interval
(inclusive) (exclusive)
𝟏𝟎−𝟗
5-9 8 5-(
𝟐
) = 5-0.5= 4.5 4.5-9.5
𝟏𝟎−𝟗
9+( )= 9+0.5 = 9.5
𝟐
𝟏𝟓−𝟏𝟒
10-14 18 10-(
𝟐
) = 10-0.5= 10.5 9.5-14.5
𝟏𝟓−𝟏𝟒
14+( )= 14+0.5 = 14.5
𝟐
15-19 27 14.5-19.5
20-24 21 19.5-24.5
25-29 10 24.5-29.5
30-34 8 29.5-34.5
35-39 7 34.5-39.5
Now:
Class Interval Class Frequency cf

(inclusive) Interval
(exclusive)
5-9 4.5-9.5 8 8
10-14 9.5-14.5 18 26
15-19 14.5-19.5 27 53
20-24 19.5-24.5 21 74
25-29 24.5-29.5 10 84
30-34 29.5-34.5 8 92
35-39 34.5-39.5 7 99
Total = N=99
N= ∑ f = 99
𝑵 𝟗𝟗
So, 𝟐 = = 49.5
𝟐

less than cumulative frequency just exceeds the value of
𝑵
=49.5
𝟐
Now, 53 is first cf just exceeding 49.5.
So, the Median class is 14.5-19.5.
𝒍𝟏 = 14.5 & 𝒍𝟐 = 19.5
f = 27
cf = 26
𝑵
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )( −𝒄𝒇) (𝟏𝟗.𝟓−𝟏𝟒.𝟓)(𝟒𝟗.𝟓−𝟐𝟔)
𝟐
Median = 𝒍𝟏 + = 14.5 + =
𝒇 𝟐𝟕
(𝟓)(𝟐𝟑.𝟓) 𝟏𝟏𝟕.𝟓
= 14.5 + = 14.5 + = 14.5 + 4.35 = 18.85
𝟐𝟕 𝟐𝟕
Example 20: Calculate the missing frequency for the following

data if Median of the distribution 24.
Class 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

interval
Frequency 5 25 -- 18 7
Solution:
CI Frequency cf
0-10 5 5
10-20 25 30
20-30 a 30+a
30-40 18 48+a
40-50 7 55+a
Total 55+a
Since Median is 24, (20-30) is the Median class.

𝑵 𝟓𝟓+𝒂
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )( −𝒄𝒇) (𝟑𝟎−𝟐𝟎)( −𝟑𝟎)
𝟐 𝟐
Median = 𝒍𝟏 + = 20 +
𝒇 𝒂
𝟓𝟓+𝒂−𝟔𝟎
(𝟏𝟎)( ) (𝟓)(𝒂−𝟓) (𝟓𝒂−𝟐𝟓)
𝟐
24 = 20 + = 20 + = 20 +
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
𝟐𝟎𝒂+𝟓𝒂−𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓𝒂−𝟐𝟓
24 = =
𝒂 𝒂
𝟐𝟓𝒂−𝟐𝟓
= 24 => 25a-25 = 24a
𝒂
25a-24a = 25 => a= 25
Merits of Median:
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is not affected by extreme values.
3. Even if the extreme values are not known, median can be
calculated if the number of items are known.
Demerits of Median:
1. It is not based on all observations.
2. It is affected by sampling fluctuations.
3. It is not capable of further algebraic treatment.
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-V)
What we will study?
*What is Mode?
*How to calculate Mode?
*What is Quartile?
*How to calculate Quartile Q1, Q2 and Q3?
MODE:
The mode of a set of numbers is that number, which occurs
more number of times than any other number in the set.
It is the most frequently occurring value.
If two or more values occur with equal or nearly equal
number of times, then the distribution is said to have two or
more modes.
In case, there are three or more modes and the distribution or
data set is said to be multimodal.
Mode of ungrouped raw data:

Example 22: Find Mode for the following data:
23, 25, 20, 23, 26, 21, 27, 28, 30, 27, 23.
Solution: Value 23 occurs maximum number of times, so
Mode = 23.
Mode of Grouped data:

If a variate X take values x1, x2…,xn with corresponding
frequencies f1, f2…,fn respectively, then the mode is
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )(𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 )
Mode= 𝒍𝟏 + 𝟐𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 −𝒇𝟐
where, 𝒍𝟏 = lower limit of the modal class

𝒍𝟐 = upper limit of the modal class
f1= frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f2 = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
Modal class is the class which has highest frequency.
Example 23:
Find Mode for the data:
Class interval 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70

Frequency 8 26 30 20 16
Solution:
Class interval Frequency

20-30 8
30-40 26
40-50 30
50-60 20
60-70 16
Highest frequency is 30, so Modal class is [40–50]

(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )(𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 )
Mode= 𝒍𝟏 + 𝟐𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 −𝒇𝟐
𝒍𝟏 =40 & 𝒍𝟐 =50

𝒇𝟏 =30 & 𝒇𝟎 = 26 & 𝒇𝟐 = 20
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )(𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 ) (𝟓𝟎−𝟒𝟎)(𝟑𝟎−𝟐𝟔)

Mode= 𝒍𝟏 + = 40 +
𝟐𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 −𝒇𝟐 𝟐∗𝟑𝟎−𝟐𝟔−𝟐𝟎
(𝟏𝟎)(𝟒) 𝟒𝟎
= 40+ 𝟔𝟎−𝟐𝟔−𝟐𝟎 = 40+𝟏𝟒 = 40+2.86 = 42.86
Example 24: If mode of the distribution is 115, find missing
frequency.
Class 60-75 75-90 90-105 105-120 120-135
Interval
Frequency 30 30 60 -- 70
Solution:
Class 60-75 75-90 90-105 105-120 120-135
Interval
Frequency 30 30 60 a 70
Since Mode is 115, so [105-120] is the Modal class.

(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )(𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 )
Mode= 𝒍𝟏 + 𝟐𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 −𝒇𝟐
𝒍𝟏 =105 & 𝒍𝟐 =120

𝒇𝟏 =a & 𝒇𝟎 = 60 & 𝒇𝟐 = 70
(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 )(𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 ) (𝟏𝟐𝟎−𝟏𝟎𝟓)(𝒂−𝟔𝟎)

Mode= 𝒍𝟏 + = 105 +
𝟐𝒇𝟏 −𝒇𝟎 −𝒇𝟐 𝟐∗𝒂−𝟔𝟎−𝟕𝟎
(𝟏𝟓)(𝒂−𝟔𝟎) 𝟏𝟓𝒂−𝟗𝟎𝟎
115= 105+ = 105+ 𝟐𝒂−𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟐𝒂−𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝒂−𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝒂−𝟗𝟎𝟎
105+ 𝟐𝒂−𝟏𝟑𝟎 = 115 => = 115 - 115 = 10
𝟐𝒂−𝟏𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝒂−𝟗𝟎𝟎
= 10 => 15a-900 = 20a-1300
𝟐𝒂−𝟏𝟑𝟎
20a-15a = 1300-900 = 400

𝟒𝟎𝟎
5a=400 => a= = 80
𝟓
Merits of Mode:
1. It is easy to calculate and understand.
2. It is not affected much by sampling fluctuations.
3. It is not necessary to know all items. Only the point of
maximum concentration is required.
Demerits of Mode:
1. It is ill defined as it is not based on all observations.
3. It is not a good representative.
Relationship among Mean, Media and Mode:
We have learnt about three measures of central value, namely
arithmetic mean, median and mode.
These three measures are closely connected by the following
relation:
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean
Example: What is the mode, if mean =20 and median =15?

Solution:
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean
Mode= 3*15-2*20 = 45-40 = 5
Quartiles:
A quartile represents the division of data into four equal

parts.
By dividing the distribution into four groups, the quartile

calculates the range of values above and below the mean.
A quartile divides data into three points – the lower quartile
Q1, the median Q2, and the upper quartile Q3, to create four
dataset groupings.
Quartiles are three values that split sorted data into four
parts, each with an equal number of observations.
First quartile: Also known as Q1, or the lower quartile. This is

the number halfway between the lowest number and the
middle number. The first quartile (Q1), is the 25th percentile,
meaning that 25% of the data falls below the first quartile.
Second quartile: Also known as Q2, or the median. This is the

middle number halfway between the lowest number and the
highest number. Second quartile (Q2) is the 50th percentile,
meaning that 50% of the data falls below the second quartile.
Third quartile: Also known as Q3, or the upper quartile. This is
the number halfway between the middle number and the
highest number. Third quartile (Q3) is the 75th percentile,
meaning that 75% of the data falls below the third quartile.
How to calculate Q1, Q2 and Q3?
(𝒒𝟏 −𝒄𝒇) 𝐍
Q1= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟏 =
𝒇 𝟒
(𝒒𝟐 −𝒄𝒇) 𝟐𝐍
Q2= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟐 =
𝒇 𝟒
(𝒒𝟑 −𝒄𝒇) 𝟑𝐍
Q3= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟑 =
𝒇 𝟒
where, 𝒍𝟏 = lower limit of the quartile class

𝒍𝟐 = upper limit of the quartile class
cf =Cumulative frequency of the class interval immediately
preceding the quartile class
f = frequency of the quartile class
Quartile class will be find out using q1,q2,q3 formula.
𝐍 𝟐𝐍 𝟑𝐍
i.e., 𝒒𝟏 = & 𝒒𝟐 = & 𝒒𝟑 =
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
Example 21: Find the three quartiles for the following data:
CI 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55
F 12 28 36 50 25 18 16 10 5
Solution:
Class Interval Frequency Cf
10-15 12 12
15-20 28 40
20-25 36 76 Greater than 50

(Q1)
25-30 50 126 Greater than

100 (Q2)
30-35 25 151 Greater than

150 (Q3)
35-40 18 169
40-45 16 185
45-50 10 195
50-55 5 200
Total N = 200
(𝒒𝟏 −𝒄𝒇)
Q1= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝒇
𝐍 𝟐𝟎𝟎
where 𝒒𝟏 = = = 50
𝟒 𝟒
So, the quartile class is [20-25]
𝒍𝟏 = 20 & 𝒍𝟐 = 25 and 𝒒𝟏 = 50
cf = 40 & f= 36
(𝟓𝟎−𝟒𝟎)
Q1= 20 + (𝟐𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎)
𝟑𝟔
(𝟏𝟎) 𝟓𝟎
Q1= 20 + (𝟓) = 20 +𝟑𝟔 = 20+1.39 = 21.39
𝟑𝟔
(𝒒𝟐 −𝒄𝒇)
Q2= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝒇
𝟐𝐍 𝟐∗𝟐𝟎𝟎
where 𝒒𝟐 = = = 100
𝟒 𝟒
𝒍𝟏 = 25 & 𝒍𝟐 = 30 and 𝒒𝟐 = 100
cf = 76 & f= 50
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝟕𝟔)
Q2= 25 + (𝟑𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓)
𝟓𝟎
(𝟐𝟒) 𝟏𝟐𝟎
Q2= 25 + (𝟓) = 25 + = 25+ 2.4 = 27.4
𝟓𝟎 𝟓𝟎
(𝒒𝟑 −𝒄𝒇)
Q3= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝒇
𝟑𝐍 𝟑∗𝟐𝟎𝟎
where 𝒒𝟑 = = = 150
𝟒 𝟒
𝒍𝟏 = 30 & 𝒍𝟐 = 35 and 𝒒𝟑 = 150
cf = 126 & f= 25
(𝟏𝟓𝟎−𝟏𝟐𝟔)
Q3= 30 + (𝟑𝟓 − 𝟑𝟎)
𝟐𝟓
(𝟐𝟒) 𝟏𝟐𝟎
Q3= 30 + (𝟓) = 30 + = 30+ 4.8 = 34.8
𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟓
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-VI)
What we will study?
*What is measure of dispersion?
*What is Absolute Measure of Dispersion & How to
calculate it?
* What is Relative Measure of Dispersion & How to
calculate it?
INTRODUCTION TO MEASURES OF DISPERSION:
A single value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within the set of data is called
measure of central tendency (average).
Measure of Dispersion is another property of a data which
establishes the degree of variability or the spread out or
scatter of the individual items and their deviation from (or the
difference with) the averages or central tendencies.
The process by which data are scattered, stretched, or spread
out among a variety of categories is referred to as dispersion.
The dispersion of data is a concept in statistics that lets one
understand a dataset more simply by classifying individual
pieces of data according to their own unique dispersion
criteria, such as the variance, the standard deviation, and the
range.
A B C D E Total Mean
TEST 1 40 40 40 40 40 200 40
TEST 2 47 36 40 33 44 200 40
TEST 3 2 8 11 84 95 200 40
Various measures of dispersion are given below:
Four Absolute Measures of Dispersion
1. Range
2. Quartile Deviation
3. Mean Deviation
4. Standard Deviation
Four Relative Measures of Dispersion
1. Coefficient of Range
2. Coefficient of Quartile Deviation
3. Coefficient of Mean Deviation
4. Coefficient of Variation
Characteristics of a Good Measure of Dispersion:

1. It should be rigidly defined.
2. It should be based on all observations.
3. It should be easy to calculate and understand.
4. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
5. It should not be affected much by sampling fluctuations.
RANGE AND COEFFICIENT OF RANGE:
It is the simplest absolute measure of dispersion.
Range (R) = Maximum – Minimum
(𝐌𝐚𝐱 – 𝐌𝐢𝐧)
Coefficient of Range =
(𝑴𝒂𝒙+𝑴𝒊𝒏)
Example 25: Find the range and coefficient of range of the

following items: 18, 15, 20, 17, 22, 16.
Solution: Range = Max – Min = 22 – 15 = 7.
(𝐌𝐚𝐱 – 𝐌𝐢𝐧) 𝟕
Coefficient of Range = (𝑴𝒂𝒙+𝑴𝒊𝒏) =𝟑𝟕 = 0.19
Note: Range and Coefficient of Range are used to measure the

spread in Quality Control, Fluctuations in the Share Prices and
in Weather Forecasts.
Merits of Range:
1. It is easy to understand.
2. It is easy to calculate.
Demerits of Range:
2. It does not have sampling stability. A single observation
may change the value of range.
3. As the amount of data increases, range becomes less
satisfactory.
QUARTILE DEVIATION AND COEFFICIENT OF QUARTILE

DEVIATION:
It is the mid-point of the range between two quartiles.
Quartile Deviation is defined as
(𝐐𝟑− 𝐐𝟏 )
QD = 𝟐
Where Q1 = 1st quartile and Q3 = 3rd quartile.
How to calculate Q1, Q2 and Q3?

(𝒒𝟏 −𝒄𝒇) 𝐍
Q1= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟏 =
𝒇 𝟒
(𝒒𝟐 −𝒄𝒇) 𝟐𝐍
Q2= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟐 =
𝒇 𝟒
(𝒒𝟑 −𝒄𝒇) 𝟑𝐍
Q3= 𝒍𝟏 + (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) where 𝒒𝟑 =
𝒇 𝟒
(𝐐 𝐐 )
Co-efficient of QD = (𝐐 𝟑−+𝐐𝟏 )
𝟑 𝟏
Merits of Quartile Deviation:

1. It is easy to calculate and understand.
Demerits of Quartile Deviation:

3. It is affected by sampling fluctuations.
Mean Deviation and Coefficient of Mean Deviation:

Mean deviation of a set of observations is the arithmetic
mean of all the deviations.
It is the deviations from mean when calculated considering
their absolute values and are averaged.
Mean Deviation (MD) ungrouped data:
(∑𝑛𝑖=1 |𝑥𝑖 −𝑥̅ |)
MD (Mean) = 𝒏
|(𝒙𝟏 −𝑥̅ )|+|(𝒙𝟐 −𝑥̅ )|+|(𝒙𝟑 −𝑥̅ )|+ −−−−|(𝒙𝒏 −𝑥̅ )|
MD (Mean) = 𝒏
𝑴𝑫(𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏)
Coefficient of Mean Deviation (Mean) = 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
Example 26: Find Mean Deviation and Coefficient of Mean

Deviation from the data: 12, 20, 39, 46, 54, 61, 78, 90.
Solution:
𝟏𝟐+𝟐𝟎+𝟑𝟗+𝟒𝟔+𝟓𝟒+𝟔𝟏+𝟕𝟖+𝟗𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
̅=
Mean = 𝒙 = = 50
𝟖 𝟖
(∑𝒏 |𝒙 −𝒙̅̅̅|)
MD (Mean) = 𝒊=𝟏 𝒏 𝒊
𝒙 )|+|(𝒙𝟐 −̅̅̅
|(𝒙𝟏 −̅̅̅ 𝒙 )|+|(𝒙𝟑 −̅̅̅
𝒙 )|+ −−−−|(𝒙𝒏 −̅̅̅
𝒙 )|
MD (Mean) = 𝒏
MD (Mean) =
|(𝟏𝟐−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟐𝟎−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟑𝟗−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟒𝟔−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟓𝟒−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟔𝟏−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟕𝟖−𝟓𝟎)|+|(𝟗𝟎−𝟓𝟎)|
𝟖
𝟑𝟖+𝟑𝟎+𝟏𝟏+𝟒+𝟒+𝟏𝟏+𝟐𝟖+𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟔𝟔
MD (Mean) = = = 20.75
𝟖 𝟖
𝟐𝟎.𝟕𝟓
= = 0.415
𝟓𝟎
x x̄ |(x- x̄)|
12 50 |12-50|=38
20 50 |20-50|=30
39 50 |39-50|=11
46 50 |46-50|=4
54 50 |54-50|=4
61 50 |61-50|=11
78 50 |78-50|=28
90 50 |90-50|=40
Total=400 166
𝟒𝟎𝟎
x̄ = = 50
𝟖
𝟏𝟔𝟔
MD (Mean) = = 20.75
𝟖
Mean Deviation (MD) grouped data:
(∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊 |𝒙𝒊 −𝒙 |)
̅̅̅
MD (Mean) = ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊
𝒇𝟏 |(𝒙𝟏 −𝒙
̅̅̅)|+𝒇𝟐 |(𝒙𝟐 −𝒙
̅̅̅)|+𝒇𝟑 |(𝒙𝟑 −𝒙
̅̅̅)|+ −−−−𝒇𝒏 |(𝒙𝒏 −𝒙
̅̅̅)|
MD (Mean) = 𝒇𝟏 +𝒇𝟐 +𝒇𝟑 ………..+𝒇𝒏
Example 27: Find Mean Deviation and Coefficient of Mean

Deviation from the data:
Class interval 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 8 26 30 20 16
Solution:
Cl frequency (f) Class Mark (x) fx
20-30 8 25 200
30-40 26 35 910
40-50 30 45 1350
50-60 20 55 1100
60-70 16 65 1040
Total = N=100 ∑fx = 4600
∑ 𝒇𝒙 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎
Mean = = = 46
𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Class Mark(x) frequency (x̄) |(x- x̄)| f*|(x- x̄)|

(f)
25 8 46 |25-46|=21 8*21 =168
35 26 46 |35-46|=11 26*11=286
45 30 46 |45-46|=1 30*1=30
55 20 46 |55-46|=9 20*9=180
65 16 46 |65-46|=19 16*19=304
N=100 968
(∑ 𝒏 ̅ |)
𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊 |𝒙𝒊 −𝒙 𝟗𝟔𝟖
MD (Mean) = ∑𝒏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 9.68
𝒊=𝟏 𝒇𝒊
𝟗.𝟔𝟖
= 𝟒𝟔 =0.2104
Example 28: Calculate the mean deviation from the

(1) arithmetic mean
(2) median
(3) mode
in respect to the marks obtained by nine students given below
and show that the mean deviation from the median is the
minimum.
Marks (out of 25): 7, 4, 10, 9, 15, 12, 7, 9, 7.
Solution:
After arranging the observations in ascending order, we get
Marks: 4, 7, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10, 12, 15.
∑𝐗 𝟖𝟎
Mean = = = 8.89
𝒏 𝟗
Median = No. of observation = 9 which is odd So,

(𝐧+𝟏)
Median = Value of th item
𝟐
(𝟗+𝟏)
= Value of th item = Value of 5th item = 9
𝟐
Mode = 7 (Since 7 is repeated maximum number of times)
Marks(X) |X-X̄ | |X-Median| |X-Mode|

4 4.89 5 3
7 1.89 2 0
7 1.89 2 0
7 1.89 2 0
9 0.11 0 2
9 0.11 0 2
10 1.11 1 3
12 3.11 3 5
15 6.11 6 8
Total 21.11 21 23
∑|𝐗 − 𝐗 | 𝟐𝟏.𝟏𝟏
MD from mean = 𝒏
= 𝟗
= 2.35
∑|𝐗 − 𝐌𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧| 𝟐𝟏
MD from median = = = 2.33
𝒏 𝟗
∑|𝐗 − 𝐌𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐚𝐧| 𝟐𝟑
MD from mode = = = 2.56
𝒏 𝟗
Merits of Mean Deviation:

1. It is based on all observations.
2. It is easy to understand and also easy to calculate.
Demerits of Mean Deviation:

1. Mean deviation ignores algebraic signs; hence it is not
capable of further algebraic treatment.
2. It is not very accurate measure of dispersion.
Note: Mean deviation and its coefficient are used in studying
economic problems such as distribution of income and wealth
in a society.
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-VII)
What we will study?
*How to calculate Standard deviation?
STANDARD DEVIATION AND COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION:
Standard deviation is the most important and commonly used
measure of dispersion.
It measures the spread or variability of a distribution.
A small standard deviation means a high degree of
consistency in the observations as well as homogeneity of the
series.
Standard Deviation (SD) ungrouped data:
∑(𝐱−𝐱̅)𝟐 Σ x2
SD = σ = √ =√ − (𝑥̅ )2
𝒏 𝑛
where 𝑥̅ is the mean of the observations.

Standard Deviation (SD) grouped data:
̅ )𝟐
∑𝒇(𝒙−𝒙 ∑ 𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 2
SD = σ = √ =√ − ( )
∑𝒇 𝑵 𝑵
where N = ∑f or N = 𝒇𝟏 +𝒇𝟐 +𝒇𝟑 … ..+𝒇𝒏
Coefficient of Variation:
𝛔
Coefficient of Variation = CV = x 100%
̅
𝒙
Example 29: Find Standard Deviation and Coefficient of
Variation for the following data: 2, 3, 7, 8, 10.
Solution:
∑(𝐱−𝐱̅)𝟐 Σ x2
SD = σ = √ =√ − (𝑥̅ )2
𝒏 𝑛
X 2 3 7 8 10 𝟑𝟎
=6
𝟓
x2 4 9 49 64 100 226
𝚺𝐱 𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟔
SD (σ) = √ ̅ )𝟐 =√
− (𝒙 − (𝟔)𝟐
𝒏 𝟓
=√𝟒𝟓. 𝟐 − 𝟑𝟔 =√𝟗. 𝟐 = 3.03
𝛔
̅
𝒙
𝟑.𝟎𝟑
= x 100% = 50.5%
𝟔
Example 30: Find Standard Deviation.
Class Interval 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55
Frequency 30 23 20 14 10 3
Solution:
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 2
SD (σ) = √ − ( )
𝑵 𝑵
Cl frequency Class Mark (x) fx fx2

25-30 30 27.5 825.0 22687.50
30-35 23 32.5 747.5 24293.75
35-40 20 37.5 750.0 28125.00
40-45 14 42.5 595.0 25287.50
45-50 10 47.5 475.0 22562.50
50-55 03 52.5 157.5 8268.75
Total N=100 3550 131225
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 2
SD (σ) = √ − ( )
𝑵 𝑵
𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝟎
SD (σ) = √ − ( 𝟏𝟎𝟎 )2 = √𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 − (𝟑𝟓. 𝟓)2
𝟏𝟎𝟎
= √𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = = √𝟓𝟐 = 7.21

Example 31: If Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation for a
data are 50 and 6 respectively, find the Coefficient of
Variation.
Solution:
𝛔
̅
𝒙
̅ = 50
Given 𝛔=6 and 𝒙
𝛔 𝟔
CV = x 100% = x 100% = 12%
̅
𝒙 𝟓𝟎
Merits of Standard Deviation:

1. It is rigidly defined and has a definite value.
2. It is based on all observations.
3. It is not affected much by sampling fluctuations.
Demerits of Standard Deviation:
1. It is not easy to calculate.
2. It is not easy to understand.
3. It gives more weight to extreme items.
Example 32: Find Standard Deviation.

Size 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency 3 5 7 9 8 5 3
Solution:
Size frequency x2 fx fx2
f
x
10 3 100 30 300
20 5 400 100 2000
30 7 900 210 6300
40 9 1600 360 14400
50 8 2500 400 20000
60 5 3600 300 18000
70 3 4900 210 14700
Total N=40 1610 75700
∑ 𝒇𝒙𝟐 ∑𝒇𝒙 2
SD (σ) = √ − ( )
𝑵 𝑵
𝟕𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟔𝟏𝟎 2
SD (σ) = √ − ( ) = √𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 − (𝟒𝟎. 𝟐𝟓)2
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
= √𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟏𝟔𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 = = √𝟐𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 = 16.51

ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-VIII)
What we will study?
*What is Skewness?
MOMENTS:
Moments tell us about the nature of any frequency
distribution.
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟏
µ1 = first central moment = 𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟐
µ2 = second central moment =
𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟑
µ3 = third central moment = 𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟒
µ4 = forth central moment = 𝒏
SKEWNESS (विषमता/ततरछापन):
Skewness is the degree of distortion from the symmetrical bell
curve or the normal distribution.
It measures the lack of symmetry in data distribution.
There are two types of skewness– positive and negative.
Positive Skewness:
If bulk of observations is in the left side of mean and the
positive side is longer, it is called positive skewness or right
skewness of the distribution.
In this case, mean and median are greater than mode.
Negative Skewness:
If bulk of observations is in the right side of mean and the
negative side is longer, it is called negative skewness or left
skewness of the distribution.
In this case, mean and median are less than mode.
Karl Pearson’s measure of skewness:
(µ𝟑 )𝟐 µ𝟐𝟑
Skewness = β1= = 𝟑
(µ𝟐 )𝟑 µ𝟐
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟑
Where µ3 = third central moment = 𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟐
And µ2 = second central moment = 𝒏
The direction of skewness is measured by sign of β1, where

the sign of β1 is the sign of µ3.
β1= 0 (symmetrical distribution),

β1> 0 (positive skew),
β1< 0 (negative skew).
Example 32: The following data is given find Skewness?

Class Intervals Frequency
0 - under 10 10
10 - under 20 20
20 - under 30 40
30 - under 40 20
40 - under 50 10
Total = 100
Solution:
Class f x fx ̅)
(x-𝒙 ̅)
f (x-𝒙 ̅)𝟐
f (x-𝒙 ̅)𝟑
f (x-𝒙
0-10 10 5 50 -20 -200 4000 -80000
10-20 20 15 300 -10 -200 2000 -20000
20-30 40 25 1000 0 0 0 0
30-40 20 35 700 10 200 2000 20000
40-50 10 45 450 20 200 4000 80000
Total 100 2500 0 12000 0
∑f = n = 100
∑fx = 2500
∑𝐟𝐱 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
x̄= = = 25
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(µ 𝟑 )𝟐 µ𝟐𝟑
Skewness = β1= (µ 𝟐 )𝟑
= µ𝟑
𝟐
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟑
µ3 = =0
𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟐
µ2 = = 12000
𝒏
(µ 𝟑 )𝟐 𝟎
β1= (µ 𝟐 )𝟑
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 0 => β1 = 0 (symmetrical distribution)
ABM MODULE - A
Skewness, Kurtosis (PART-IX)
What we will study?
*What is Kurtosis?
KURTOSIS (वक्रता):
Kurtosis is all about the tails of the distribution – peakiness or

flatness.
It is used to describe the extreme values in one versus the
other tail.
It is actually the measure of outliers present in the
distribution.
The distributions whose peaks are same as of Normal
distribution’s peak, are called Mesokurtic.
The distributions whose peaks are higher and sharper than
mesokurtic, which means tails are fatter, are called
Leptokurtic distributions.
The distributions whose peaks are lower and shorter than
mesokurtic, which means tails are thinner, are called
Platykurtic distributions.
µ4 µ4
Measure of Kurtosis = β2 = 𝟐 = µ𝟐
(µ𝟐 ) 𝟐
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟒
Where µ4 = Fourth central moment = 𝒏
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟐
and µ2 = second central moment = 𝒏
β2 = 3 (Mesokurtic distribution),
β2 > 3 (Leptokurtic distribution),
β2 < 3 (Platykurtic distribution).
Example 32: The following data is given find Kurtosis?
Class Intervals Frequency
0 - under 10 10
10 - under 20 20
20 - under 30 40
30 - under 40 20
40 - under 50 10
Total = 100
Solution:
Class f x fx ̅)
(x-𝒙 ̅)
f (x-𝒙 ̅ )𝟐
f (x-𝒙 ̅ )𝟑
f (x-𝒙 ̅ )𝟒
f (x-𝒙
0-10 10 5 50 -20 -200 4000 -80000 1600000
10-20 20 15 300 -10 -200 2000 -20000 200000
20-30 40 25 1000 0 0 0 0 0
30-40 20 35 700 10 200 2000 20000 200000
40-50 10 45 450 20 200 4000 80000 1600000
Total 100 2500 0 12000 0 3600000
∑f = n = 100
∑fx = 2500
∑𝐟𝐱 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
x̄= = = 25
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
µ𝟒 µ𝟒
Kurtosis = β2 = =
(µ𝟐 )𝟐 µ𝟐𝟐
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟒 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Where µ4 = = = 36000
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
∑𝐟(𝐱−𝐱)𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
µ2 = = = 120
𝒏 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
β2 = (𝟏𝟐𝟎)𝟐 =𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 2.5 (platykurtic)

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Example 1: Consider the marks scored by 10 students in

300 = 277+ 𝒙 => 𝒙 = 300-277 =23

Example 2: Find the Arithmetic mean for following:

Example 3: Find Arithmetic Mean of the Following data.

Class Interval Frequency

Example 4: If the mean of the following distribution is 54, find

Class Interval 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100

Class Interval Class Mark Frequency (f) f*x

54* (39+x) = 2370 + 30x

2106+54x = 2370 + 30x

54x-30x = 2370 - 2106

Example 5: The average marks of a group of 100 students in

Example 6: In private health club, there are 200 members, 100

𝒏𝟏 𝒙̅𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝒙̅𝟐 +𝒏𝟑 𝒙̅𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐱𝟔𝟎 + 𝟖𝟎𝐱𝟓𝟎+ 𝟐𝟎𝐱𝟑𝟓

𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎+ 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟎

Example 7: An average daily wage of all the 90 workers in a

Given: One third workers are male.

̅ = Avg. daily wages of all workers = 60

̅̅̅𝟏 = Avg. daily wages of male workers = ?

̅̅̅𝟐 = Avg. daily wages of female workers = 45

60*90 = 𝟑𝟎𝒙̅𝟏 + 𝟐𝟕𝟎

Example 8: Mean of 25 observations was found to be 78.4. But

Find the corrected mean.

Total of all the observation= 1960

Correct total of all observations (Σx) = 1960-69+96 = 1987

Example 9: The mean salary of 50 employees of a company

The sum of observation = ∑x =34000

Corrected total = ∑x – wrong value + correct value

= 34000 – 270 + 720 = 34450

Merits of Arithmetic Mean:

2. It is easy to calculate and simple to follow.

3. It is based on all the observations.

4. It is determined for almost every kind of data.

6. It is readily put to algebraic treatment.

7. It is least affected by fluctuations of sampling.

1. It is highly affected by extreme values.

2. It cannot average the ratios and percentages properly.

3. It is not an appropriate average for highly skewed

4. It cannot be computed accurately if any item is missing.

5. The mean sometimes does not coincide with any of the

6. Mean cannot be calculated when open-end class intervals

The Geometric Mean (GM) is the average value or mean

Geometric mean takes into account the compounding effect

Geometric mean is always less than Arithmetic Mean and is

• It is used in stock indexes.

• It is used to calculate the annual return on the portfolio.

• It is used in finance to find the average growth rates which

• It is also used in studies like cell division and bacterial

Geometric Mean of ungrouped Raw Data:

where x1, x2…....,xn are n observations of x.

Note: n is total number of observation.

Solution: Given 10, 24, 15, 32

Geometric Mean of Grouped Raw Data:

where x1, x2…,xn are n observations of x with frequencies f1,

Example 11: Find the G.M. for the following data.

How to calculate 26th root:

Step 1: type the number you want to find fifth root of on

Step 2: now press the “√” on calculator for 12 times

Step 3: now deduct 1 from the result

Like this X = X = X= and so on for 9 more times.

Merits of Geometric Mean:

1. It is useful in the construction of index numbers.