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Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC Tony R. Kuphaldt
Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC Tony R. Kuphaldt
Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC Tony R. Kuphaldt
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þ ÿ ÿ
0 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360
(0) (0)
Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
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1
Frequency in Hertz =
Period in seconds
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} ¡ |## } ¡ | Ü FF °¬k¹FÞ¤?|¡ } |´ 3²Eµ%E/3Æ
| } C r |C È } / F |§ } F ´|¥²¬9k¹«¡C|H 9¡3s¤! / rF|
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07¶ } H§²¤¯¥F |§ ¸ Ç } } F
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ÔÈx*²§0|Õ81IÖI+.×Ø5 #
C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
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Sawtooth wave
Ö Í vÎ7 JÆÅ
Ö ¸ Ç F } 300 } F ¡ } | } ? r 9¤¯¬° /§µ| } ?r/¤! |/¬k¹
Ö ¾« Cý¤àH¤Es¬k¹K|« } ¡7FV¹F|ä%|F £´F|! V|´H r|¢|«FF
r¥|¢µ¢¤·
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Ö ÉFç´ } É k± Ü r ||Ã } µÞ
D×^1352°|13×^1I-0/65 +.ÖRx* ש ®,-C/°1
Peak
Time
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ࢷÛæ ày¢ Ü Ê Æ Ê Þ¹¤; ¸ Ç ¬ k¹¤¯F¡Ú×
Peak-to-Peak
Ó
Time
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} ¡F|§·¬£|Ä%[F´%·3¤?¬9k¹ÉE¶¡3K ç´ ¥¬k¹¥3|§V«¹¢µ%|E´¹3|
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/C % } F¤F ·¬9 ¸ Ç ¹¢µ§9r¬9F|§²²v¬9Kç´| K|»% ´×
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10 V
Ó
Time
Bandsaw
Jigsaw
blade
motion wood being
cut
wood being
cut
blade
motion
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¡F¡|9£ ´E| |9 k¬Xr§[׬º¡²|§´9¬«7¶FF; « r#¤¥Ý·|§Fk¬©þ
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¡¹¬¥|¢F } r·µ´/¡§| r ¸ Ý·|§´ k¬öÙFs Kr?¡¹ } Ù¤¯FC|F
/ r } ·µ´ } §|§=»X¥|¡F´F/ } ´ÆÛÆg¤¯Fs¡ |0¤=3·¬9HÝ·|§Fk¬°9¡k
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¥ } ¡¡0 |9¤¯¥¬¥| } vFF / r?
5 A RMS
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
RMS
5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads
5A
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
5A
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RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = ???
AVG = ???
P-P = 2 (Peak)
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|r } _§7¹ } ¡| } V v } ¡7¶ÃFFV¤ |§ } F | } | } |F ¬¥|¢F
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4
R1
100 Ω
5
10 V R2 500 Ω
4
R3
6
400 Ω
7DT5:×^I«÷1Tx*À*8 *°÷C/ä*2|«*°«/8C+.- 5 )
4
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
4
Rtotal = 1 kΩ
8
Etotal
Itotal = 4
Rtotal
10 V
Itotal =
1 kΩ
Itotal = 10 mA
8 8 8
ER1 = ItotalR1 ER2 = ItotalR2 ER3 = ItotalR3
8 8 8
ER1 = 1 V ER2 = 5 V ER3 = 4 V
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µ ¡7F0¤ §´¦| º|§ } | } |¹!Ý·«¬¥| æ Ç ×
R1 R2 R3 Total
5
E 1 5 4 10 Volts
I 10m 10m 10m 10m Amps
5
R 100 500 400 1k Ohms
¾ ¡#Ý· } k¹¥F#r/§|¹0F×C¡ F¡´µ¤ ¸ Ç ¹F§ } FF´¥¡£H
«
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F/F¡²?°|Ú¡¥| } F| Ü } |s| F|? } F| } µÞE K ¡ |0|°°Ä_¨[
Ö Í vÎ7 JÆÅ
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|0¡F } ¡7¶s¤¯ ¡Ú%Äà F|° ¼E ¡²| ¸
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A B A B
A B
A B
A B A B
·¬9Ú¬9k¹/ ¬¥ r¹ Ü ¸ ¹µ È Þ/ ¤FF¡s¡|¢Fs ¤¯ ç´ } KF
F¤« P¬¥| © } F¼Û F } | } 9 F¡#% || } ÁÈ¢)¶7඼Á3â åynPÅE |£¬9Ú k¬
¬ ¬9 } _ |V¬k¹ 3 } } |§sF² F|§¡7 F| } |V¤¯ } |Ù¤¯§ F§|§
¤¯F¡ v§FCv¤¯ } | } #·µ |§0r|´/¤0 |¬9k¹£¬@º Ú¡| #@ºF
§FF§ |§HF¤¯ |¢F|¹°¡|¢FH3#/§F$ºFH;§ ¤¯§F|¹¥(&
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K§F!»Ù } s ° |9§ } «§/
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Adegrees
@(0) @(0)
;A <0 =90 180
>270 ?360 =90 180
>270 ?360
;A B
}
A
Phase shift = 180 degrees
}
A and B waveforms are
mirror-images of each other
B
½
A B
¹ A leads B; B lags A
Phase shift = 90 degrees
ª
ª X-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T GJ]W`^ g uPIo^u\a IKL#X-TOX-nG!IsG_(a G0LL+X-[E(ITrL!Wu\W[T G!I c E^+X-L!IW`TNOW`L!CµX-_VmFnIKL+a c EHX-T c m C X`G!E
G0CFIoJMLW-JY`W[nKLX-e[E X-T c u\aF^+^!ETrLQDXZY`E\J]W[^!_HGDL+WdNiEVu\W`_VmFnE\L+EPnX`uPuPaF^XL!E[lBDCFIsG^!E ç aFIo^+EGL!CFE*a G!E `W J X
_VX-L!CFE_HXL!IsuPX`nG0bG0L!E_ºuPX`nonE c»¼ ½i¾o+¤éb¼H\¿À l
DIPOLE LOOP
g GL+CFEVmOWQEP^+E cjc IomiW`nEV^+X c IX-L!EG IoL+GuC X`TFe`ITFedEPnEu:L+^!Isu ³ EPn c ITrL!WG0mOX`u\E[fXduCOX-TFe[IoTFed_HX-e`T E\L!Isu ³ EPn c
IsG#mF^+W c a u\E c XL#^+Ioe[C[L X`TFe`nEGfL+Ca G G!a G0L+X-ITFITFeL!C EpEPnEu\L!^+Iu ³ En c J]a ^0L+CFEP^(IoTrL!WjG!m X[u\E`f~X-T c G!WW`TX[GL!C E
QDXZY`E m ^!W[m X-erXL!EGSX-LDL!CFEG!mOEE c W-JnIe`CrLl g GL+CFEmiWQSE^!E c noWW[mX`T[L+EPTFTOX ^X c IsXL+EGIoL+GuC X`TFe`ITFe*_VX`e`TFEPL!Isu
³ En c ITrL!WtG!m X`uPE`f~XjuC X`TFe`ITFeEPnEu\L!^+Iu ³ EPn c IG mF^+W c a u\E c XL ^+Ioe[CrL X-TFe[noEGPf¥QIKL+CL!CFEG!X`_VEHEPT c ² ^+EG!aFnKL(W-J
XpuPW`TrL!ITaFW`a G EPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+IuQDXZY`E#G!EPTrLXZQDXZpJ]^+W`_¶L+CFE(X`T[L+EPTFTOXFl ¸ IKL+CFEP^X-TrL!ETFT XpX[uCFIoEY`EGDL!CFEVG+X-_VE
N X[G0IsuL+X`G!v¥L!CFE#uPW`TrL!^+W`nnoE c m ^!W c a u\L!IW`TW-J~X-TEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu ³ EPn c l
AC current
produced
Radio transmitters
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angle = 0 degrees angle = 180 degrees
length = 5 length = 4
angle = 90 degrees angle = 270 degrees
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length = 9.43
length = 5.66 angle = 302.01 degrees
angle = 45 degrees (-57.99 degrees)
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A B
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B 180 degrees
Phase shift = 180 degrees
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Ý mirror-images of each other
A
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à
angle
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phase shift
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length = 6 length = 8 total length = 6 + 8 = 14
è è è
angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees
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0 deg 0 deg 6V 8V
- + - + - + - +
- + - +
¼ 14 V 14 V
0 deg
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0 deg 180 deg 6V 8V
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180 deg
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0 deg 8V
0 deg 6V
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0 deg 0 deg
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- +
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180 deg
+ -
2V
0 deg
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Test lead colors provide a frame of reference
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indication.
V A V A
V A V A
OFF OFF
A COM A COM
6V 6V
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å[¦ §
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V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
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24 V
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
rÕþ MØ ã ç æ
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24 V 17 V
Source 1 Source 2
- +
Total voltage = 7 V
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ç
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Vã ç
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ç
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sYG^Q]hKT_UWFKptL_ZKGgd^zkGbD{NTOsõNDL_ZKGoQO^sYGíQONhKT$SbGfJKGIjXGIFHJPUWFKpcNFuZHNldíd!GSINFKFHGSL_GJLOZKGL_GQ]LiGR^JKQ¢
å`§ §
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"phasemeter"
- 0 deg +
black red
red
180 deg
black
+ -
"phasemeter"
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0 deg
- +
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ã{VHiW^S$v ç LOGRQLiGR^JBL_NhHS$ZKUWFKptLOZKGriGIDL!d UWT_G^`FHJ[UxL$Q!¸jaNQ]ULOUWkGR¸pã{T_GJ ç LOGRQLiWG^JcLONhaS$ZKUFHpgLOZKGrT_UpZLnd UT_GfLOZHG
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length = 10 6 at 0 degrees
à
angle = 53.13 length = 8 ê
degrees à + 8 at 90 degrees
angle = 90 degrees
10 at 53.13 degrees
length = 6
à
è
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angle = 0 degrees
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6V 8V
0 deg 90 deg
- + - +
- +
10 V
53.13 deg
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9+ *4 - j3 9+175 - j34
820 ++ j82
9+-36 j10
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124 ∠ 250o
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oçiýIçiý D!çBé^êïKçúõWëUí¸êó_öWçôéëUìPìçoô óUðBéë[ùù2ó_ò û¸òôñPð êëUé û ùó éçióWð êûþëUò ó_öWóUû¸òùªê2êïKç »UK· º û¸ò ð ñKééçBò[ê
êïPéëWñKöUïû¸ê7L ïPçBéç å÷ëUéçnêïKçûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPù õWëUí¸êó_öWç ûþùiçBéëúæïKçBòKçiõUçiéêïKçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùð ñKééçiò[ê û ùó_êó
ì!çi-ó Bçiéë1ðDïPó_òKöWç!ëUé2í¸çiõUçií7ùíþëUì!ç^ëUò êïKçúð ñKééçBò[ê2ùû¸òPçæ ó]õUç]H ó_òPô¤êïKçIûþòPùªêDó_ò[êóUòKçBëWñPùõUëUí¸êóUöUçû ù ó@ê ó
ì!çi-ó úæïKçiéçiõUçiéêïPçûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPùèð ñKééçBò[êû ùó_êèýó-nûþýAñPý ðDïó_òKöWç êïKç2ìëWû¸ò[êùë_å©ùªêçBçBì!çiùüêùüíþëUì!çëWòêïPç
ð ñPééçBò[ê æèó]õWç [æïKçBéçû¸êð éëWùùüçoùêïKç BçiéëIí¸ûþòKç]H pL ïKû ù éçoùüñPíêDùûþòóAõWëUí¸êó_öWçæ ó]õUçêïPó_ê û ùC* ,rq ëWñêë_å«ìPïPóUùç
æû¸êï êïKçð ñPééçBò[êæ ó]õUç @%{ënë nû¸òPöIó_êêïKç öUéDó_ìK(ï WêïPç2õWëUí¸êóUöUçæ ó]õUç2ùüçiçBýùêëIïPó]õUç2ó UïKçióWô ùüêóUéüêAëWòêïPç
ð ñPééçBò[êæèó]õWç ^[êïPçõUëUí¸êóUöUkç _íþçióWôKsù AêïPçð ñKééçiò[ê Kó_òôêïKçð ñKééçBò[3ê _í ó_öWù D!çBïPû¸òPô1êïKçõUëWíêDó_öWç
tcurrent slope = 0 tcurrent slope = max. (+)
voltage = 0 voltage = max. (+)
e=
i=
+
Time
-
tcurrent slope =
uvoltage = 0 0
tcurrent slope = max. (-)
uvoltage = max. (-)
L ïKûþòKöWù öWç êçBõWçBò1ýúëUéç2ûþò[êçiéçoùªêû¸òKöúæïKçiòæç ìKíþë_êêïKçìë@æèçBéèå÷ëWé êïKû ùð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê
+`¦ .7¡§0/¢21K£l¢3/.§P¦ .0/¦"4h¨65¤¡7/84¦ .0/:9¨ª¦4<;=.§©¨?>@/
e=
i=
+ p=
F
Time
-
èçiðió_ñPùçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPù ì!ë@æèçBéû ù êïKçìPéëôñPð êë_å©êïKçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPù õWëUí¸êóUöUç ó_òPô êïPçû¸òPùüêóUò[êó_òPçBëUñù
ð ñPééçBò[ê ì'Iû¸ç]H[êïPçì!ë@æçiéîçKWñó_í ùBçiéëAæïKçBòKçiõUçiéêïPçûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPùð ñKééçiò[êl ¹ õWëUí¸êó_öWçû ùîiçBéë#@ïKçBòZv
çBõWçBéêïKç ûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPù ð ñPééçBò[êó_òPô õUëUí¸êóUöUç2ó_éç"D!ë_êï ì!ëWùûêû¸õWç ó-D!ë@õUçêïKç íþû¸òKç]HêïKç ìë@æèçBéèû ùì!ëWùû¸êûþõUç
ÿùèæû¸êï êïKç2éçoùüû ùüêëUéç!Kó_ýúìKíþçWêïPçì!ë@æçiéîû ù ó_í ùüëì!ëWùû¸êûþõUç2æïKçBòêïKç2û¸òPùüêóUò[êó_òPçBëUñùðBñKééçBò[êóUòPôõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ó_é_ç D!ë_êïäòPçBöWó_êûþõUç Dçií¸ë@æêïPçAíþû¸òKç]Hë@æèçBõWçBéBD!çiðBóUñPùç êïKçIð ñKééçiò[êó_òPôõWëUí¸êó_öWç æèó]õWçiùó_éç* , q ëUñêë_å
ìKïPóWùüç [êïKçiéç ó_éçêû¸ýúçoùæïPçBò1ëUòKç2ûþùèì!ëWùûêû¸õWçæïPû¸íþçêïKç ë_êïKçBé û ùòPçBöWó_êûþõUçWéçiùñKí¸êûþòKöûþò1çK[ñPó_íþíþøå÷éçK[ñKçiò[ê
ëðBðBñKééçBòð çiùèëU=å º[·@» ¿D» · »· ' ½nS¿ ½ \ ¹
èñêæïPó_êôënçi_ù º[·@» ìë@æèçBéýúçoó_$ò w¤êýúçió_òùèêïPó_êêïKçûþòPôñð êëWéû ù éçií¸çoóUùû¸òKöúì!ë@æçiCé DPóUð êëúêïPç
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê æïKûþíþç óIì!ëWùûêû¸õWç ìë@æèçBéèýúçió_òùèêïPó_ê û¸êû ù-ó DPùëUé DKûþòKöAì!ë@æçiéèå÷éëWýxêïKçðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê û¸òPðBç2êïKç ì!ëWùûêû¸õWç
ó_òôòKçBö[ó@êû¸õWçìë@æèçBéèð øð íþçiùèó_éçç KWñó_í!û¸òýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKçó_òôôñKéDó@êû¸ëWòë@õUçié#êûþýúç [êïKç2ûþòPôñPð êëUéèéçBíþçióUùçiyù xªñPùªê
óUùýAñðDïìë@æèçB=é DPóWð AêëAêïKç2ðBû¸éDð ñPûêóUùîûê-ó DPùëUé DPùîë@õUçBéîêïKç ùìPó_òëUå«óAðBëUýúìKíþç êç2ðBønðBí¸ç 0ïPó@êèêïKû ùèýúçió_òù
ûþò1óIìKéDóUð êû ðBó_í ùçBòPùç2ûþùèêïPó@ê êïPçéçoóUð êDó_òPðBçëUå©ó_ò1ûþòPôñPð êëUéôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiù óIòKçBê çiòKçBéöUøëUå«içBé#ë ZK[ñKûêç ñKòKíþû Wç
êïPçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çëUå{óéçiùûþùüêëWé WæïKûþðDïôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiùçBòPçBéöUøAûþòêïKçå÷ëWéýÄë_åbïPçió@ê azäû¸òôøUëW(ñ UêïKû ùîû ù#å÷ëWéì!çBéå÷çið ê
ûþòPôñPð êëUéDù ëUòPí¸ø æïKûþðDïïPó]õWçòPëæû¸éç éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBç
ÿò1ûþòPôñPð êëUéo ù ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êëðDïPó_òPöUç2û¸òäð ñPééçBò[êèêéDó_òPùíþó_êçoùèêëó_ò1ëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò êëó_í¸êçiéòPó_êûþòKöð ñKééçBò[ê
ûþò öUçiòKçBéDó_{í PæïPûþðDï¤û lù DnøôK!ç |PòKû¸êûþëUò ó_íþæèó]øùðDïó_òKöWû¸òKö û¸ò¤ûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùýó_öUòPûêñPôçóUòPô ôKû¸éçið êûþëU(ò lL ïKûþù
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò1êëóUíêçBéòPó@êû¸òPöð ñKééçiò[ê û ùùû¸ýúûþíþóUéêëéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç BDKñKêôû }!çiéçiòWêûþòêïó@êû¸êó_íþæèó]øù éçiùñKí¸êùûþòäó
ìKïPóWùüçùïKû¸å¼ê DçBêªæçiçBò ð ñKééçiò[êóUòPô õUëUí¸êóUöUç bó_òPô ûêAôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiù içBéë ì!ë@æèçBé èçiðió_ñPùçIë_åèêïKçôû }!çiéçiòPð çoù
û¸êAïPóUùóäôK~û }^çBéçBò[êAòPóUýúç ¹ [· » » · » <oçióUð êóUòPð çúêë¤ÿ hû ù!ç ìKéçiùùçiô û¸òëWïKýù #xªñPùªêí¸&û UçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çúû ù
!ç KðBçBìêêïPó@ê2ûêDùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí«ùø[ý DëWí{û 3ù kû¸òPùüêçoóUôëU8å o_$L« ë D!çùìçoð û |-ð !éçoóUð êó_òð çóUùùënðBûþó_êçæû¸êï óUò
ûþòPôñPð êëUéû ùñPùñPóUí¸íþø ùø[ý DëWí¸ûþBçoXô DnøêïKçðBóUìKû¸êó_í íþç êêçi3é hæûêïäóíþç êêçié % óUùóùBñ DPùð éû¸ìê í¸&û Uç2êïKûþù a"0
ûþòPð çûþòPôñð êëWéùAôéëWì õUëUí¸êóUöUçúûþòìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWò êëêïKç éó_êçë_åð ñPééçBò[êAðDïPóUòKöUç bêïPçBø æûþíþíôéëUì ýúëUéç
õUëWíêDó_öWç å÷ëUéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöðBñKééçBò[êDù [ó_òPôúíþçiùùõWëUí¸êó_öWç å÷ëUéèùüíþë@æçié v ðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöðBñKééçiòWêDù @ïPó_êîêïPûþùýúçió_òù
û ù©êïPó_êéçoóUð êDó_òPðBçûþòúëUïKýù©å÷ëWéó_ònøûþòPôñPð êëUé#û ù#ôûþéçoð êí¸øìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWòPó_íWêë êïKç å÷éç K[ñKçBòð øëUåPêïPçó_í¸êçBéòPó_êûþòKö
ð ñPééçBò[ê
XL = 2πfL
B?J$BZ=
NB#?jsBrZ' BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
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?¥N £8¢¦r¡N¤N§
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
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NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
1Z¨ gB¨©.«ª6¬"4X;h.§Cihj.@ª6k.l;TªP§am +®
ÿ ðBñKééçiòWê#ûþòó ùüûþýúìKí¸çûþòPôñð êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûêû ù#çK[ñPóUínêë êïKçõUëWíêDó_öUçk¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù°©ôûþõnûþôKçiô DnøêïPçû¸òPôKñPð êû¸õWç
éçióUð êóUòPð ç]¯÷ûþò ëWïKýù°!NxªñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùçK[ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù °èôûþõnûþôçoô]D[øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð 粯 û¸òëUïPýúù°H
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
´E
I=
X
µI = 10 V
3.7699 Ω
I = 2.6526 A
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúêëUçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
çióUéíþûþçBé7êïKç1õUëWíêDó_öUç ïPóUùIó ìKïPóUùçùüïKû¸å¼êë_åk·l* ,q æû¸êïéçiùìçoð êIêë êïKçð ñKééçBò[꫸åæèç1éçiìKéçoùüçiò[êAêïPçiùç
ìKïPóWùüçIó_òKöWí¸çoùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçó_òPô ð ñKééçiò[êýó@êïPçBýó@êûþðió_íþí¸øäûþòäêïPçAå÷ëWéýëUåîð ëUýúìKíþç!¤ònñKý Dçiéù!æç |PòPô¤êïPó_ê
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Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 90o
Opposition =
2.6526 A ∠ 0ο
For an inductor:
À À
90o 90o
E
º
µI 0o
Opposition
z¤ó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø oæçùó]øêïPó_êbêïKçìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçë_åKóUòû¸òPôKñPð êëUé¹ ù{ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò2êëðBñKééçBò[ê{û ùb* ,q ]ýúçióUòKûþòKö
(XL)
êïó@ê#ó_òûþòPôñPð êëWé¹ ù©ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWòêë ð ñPééçBò[ê{û ù7óì!ëWùûêû¸õWçûþýó_öUûþòPóUéøkK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êªø@L ïKû ù«ìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþçîëUåKéçoóUð êû¸õWç
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ðBñKééçiòWê Dçoð ëWýIçoùúð éûêûþðió_íþí¸ø ûþýIì!ëUéêóUò[êIûþò/ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êó_òPóUí¸øùûþù#çiùìçoð û ó_íþí¸ø å÷ëWéúðBëUýúìKíþç! ÿ
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êù«æïKçBéçîéçióWð êDó_òPðBçîó_òPôAéçoùüû ùüêó_òð çûþò[êçBéDóUð êT¸ê©æûþí¸í[ìKéë@õUçpD!çBòPç!|ðBûþóUíWêëéçBìKéçiùçBò[êCÁ#Âð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[ê¹ ù
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëð ñKééçiò[ê2ûþò¤êçBéýúù2ëUåèð ëWýúìKí¸ç äò[ñPý D!çBéDùéDó@êïKçBé2êïPó_ò ùðió_í ó_ké KWñó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù2ë_åéçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçóUòPô
éçióUð êóUòPð ç
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
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ìKïPóUùç!v ùïKûå¼êçiô¤ùüêëWéóUöUçóUòPôäéçBíþçióUùçëUåçBòKçiéöWø ûþò¤û¸êù2ýó_öUòPç êû ðk|Pçiíþô(loçoóUð êó_òð çAû ù2ùüønýD!ëUíþû&ÐBçiôDnø
êïKçðió_ìKû¸êóUí í¸çBêüêçié3-lI óUòPô1ûþù ýúçoóUùñKéçoô ûþòëUïKýù@xªñPùüêíþûWç2éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçѯÒo°H
à ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUç éçoóUð êó_òð ç ðBó_ò!D çðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êçoô ñPùûþòKöIêïKû ù å÷ëUéýAñPíþó#@ IÓ^Ô åÕ%
à ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUçéçióUð êóUòPð ç » ÏsÁ?Ö !2Ö æû¸êïûþòPðBéçoóUùû¸òKö1å÷éç[K ñKçiòPð øX¸ ò ë_êïKçBéæèëUéDôKù êïPçïKûþöUïKçiéêïKçå÷éç v
WK ñPçBòPðBøn êïPçýIëWéç û¸êëUìKì!ëWùçiùêïKçÿ×ë@æcë_å7çBíþçið êéëUòPù
ÕÖDÕ Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ Û#ÝÞ7ß Þ{à©áAÛTÙ!ßRS¤ãÙèà©áÛâÙß Û#Ùãäß à©Þ
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ÿ lð ûþéðBñKûêDù 0Gë@ææèçæû¸íþíKýú~û êïKçêªæëð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êù#êëUöWç êïKçBé#ûþòùüçiéûþçiù©å÷ëWéýkó_òPôIûþò[õWçiùüêûþöWó_êçèêïKçç!}^çið êDù
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R
Ú
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j3.7699 Ω)
èZ ³
= 5 + j3.7699 Ω 6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
total or
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_å AïKý¹ ùX%{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æ óUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
Bç íþçið êéëUòKû ðBù ¯Õ`hI"¸6o°HxªñPùªêóUùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çûþùóå óUéýúëUéçAð ëWýúìKéçiïKçBòùüûþõUçç nìPéçoùùû¸ëWòë_åëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêëêïPç
Pë@æpë_å«çií¸çoð êéëWòPùêïPóUò éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û ù 7î"$Âéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ó_òPô1ó_ònøéçióWð êóUòPð çùüçiìPó_éDó@êçBíþøIëWé û¸òäð ëWýDKûþòPó_êûþëUò
¯ ùçBéûþçiùHï]ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí°HnðBóUò]D!çó_òô ùïKëUñPíþô<DçéçBìPéçoùüçiòWêçiô1óUùóúùû¸òKöWí¸ç ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçû¸òäóUò1ÿcð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
L«ëðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçð ñKééçBò[êû¸ò êïPç ó-D!ë@õUçúð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©æç |PéDùªêòPçBçiô êëäöUûþõUçó1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçúéçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçå÷ëWéêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWç ùëUñPéðBç KæïKû ðDïûþùöUçBòPçBéDó_íþí¸ø óWùùñKýúçiô êëDçÐBçBéë#"¯ÕL ïKçìPïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoùë_å7éçiùûþùüêûþõUçóUòPô1û¸òPôKñPð êû¸õWç
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçó_é²ç Á-ð \ ÁÂ?Ö ,rq ó_òP¿ô ·l* ,rq Kéçiùìçoð êûþõUçií¸ø KéçBöWóUéôKí¸çoùùèë_å©êïPçöUûþõUçBò1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçiùèå÷ëWéõUëWíêDó_öWçëWé
ð ñPééçBò[ê °!
´E
I=
Z
µI = 10 V ∠ 0o
³
6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
ûêïYêïKçAìK∠ñKé-37.016
ÿ Iù =æ1.597 çBíþø/ûþòPôñPð êûþõUç ðBû¸éDð ñPûê êïKç ðBñKééçiòWêæ ó]õUçäí ó_ö[ù²D!çBïKûþòPôêïPç õUëWíêDó_öWç1æ ó]õU端 ë_åêïPç
o
ùëUñKéDð ç?°HKó_í¸êïPëUñKöWïêïPûþù êû¸ýúç êïKçíþóUöúûþù òKëUêóUù öWéçoó@ê©ëUòPí¸ø ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q óWù ëUìKì!ëWùçiô êëóå÷ñKíþíb* ,q óUù æ óUùèêïPç
+Þ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
ðBóWùüç ûþò1êïKçìKñPéçií¸øûþòPôñð êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûê
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ñKëWéêïKçúéçoùüû ùüêëUé ó_òôäêïPçIûþòPôñð êëWé ^êïKçúìKïPóWùüçIéçiíþó_êûþëUòPùïKûþìP"ù DçBêªæçiçBò õWëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô ðBñKééçiòWê ïPó]õWçBò(¹ ê
Dð ïPóUòKöUçoôy«ÿð éëWùù7õUëUí¸êóUöUçóUðBéë[ùù«êïKçéçoùüû ùüêëUé#û ù7ûþòìKïPóUùç_¯ ,rq ùüïKû¸å¼ê°#æûêïúêïKçðBñKééçBò[ê7êïPéëWñKöUïúû¸ê^nó_òPôêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWçAóUðBéë[ùù êïKçIû¸òPôKñPð êëUé2ûþù·l* , q ëUñKêë_åìKïPóUùçAæû¸êï êïKçIð ñKééçBò[êöWëUûþòKöêïPéëWñKöUï¤û¸êk çIðió_ò¤õWçBéûå÷ø
êïPûþùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø
´E = IZ
ER = IRZR
´E = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(5 Ω ∠ 0o)
R
ER = 7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o
EL = ILZL
´E = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o)
L
³
EL = 6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o
Etotal = 10 V ∠ 0o
%bçBê¹ ùðDïKçiðêïKçõ@ó_íþû ôûêªø ë_å7ëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùèæûêïöõB÷p¸s=`3
øR
1
Ú 2
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
0 0
# Nù Z?$?y?
ú æ æ#2? g
(æ¥ ¦
ù ½¥û??
¢ # ù ü
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ?yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿs$:( ú
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ý ?ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ$× ý ú
¢ Z
rB ú ?ÿ¥$ ú ¥$ ( ú
8¢ rN Z' £8¢¤r§N¦ Zr p¢ N¥NZN ¢¦N¤r£ ZN
rB ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥$ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' ¡ 8¢£ r¥ Z ¦p¢ ¥ ¤N§ Z ¢ B¡ ZN¥
ER = 7.985 V ∠ -37.02o
EL = 6.020 V ∠ 52.98o
I = 1.597 A ∠ 143.0o
G ëUêçêïPó_êTxªñùªêóUùæû¸êï±kð ûþéðBñKûêDù BõZ÷8¸s=` ëWñêìKñKêùð ñPééçBò[ê8|öUñKéçiùèóUùêïPëUñKöWïêïPçBøæèçBéçòKçiöWó@êû¸õWç
¯ n ò ,rq ëWñêëUå7ìPïPóUùç°èæû¸êïêïKçAùñKìKìKíþø õWëUí¸êóUöUç8¸ òPùªêçióWôë_å#óúìKïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçë_å0v ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q PæèçöUçBêóð ñKééçBò[ê
ìKïPóWùüç ó_òPöUíþçëUå n ) ® q ¯v ® Ü q · n ò , q °HpL ïKû ù ûþùèýúçBéçBíþø óUò û ôû¸ë[ùüønòPðBéóWùüøúëUå0õZ÷8¸s=`ló_òô ôënçoù òKë_ê éçiìKéçiùçBò[ê
ó_ònø[êïPû¸òKöùüûþöUòKû| ðió_ò[êûþòêïPç2ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êèùûþýAñKí ó@êû¸ëWòûêDùüçiíå6pG ë_êçïKë@æ×D ëUêï êïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUéèó_òPôûþòPôñð êëWéõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ìKïPóWùüçéçióWôûþòKöWù ýó@êDðDïëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù_¯v ® ÜZ , Ó q ó_òPô + ÓZ *ò q éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçií¸øB°H-ªx ñPùªê2óUùæèçç!ì!çið êçiô1êïKçBý
êë$
+ò .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
û¸êïó_íþíêïKçiùçh|PöUñPéçoù©êë_UçiçBìIêéDóUðAë_å!å÷ëUéçiõUçBòùñPðDïó ùüûþýúìKí¸çð ûþéðBñKûêîóWù©êïKû ùWû¸êîæèëUñKí ôD!ç3D!çBòKç |ð û ó_í
å÷ëUéñPùêë ñPùçêïKç<_êó-DPí¸çýIçBêïKëôy ÿìKìPí¸ønûþòKö óêDó-DKíþçêëäêïKû ùIùüûþýúìKí¸ç1ùüçiéûþçiùéçoùüû ùªêëUésv}ûþòPôñð êëWéð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
æèëUñKí ô1ìKéëðBçBçiôóWùùüñPðDïb7ñ©û¸éDùüêôKéó]æpñKìäóIêó-DPí¸çå÷ëWé3`=ï¸sïçö|PöUñKéçiùóUòPôûþòPùüçiéüêóUí¸í«ð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êõ]óUí¸ñPçiùûþò
êïPçiùç êçBéýùC¯÷ûþòúë_êïPçBé#æèëUéDôKù WôëUò(¹ êûþòPùüçiéüêóWð êñó_íéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ëUé#ûþòPôñð êóUòPð ç õ@ó_íþñKçoù#û¸òXAïKýù#óUòPôѶçBòPéøù
éçiùìçoð êûþõUçií¸ø nû¸ò[êëêïPçêD-ó DKíþç ^néDó@êïKçBé ð ëUònõWçBéêîêïPçBý ûþò[êëúð ëUýúìKíþ!ç ²|öUñKéçiùë_å©û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç ó_òPô æéû¸êçêïPëWùç
ûþ$ò °H
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
ÿí¸êïPëUñKöWï ûêû ùüòb¹ êúòKçiðBçiùùóUéø0¸_|PòPôlûêïKçií¸ìå÷ñPíêë æéû¸êç ÎU êïPç éçið êó_òPöUñKí ó_éIó_òPôlìëWíþóUéAå÷ëWéýùë_å
çióWðDï«KWñó_ò[êû¸êªø ûþò êïKçêDó-DKíþç]¸å øUëUñóUéçñPùûþòKö¤óäðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êëWé êïPó_êïPóUù êïKç óDKû¸íþû¸êªø¤êë ìçiéüå÷ëWéý ð ëUýúìKíþç!
ó_éû¸êïKýúç êûþð æûêïKëUñKêAêïPç òKçiçiô å÷ëWéIðBëUònõUçiéùû¸ëWòED!ç êªæèçBçiò éçið êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éAóUòPô ìëWíþóUéå÷ëWéýù«êïKçBòlêïKû ùç!nêéDó
ôëð ñPýIçiò[êó@êû¸ëWòúûþùð ëUýúìKíþç êçBíþøAñKòPòKçiðBçiùùóUéøT¶ë@æèçBõWçBé_û¸å^øWëUñó_éçèå÷ëUéDð çoôAêëì!çBéå÷ëUéýkð ëWýúìKí¸ç IóUéû¸êïKýúçBêû ð
_íþëUòPöUïPóUòPBô X¯=óUôKôKûêû¸ëWòóUòPô1ùüBñ DKêéDóUð êû¸ëWò ûþòéçoð êóUòKöUñPíþóUéîå÷ëWé
ý Kó_òô ýñKíêû¸ìPí¸û ðBó_êûþëUòäó_òPô1ôûþõnûþùû¸ëWò ûþòìëWíþóUé
å÷ëUéý °HKæéû¸êûþòKöúçióUðDï K[ñPó_ò[êûêªøûþò DëUêï1å÷ëUéýù æû¸íþyí D!çñPùüçBå÷ñKíbûþòPôçiçiyô
Gë@æ êïPó@êúëUñPé UöUûþõUçB$ò |PöUñPéçoùAó_éç ûþòPùçBéêçoôû¸ò[êë êïKçBûþéúéçoùüì!çið êûþõUç íþëðBó_êûþëUòPùAû¸òlêïKç êó DKí¸ç æèç ðBóUò
ìKéëð çBçolô xªñPùüê óWùæû¸êXï ±_"ôç êçBéýIûþòKçêïKçêë_êDó_í!û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çå÷éëWýuêïKç2û¸òPôKû¸õnû ôñPó_í!ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù aõû¸òPðBçêïKûþù
û ùóúùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê Pæ_ç nòKë@æcêïPó_êëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò1êëçBíþçið êéëU<ò Pë@ æ ¯ éçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç Ï ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç ° óUôPôKù êëIå÷ëWéý
êïPç êë_êDó_í ëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUbò
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
Gë@æ êïPó@êæèç<nòKë@æ êë_êDó_í õUëWíêDó_öWç ó_òPô êëUêó_íûþýúìçoôKó_òð çîæçðBóUò/ó_ìPìKí¸øAïPý]¹ ùÑ%{ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïçy° êë
ôçBêçBéýúû¸òPç êë_êDó_íbðBñKééçBò[ê
1Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäåª6¬"4X;h.§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am +*
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
Gë@æxóUí¸íêïPó_ê ¹ ùAíþç å¼êIêë¿|PöUñKéç û ùAêïKç õUëUí¸êóUöUçôéëUì/óUð éëWùù êïKç éçiùûþùüêëWéAó_òôû¸òôñPð êëUé#éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçií¸ø
L ïKû ùû ùôëUòKç2êïKéëWñKöUï êïPçñPùüçëUåaAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ¯Õ`=I"¸sç(°HKó_ìPìKí¸ûþçiô1õWçBéêû ðBó_íþíþøû¸òçióWðDï1ðBëUíþñKýúòë_å{êïKç êóDKíþç
Þ, .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
R L Total
6.3756 - j4.8071 3.6244 + j4.8071 10 + j0
E Volts
7.9847 ∠ -37.016o 6.0203 ∠ 52.984o 10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
ÿòô æû¸êï êïPó@ê «ëWñKé êó DKí¸çúû ùð ëWýúìKí¸çBêç L ïKçç!KóUð êAùóUýúçIéñKíþçiù æèçó_ìKìKíþûþçiô û¸ò êïKçó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ëUåh±_
E = IZ E = IZ
%bçBê¹ ù êóUçêïKçùó_ýúçð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êùå÷ëUéëUñPé ùçBéûþçiù ç!KóUýIìPí¸çð ûþéDð ñKû¸êó_òPô1ð ëWòKòKçoð ê êïKçiý ûþòìPó_éDó_íþíþçBí{
Ú
³ 10 V R 5Ω L 10 mH
60 Hz
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
L ïKç ëUòPí¸ø ôK~û }^çBéçBòPðBç û¸ò1ëUñKéóUòPó_íþøùüû ùêçoðDïKòKû KWñPçêïKû ù êûþýúçûþùèêïPó@êæèç2æûþíþí{ó_ìKìPí¸øêïKç éñPí¸çoù ë_å«ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùû¸òPùüêçoóUôëUå©êïKçéñKíþçiùå÷ëWéùçBéû¸çoùð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùCL ïKçAó_ìPìKéë[óUðDï1ûþùå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUí¸íþø êïKçùó_ýúçóWùå÷ëUél±k"
ç"nòKë@æêïó@ê õUëUí¸êóUöUçû ùèùüïPóUéçoôúñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýúí¸øÑDnøó_íþí!ðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDùîûþò óAìPó_éDó_íþí¸çiíðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ênùëAæèçðBóUòêéDó_òùªå÷çié
êïPçk|PöUñKéç ë_å«êë_êDó_íbõWëUí¸êóUöUçѯ n, õWëUí¸êù ß ,q °êëó_íþíbð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êùðBëUíþñKýúòPù
ÞÓ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
WñPùªêóWù æûê¿ï ±kpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù BDKéDó_òðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù û¸òäóúìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíbÿpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êóUôPô êëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêëUêóUí{ð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
Rule of parallel
circuits:
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
à ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
¸û ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùôûþýIûþòKû ùüïêëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêë_êóUíbûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçPñùüûþòKöúêïPçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í^å÷ëWéýñKíþó#+WñPùªê"DçAùñKéç
êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!㯠òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç#" · n ïç$X·Qéé
n ïç%N°
à AïKý¹ ùC%«ó]æå÷ëUéÿð ûþéðBñKû¸êùp`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
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êïPçöWóUöUç ë_å7êïó@êæûþéç èÿùóúéñKíþç Pí ó_éöUç v}ö[ó_öWçæûþéçoù!ç ïK&û DKû¸êóúýúëUéçìKéëUòKëWñKòPð çoôù nûþòä!ç }^çið ê ¯ ðDïPóUòKöUçûþò
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð çå÷éëWý ±kh°îêïPó_òùüýóUí¸í v}ö[ó_öWçæû¸éçiù ó_êóUònøöUûþõUçBò å÷éç K[ñKçBòPðBø aL ïKç ç K[ñPó_êûþëUò å÷ëUéó_ìKìPé?ë ûþýúó_êûþòKö
sù [ûþò1!ç }^çið ê2ó@êïKûþöUï å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBû¸ço
ù ¯÷öWéçoó@êçiéèêïPóUò n z¿¶Ð°èû ùóUùèå÷ëWí¸íþë@æù
øR = (RDC)(k)
a
f
AC
Where,
øR c
= AC resistance at given frequency "f"
AC
øR = Resistance at zero frequency (DC)
DC
b =
k = Wire gage factor (see table below)
L ïKç2å÷ëUíþíþë@æû¸òKföI=êDó-Frequency
DKíþç öUûþõUçiùóUìKìKéë?û¸ýó@êçõ@óUí¸ñKçoù ë_å0-Zå óUð êëUé å÷ëWéõ]óUéûþëUñùéëUñPòPô æûþéç ùû&ÐBçiù
of AC in MHz (MegaHertz)
øR = (25 Ω)(27.6) 10
AC
øR j
= 2.182 kΩ
AC
Þò .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
÷íþçióWùüçéçiýúçB ý D!çBéêïó@ê êïKû =ù |PöWñKéç2û ù" Î ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçKó_òôû¸êôKë[çoùl' Î ðBëUòPùû ôçBé ó_ònøéçióUð êûþõUçç!}^çið êDù
þû òPôñPð êûþõUçëWéîðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç0L ïKûþùîûþùùüûþýúìKíþøIóUòçiùüêûþýúó_êçoô |PöUñKéçëUå^ìPñKéçéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç å÷ëUéêïKçðBëUòPôñð êëWé"¯÷êïPó_ê
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëêïKçÿ2ë@æuë_å çBíþçið êéëUòPù2æïKû ðDï ÌHÖôû ùùûþìPó@êçIì!ë@æèçBéûþò êïKçúå÷ëUéýâëUåèïKçoó@êH°H«ðBëUééçoð êçiô
å÷ëUéùsnû¸ò ç }!çoð ê]oçióWð êDó_òPðBç«óUòPô êïKç ðBëUý DKû¸òPçiô ç!}^çið êDùëUåèéçióWð êóUòPð çúó_òô éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç¯ û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç?°H7ó_éç
çBò[êû¸éçBíþø ôû }!çiéçiò[êýúó_êüêçBéDù
k lnmpoWqsrut v
w x y z { y | z x y | }
~ x } y | z x z y y z ~0{ Ô
~ x
Time
Time
C
'Z¨ gB¨©.æ.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ün
¸åæèçAæèçBéçêëìPí¸ëUêêïPçIðBñKééçBò[êóUòPôäõWëUí¸êó_öWç å÷ëUéêïKû ùõUçBéøùüûþýúìKí¸çIð ûþéðBñKû¸ê!ûê æëWñKí ôí¸ënëäùëUýúç êïKûþòKö
íþûWçêïKû ù
e=
i=
+
F
Time
oçiýIçi ý D!çBé [êïKçð ñPééçBò[êîêïKéëUñKöWï óAðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWéû ù óAéçióWð êûþëUò ó_öWóUû¸òùªêêïKç »U Áèûþò1õUëUí¸êóUöUçóWð éëWùùîû¸ê
L Kï çiéçBå÷ëUéçKêïKçIû¸òPùüêóUò[êó_òPçBëUñùð ñPééçBò[êû ùÐiçBéëæïKçiòKçBõWçBéêïKçAûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùõUëWíêDó_öUçAûþù2ó@êó ìçoó-«¯åÐiçBéë
ðDïPóUòKöUç@ëUé#íþçBõUçiíKùüíþëUì!çUëUòêïKçõWëUí¸êó_öWçèùûþòKç æèó]õWç°HWó_òPôAêïKçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPù7ðBñKééçBò[ê#û ù#ó@êó2ìçoó-AæïPçBéçBõUçié
êïPçû¸òùªêDó_ò[êóUòKçBëWñPù õUëWíêDó_öUç û ùó@êýó-nûþýAñPý ðDïPóUòKöU粯¼êïKçì!ëUûþò[êùëUå#ùüêçiçBì!çiùüêùüíþëUì!çëUò1êïKçõUëWíêDó_öWç2æ ó]õUç
æïKçiéçû¸êðBéë[ùùçiù êïKç ÐiçBéëäí¸ûþòKç °!¿L ïKû ùAéçiùñKí¸êùûþòlóõUëWíêDó_öWçæèó]õWçúêïPó_êAûþù vþ* ,q ëWñêAë_åìKïóUùçæûêïêïPç
ð ñPééçBò[êæ ó]õUç =%bënë nûþòKöó@êêïKçöWéóUìK(ï KêïKçAðBñKééçBò[êæ ó]õUçùçBçBýù êëïPó]õWç²ó _ïKçoóUôùªêDó_éê úëWò êïKçAõWëUí¸êóUöUç
æ ó]õUç ^[êïKçð ñKééçBò[3ê _íþçióUôPsù AêïKçõWëUí¸êóUöUç óUòPôêïKçõUëWíêDó_öWlç UíþóUöWù D!çBïKûþòPô êïPçð ñKééçiò[ê
e=
i=
+
Time
tcurrent
voltage slope = 0
=0
tcurrent
voltage slope = max. (-)
= max. (-)
ÿùèøWëUñ ýúûþöUï[ê ïPó]õUç2öUñKçoùùçiô(UêïKçùóUýIç2ñKònñPùñPó_í^ì!ë@æçié æèó]õWçêïPó_êæç ùó]æcæûêï êïKçùüûþýúìKí¸ç2ûþòPôñPð êëUé
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êûþù ìPéçoùüçiòWêûþò1êïKçùû¸ýúìKíþçðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéð ûþéDð ñKû¸ênêë[ë$
Ü-Ó .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
e=
i=
+ p=
F
Time
-
ÿù7æû¸êïIêïKçùüûþýúìKíþçû¸òPôKñPð êëUéð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê @êïK3ç * , ôçiöUéçBçèìKïPóWùüçùïKûå¼pê D!ç êªæèçBçiòúõUëUí¸êóUöUç ó_òPôIð ñPééçBò[ê#éçoùüñPíêDù
ûþò óì!ë@æçiéîæ ó]õUçêïPó@ê ó_í¸êçiéòPó_êçoùçK[ñPóUí¸íþøÑDçBêªæçiçBòì!ëWùû¸êûþõUçóUòPôòKçiöWó_êûþõUç0L ïKû ùîýúçoó_òPùêïPó_ê óðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWé
ôënçiù©òKëUê7ôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçèìë@æèçBé7óUù©û¸ê7éçióWð êDù«óUöWó_ûþòPùüê©ðDïPóUòKöUçoù{ûþòAõWëUí¸êóUöUç^@û¸ê#ýúçBéçBíþøó-DPùëUéDPù{óUòPôéçií¸çoóUùçiùbì!ë@æèçBé
ó_í¸êçiéòó@êçií¸ø
ÿ²ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUé ¹ ùëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò1êë1ðDïPó_òKöWçû¸òäõWëUí¸êóUöUç êéDó_òùüí ó@êçiù êë ó_òäëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ûþò öWçBòKçiéóUÒí {æïKûþðDï û _ù Dnø ôç |PòKû¸êûþëUòó_íþæ ó]ønù ðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöûþò ûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPù ýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKçúóUòPô ôûþéçoð êûþëUbò XñKëWé
ó_ònø öUûþõUçBò1ýó_öWòKûêñPôçëUå7ÿ cõWëUí¸êó_öWçó@êóúöUûþõUçiò1å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBø Póðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéëUå©öWû¸õWçBòäùû Ðiçæû¸íþTí Wð ëUòôñPð ê úó
ð çiéüêDó_ûþò ýó_öWòKû¸êñPôç ëUå«ÿ ðBñKééçBò[ê UWñPùüê óWùêïKçðBñKééçBò[êêïKéëUñKöWï óIéçiùûþùüêëWéû ù óAå÷ñPòPð êû¸ëWò ëUå{êïPç2õWëUí¸êóUöUç
óUðBéë[ùù©êïKçéçiùû ùªêëUéîóUòPôIêïKçéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç-ë }^çBéçiô DnøêïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUé _êïKçÿ ð ñPééçBò[ê#êïPéëWñKöUïóðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé#ûþùó
å÷ñKòPð êûþëUòë_å«êïKçÿ õUëUí¸êóUöUç óUðBéë[ùùûê Pó_òôêïKÑç ÏsÁ » Î Á- » -ë }^çBéçiXô DnøêïKçðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé 7ÿù æû¸êïûþòPôñPð êëUéDù
êïPçéçióWð êóUòPð çë_å«óðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéîû ùîç ìKéçoùùçiôû¸òëWïKýù ó_òPôùøný D!ëUíþû Ðiçi²ô DnøIêïPçíþç êêçBhé ¯÷ëW7é êë Dç2ýúëUéç
ùìçoð û |ð °!
õnûþòPð çðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWék
ù UðBëUòPôKñPð ê äð ñKééçiò[ê ûþò ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUò êëäêïKçéó_êçëUåèõWëUí¸êó_öWçIðDïó_òKöWç bêïKçBø æû¸íþíîìóUùù
ýúëUéçAð ñPééçBò[êå÷ëWéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöúõUëWíêDó_öWçiù ¯=óUùêïKçiøðDïó_éöUçó_òô¤ôû ùðDïPóUéöWç êë êïKçIùóUýIçAõUëUí¸êóUöUçì!çió ù
ûþò íþçiùù2êûþýúç °H©ó_òPô í¸çoùùðBñKééçiòWê2å÷ëUéùíþë@æçié v ðDïPó_òPöUûþòKöõUëWíêDó_öUçoù ïPó@ê êïPûþùýúçoó_òPù2û ù2êïPó_ê éçióWð êDó_òPðBçûþò
ëUïPýúùèå÷ëWéó_ònø ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUé û _ù ÏÖ! ðÝÂ2ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUòPóUíêëúêïKç å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ø ë_å{êïKçó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöð ñPééçBò[ê
L 1
XC = j
2πfC
B?NãZ ý #N?B=
NB#?jsBrZ' BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
¥ 8¢¦ ¥ ¦N§
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
?¥N ¡8¢ ¥ ¥ ¤
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
¥ ¦ N ¢r¡NN
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
÷ íþçióWùüçIòKëUêçIêïPó_êêïKçéçBí ó@êû¸ëWòPùïKû¸ì ë_åðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWçéçióWð êóUòPð çêë1å÷éçK[ñKçiòPð ø¤û ùç óWð êí¸øäëWìKìë[ùüû¸êçIå÷éëUý
êïó@êîëUå^ûþòPôñð êûþõUçéçióWð êDó_òPðBçpèó_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUç éçoóUð êó_òð ç¯÷ûþòëUïPýúù°7ôçoð éçióUùçiù7æû¸êï û¸òPðBéçoóUùû¸òPö ÿå÷éçK[ñKçBòð ø
ëUònõWçBéDùüçií¸ø« ûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióWð êDó_òPðBçé÷¯ ûþò ëUïPýúù° ûþòPðBéçoóUùçiùæû¸êï ûþòPðBéçoóUùû¸òKö ÿhå÷éç[K ñKçiòPð øé¸ òPôKñPð êëUéDùëUìBv
ì!ëWùçå óUùüêçiéèðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöð ñKééçiò[êùpnD øúìKéëôñPð ûþòKööUéçió@êçBéõWëUí¸êóUöUçôéëUìù n^ ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéDùëUìPìë[ùüçå óUùüêçBéèðDïPó_òPöUûþòKö
õUëWíêDó_öWç2ôéëUìùh[D ø ó_íþí¸ë@æûþòKöIöUéçió@êçBéð ñPééçBò[êù
ÿ ð ñKééçBò[ê{ûþòAóùû¸ýúìKíþçðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê«û ùbçWK ñó_í_êëêïKçîõWëUí¸êó_öWç3÷¯ ûþòõUëWíêDùb° ôû¸õnû ôçiô[D øêïPçðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç
éçióUð êóUòPð ç]÷¯ ûþò ëWïKýù°!Nªx ñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùç[K ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
÷¯ ûþòõUëWíêDùè° ôûþõnûþôçoô][D øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð 粯 û¸òëUïPýúù°H
'Z¨ gB¨©.æ.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü®
³ 10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz
XC = 26.5258 Ω
µI = E
L
X
10 V
I=
26.5258 Ω
º
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúê ë UçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
I = 0.3770 A
çióUéíþûþçBéUêïKç2ðBñKééçiòWêèïPóUùèóìKïPóUùçùïKû¸å¼êë_å@·l* , æûêï éçiùìçoð êèêëAêïKç õUëWíêDó_öWçb¸å©æçéçiìKéçiùçBò[êîêïKçiùçìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçiùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçóUòPô ðBñKééçBò[êIýúó_êïKçiýó@êû ðBóUí¸íþø7æèç ðió_ò ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êç êïKç ìKïPóWùüç1ó_òKöWí¸çëUåêïKç1ûþòPôñPð êëUé¹ ù
éçióUð êûþõUç2ëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò êëð ñPééçBò[ê
Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 0o
Opposition = º
0.3770 A ∠ 90o
j
Opposition = 26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o
For a capacitor:
À
90o -90o
º
0o
E Opposition
Ú
Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 26.5258 Ω (XC)
èZ = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o)
total
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 - j26.5258 Ω)
èZ = 5 - j26.5258 Ω or
j
26.993 Ω ∠ -79.325o
total
'Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäs.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü+
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_å AïK ý ¹ Xù %{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æ óUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
I = 370.5 mA ∠ 79.325o
ÿù©æû¸êïIêïPçèìPñKéçií¸øðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUç ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê@êïKçð ñKééçiò[ê©æ ó]õUçûþù©íþçióUôKû¸òKöêïPçõUëUí¸êóUöUçæèó]õWç"¯÷ëUåPêïKçùüëWñKéðBç°!
ó_í¸êïPëUñKöWï êïKûþùêûþýIç êïKçôû}!çiéçiòPð ç û ù"Ü*# ® Ó +q ûþòPùªêçióWô ëUå©óå÷ñKíþíT* ,q
phase shift =
79.325 degrees
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ÿùæèçíþçió_éòKçoôúû¸òêïKç ÿ/û¸òPôKñPð êDó_òPðBçðDïPóUìêçiéWêïKçl@êDó-DKíþçAýIçBêïKëôëUåbëUéöWóUòKûÐiû¸òPöð ûþéðBñKûêhK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù
û ùóúõUçiéø ñPùç å÷ñKí{êënëUí å÷ëWéÿcó_òPóUí¸øùûþùaxªñPùªê2óUùû¸êû ù å÷ëUél±kpóUòPó_íþøùüû ù =%bçBê¹ ùìKí óUðBçëUñênòKë@æò]|PöWñKéçiù å÷ëWé
êïPûþùùçBéûþçiù ð ûþéðBñKû¸êû¸ò[êëóêóDKíþçó_òPô1ð ëWòWêû¸ònñKç êïKçó_òó_íþønùû ùñùüûþòKöIêïKû ù êë[ëWíÒ
ÜÞ .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
ñKééçiò[ê«ûþòó2ùüçiéûþçiù©ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©û ù7ùüïPóUéçoôçK[ñPóUí¸íþø_Dnøó_íþíð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù_ùüëêïKç=|PöWñKéçoù{ìPíþóWð çiôAû¸òAêïKçCL{ëUêó_í
ð ëWí¸ñPýIò1å÷ëWéð ñKééçiò[ê ðió_òDçôKûþùüêéûDPñêçoô êëó_íþí ë_êïPçBéð ëWí¸ñPýIòùóUù æèçBíþíÒ
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
Rule of series
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
0 0
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´E = 1.852 V ∠ 79.33o
R
EC = 9.827 V ∠ -10.67o
I = 370.5 mA ∠ -100.7o
AòPðBçó_ö[ó_ûþò(ZõZ÷p¸s=`ð ëWòå÷ñPùû¸òKöWí¸øúìKéûþòWêDùêïKçð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþç2ó_ê óAõ@ó_íþñKççK[ñPó_í!êëêïPçéçióUí!ìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçAìKíþñPù n ò , q ¯ ëUé2ýIûþònñPù n ò , q °!k¶ ë@æçiõUçié! ûê¹ ù ó ùüûþýúìKí¸çIýó@êêçBé2êë ð ëWééçið êêïKûþù"|PöWñKéçó_òô¤ðDïKçið1êë
ùçBçû¸å{ëWñKéîæèëUé û ùèð ëUééçið êb¸ ò êïKû ùðióUùçW êïKç"v n,, âÜ q ëUñêìKñê=[D øõZ÷8¸s=`å÷ëWéð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçç[K ñPó_êçoù
êëóúì!ëWùûêû¸õWçÜ*B ®q P æïKûþðDïäôënçoùð ëUééçiùìëWòPôêëIëWñKéìKéçBõnûþëUñPùí¸øðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiô<P| öWñKéç2ë_å8Ü*# ® Ó +q
ÿö[ó_ûþò(! ûê ýAñPùüê"!D çAçiýúìKïPóUùû&BÐ çiôäêïPó_êêïKçðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiôP| öWñKéçiùðBëUééçoùüì!ëUòôû¸òPöúêë éçióUí~v íþûå÷çõUëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô
ð ñPééçBò[êýúçióWùüñKéçBýúçiòWêDùAóUéçúêïKëWùçûþò ½ -ðÁÏ å÷ëWéý7 òKëUêAéçoð êDó_òKöWñKíþóUéå÷ëUéý¿ñKëWéç!Kó_ýúìKíþç7 û¸åæç æçiéçúêë
óUð êñPóUí¸íþø²KD ñKûþí ôêïKûþùùçBéûþçiùèéçoùüû ùüêëUésv ðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéîð ûþéDð ñKû¸êó_òPô ýIçoóUùñKéçõWëUí¸êó_öWçóWð éëWùùêïKç éçoùüû ùªêëUéW ëWñKé õUëWíêsv
ýúç êçBé©æëWñKíþôû¸òPôKûþðió@êçõWëUí¸êùo òPë_ê ® ) ® nn ýúû¸íþí¸ûþõUëWíêDù7¯ éçoó_í[éçoð êDó_òKöWñKíþóUé° ëUé n òrÓ ,® õUëWíêDù8÷¯ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéø
éçið êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éH°Hko çióUí©ûþòPùüêéñKýúçBò[êù ðBëUòKòKçoð êçiôêë éçióUí©ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù2ìKéë@õnûþôKçû¸òôûþðió@êû¸ëWòPù ð ëUééçiùìëWòPôûþòKöêë êïPç
õUçoð êëUéèí¸çiòKö_êïE÷¯ ýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKç° ë_åbêïKç ðBó_í ð ñPíþó_êçiôP| öUñPéçoù @ ïKûþí¸ç2êïPç2éçið êóUòKöUñKí ó_éîå÷ëUéýxë_å«ðBëUýúìKíþç!ònñKý!D çBé
òKëUêó@êû¸ëWò û ùñPùç å÷ñPíå÷ëUéì!çBéå÷ëUéýúû¸òPöóWôKôû¸êûþëUòó_òô ùñBD êéóWð êû¸ëWò(b û¸êAûþùAó ýúëWéçó-D ùªêéóWð ê å÷ëUéýÚëUåèòKëUêó_êûþëUò
êïó_òìëWíþóUén æïKû ðDïäó_íþëUòKç ïPóWùôûþéçoð êð ëWééçiùìëWòPôçiòPð çêëúêéñKç ýúçióWùüñPéçiýIçiò[êù
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ÃË ¼ ½ ÌÁ- » û ù2êïKçúêë_êDó_í#ýúçióWùüñKéçIë_åëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êë1çií¸çoð êéû ðúð ñKééçiò[êóUòPô ûþù2êïKçð ëWýIìPí¸ç ¯÷õWçið êëUéH°
ùüñKý ë_åC¯Õ_ éçióUí&r° éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç2óUòPôM¯Õ_ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéøZr#° éçióUð êóUòPð ç
Üò .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
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R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
WñPùªê#óUù©æû¸êÑï ±k ð ûþéðBñKû¸êù DKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù{ûþòúóìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíÿ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêóUôPôñKìêë2å÷ëUéýeêïPçêë_êDó_íð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
Rule of parallel
circuits:
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à ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
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êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!㯠òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç " · n ïç $ ·Qéé
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à ÷#ó_éDó_íþí¸çií[ ÿ ð ûþéðBñKûêDù#!ç ïK&û DKû¸ê7êïKçùó_ýúçèå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíKìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù7óUù7ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBZí ±_ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêDù «õUëUí¸êóUöUçèûþù
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~ x } y | z x w y | } z
úÖi×
7 Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ W¡s¢£¡/RS P
øR
250 Ω
³
³ V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
1.5 µF
XL = 245.04 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
L 1
XC =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
ZR = 250 + j0 Ω or 250 Ω ∠ 0o
ZR
250 Ω ∠ 0o
³ V
120 ZL 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
60 Hz èZ
C
1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
Gë@_ æ ]æû¸êïúó_íþírK[ñPóUò[êû¸êûþçiù«ë_åPëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë2çBíþçið êéû ðîðBñKééçiòWê©ç!ìKéçiùùüçoôûþòóðBëUýúýúëUò(_ðBëUýúìKíþç!ònñKýD!çBé
å÷ëUéýó@ê_¯ óWù û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù KóUòPô òPë_êóUùèéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoùëWé éçoóUð êDó_òPðBçiù°H[êïPçBø ðió_ò]Dç ïPóUòPôíþçiô û¸ò êïKçùó_ýúç2æèó]ø
óUù7ìPíþóUû¸òúéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoù7û¸òó_±_lðBû¸éDð ñPûê@L ïKû ù#û ùó_òúû ôçióUíêûþýúç êëôéDó]ælñPìó_òúó_òPóUí¸øùûþù©êDó-DKíþç å÷ëUé#êïKû ùð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ó_òô¤ûþòPùüçiéüêó_íþí«êïKç²_öWû¸õWçBò#²|PöUñKéçiù ¯¼êë_êDó_í7õUëWíêDó_öUç!óUòPôäêïKçúû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù2ë_åêïKçéçiùû ùªêëUé!ûþòPôñð êëWé óUòPô
ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéH°H
Br¨§¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<¥¤)1¤#©"¬4 . ò+
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ±
0 - j1.7684k
²
250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Rule of series
³Z circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC
çúðió_ò òKë@ækóUìKìKíþøEAïKý¹ ù_%«ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïo"°õWçBéêû ðBó_íþíþøäû¸ò êïPçÑL{ëUêóUí&1ð ëWí¸ñKýúò êë]|PòPô êë_êóUíð ñKééçBò[ê
å÷ëUé êïKû ùùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñPûê
òÞ .0»"©¼§0/8]Br¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/:9 ¥¤)¦¤#©¬"4 .
R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m ®
I ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E
I= ³
èçBûþòKö¤ó ùçBéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê#ðBñKééçBò[êAýñPùüêDç çK[ñPóUíêïPéëWñKöUï óUí¸íèð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù¿L ï[ñù 7æèç ðBóUò êó-WçêïPç
Z
|PöWñKéç ë DêóUû¸òKçoôå÷ëWé
êëUêó_í«ð ñKééçiò[ê óUòPôôûþùüêéû&DKñêçû¸êêëúçoóUðDï1ë_å{êïKçë_êïKçBéðBëUíþñKýúòPù
©R ªL ¬C « Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m ®
I ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o µ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
Rule of series
¶I circuits:
3.1472 + j19.177 V ER
¹
-18.797 + j3.0848 V EL
+ 135.65 - j22.262 V EC
º
120 + j0 V Etotal
» ¼?½¿¾À¦ÁÃÂÄÅÇÆ_Èɽ[ÊËÄÁÉÂ?ÄÌÉ;½ÍÉÎ_À Â?ÂÄÂÐÏ Ê?ÑÉÀÒ¼-ÌÉÅÇÄÁÊ?ÑÉÀм-ÀÔÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ+¾ÉÂ?ÄÖ¼#¾ÄÀмÀ ×NÌÆÕØ ÓÚÙ
5 Ó ÄÕ[ʼ Û ÷ À4Â?ÁÃÄÂÅÜÀ ¾
ÄÍÆÜÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕÆÚÊ?Ä ¯ ÖÉÂÀ ¼?À4ÂÓ½[ÍÉÎÜÆÚÕÕ¾½Î½[ʼ ° ÏÊÑÉÀ3ÆÚͼ-ÞÒÀ4ÂàßÄÌáÞP½ÕÕÂ?ÀÐÝâÀ ½[ÓÀ¼?ÑÉÄÌÕ¾áÈÀãä Áå Î ð~Â Ø ÓÚÙ·çæ-Ù ÓÄÕCÊ!¼4Û
è À3Ý4ÆÚÍÆÚÕ¿¼?Äé̼?À õZ÷8¸?êÒë ÊÄìÓÀ4½[ÁÃßOÄÌÉÂàíÎÌÉÂÀ ¼ÔÁÃÄÂàÊÑɽ¿¼_Ýâ½ÂÝ4Ìɽ[Ê î
øR
1 2
250 Ω
³
³ V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
0 3
1.5 µF
# NùN :Z?'??
ú ææ#2?¥N0ïZ
(æ¥æ¥ ¦
òò ð »"©¼§Uñ8]Br¨½5ñ8© ð §$©¬ ð ñש"¬5ò ªóé¼+ñ+ò©¬ ¤)¦¤#©¬*ò
ð ñõô ¥ ð
ù½ ¥ ¡æN¦
# ¡ û ¢¦
¢ # ù ü
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ? yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿ ¡ ú ¡ sÿ $:( ú
¢þý 'Zæ# ú ý ? ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ ¡ ú ý ¡ ÿ#: ý ú
¢ Z
rB ú ? ÿ¥$ ú ¥aÿ ¡ ú ¡ ( ú
8¢ rNZ' ¢¤B¡ Z' ¢¤ ¦ Z ¢¡N£r¦ ZN¥ £8¢6£N£N¡ N¥
rB ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ ¡ úý ¡ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' §8¢ N§ Z' ¢£ £ ZN¥ ¤8¢¡ ¥N ZN ¤ 8¢¤r¡ ¥ Z'
EL = 19.05 V ∠ 170.7o
´E = 137.5 V ∠ -9.320o
C
µI = 77.73 mA ∠ -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)
ö ÑÉÀ õZ÷8?¸ êÒë ¼?½Å÷ÌÉÕ¿Æøʽ[ÄÍù¼?ÑÉÄøÞ_¼ÒÄÌÉÂPÑÆÚ;úÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕ¿ÆøÊ?ÀоÂÀ ¼?ÌÉÕ[ʼÒÊÄûÈÀ3ÆÝ ÝâÌÉÂ!ÆøÊÀÛ
» ¼÷ßÄÌHÝ4ÆÚÍH¼?À4ÀÏ#ÊÑÉÀ4ÂÀO½¿¼÷Õ½[Ê-Ê?ÕÀá¾É½CüÀ4ÂÀ4ÍÝ4ÀOÈÀâÊÞÒÀ4À4ÍH» ê Ý4½[Â!Ýâ̽CÊéÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼3Æ; ±¥ê Ý4½[Â!Ýâ̽CÊéÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼ Ï
5
ÀâýÉÝ4À4ÖÊPÊÑÆøÊ5ÆÕ[Õ#×NÌÆÍNÊ?½[Ê?½À ¼PÄÁXÓÄÕ[ÊÆÚÎÀÏÉÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÐÏÉÆÚ;ùÂÀ ¼?½¼-ÊÆÍÝâÀ ¯ ÆÝ8ÊÌÆÚÕÕ[ßÏþ ÿ ã ÌÁå ã ° Å÷̼-Ê5ÈÀ`ÑÆÚ;Õ[Àо
½ÍÝâÄÅûÖÕ[À4ýÜÂ!ÆøÊÑÉÀ4Â+Ê?ÑÆÍá¼Ý4ÆÕÆÂ1ÁÃÄÂÅE¼-Ä÷Ƽ¦ÊÄéÆÝ4ÝâÄÌÉÍNʦÁÃÄÂÒÖÉÑƼ-ÀÆÚÍÉÎÕ[ÀÛ ö ѽ¼Ô½¼ÔÎÄľϼ-½ÍÝ4À5½[ÊÒÅÜÀ Æͼ+ÆÕ[Õ
ßÄÌ ¹ ÓÀ`ÕÀ ÆÚÂÍÉÀоùÆÈÄÌÊ ±`ê À4ÕÀ Ý8ÊÂ?½¿Ý3Ý4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[ʼ5ÆÚÖÉÖÉÕ½À ¼PÊÄOÞPÑÆÚÊ5ßÄÌ ¹ ÂÀ¥Õ[ÀÐÆÚÂÍɽÍÉÎìÑÉÀ4ÂÀÛ ö ÑÉÀ÷ÄÍÉÕßÀ4ýÝ4À4Öʽ[ÄÍ
Ê?Ä÷Ê?Ñɽ¿¼àÝâÄͼ-½¿¼-Ê?À4ÍÝâßܽ¼+Ê?ÑÀÝ ÆÚÕ¿ÝâÌÉÕ¿Æøʽ[ÄÍOÄÚÁ#ÖÄøÞÒÀ4ÂÐÏÞPÑɽ¿Ý!ѽ¿¼Ô¼?Ä÷ÌÍɽ×NÌÉÀ*Ê?ÑÆøÊà½CÊP¾À ¼?À4ÂÓÀм+ÆéÝ!ÑÆÚÖÊÀ4Âà¾À4ÓÄÚÊÀ ¾
Ê?ÄûÊÑÆøÊ5¼?ÌÉÈ æ ÀÐÝ8Ê5ÆÚÕÄÍÀÛ
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
à ¸ ÅûÖÀ ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À ¼àÄÚÁ1ÆÚÍ߽;ƾɾù½Íù¼?À4½[Àм4î ç
!
ç " ·ûç $ · ÛPÛPÛ ç %
à »_Õ[Ê?ÑÉÄÌÉÎÑs½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝâÀ ¼¥Æ¾É¾s½Í ¼?À4½[Àм4ÏÊ?ÑÀ÷ÊÄÚÊÆÕU½[ÅÜÖÀ ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀéÁÃÄÂ¥ÆÝ4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[Ê`ÝâÄÍNÊ!ÆÚ½Íɽ[ÍÎÈÄÚÊ?Ñ ½[;ÌÝ8ú
ÊÆÚÍÝâÀOÆÚ; Ý ÆÚÖÆÝâ½[ÊÆÍÝâÀìÅìÆßÈÀOÕÀ ¼¼¥Ê?ÑÆÚÍ ÄÍÉÀÄÂ`ÅÜÄÂÀìÄÚÁàÊ?ÑÀO½[;½[Ó½¿¾ÌÆÕ¦½[ÅÜÖÀ ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀм4ÏXÈÀ Ý4Æ̼?À
¼-À Â?½À ¼½Í¾ÌÝâÊ?½ÓÀìÆÚ; Ý4ÆÖÆÝ4½Cʽ[ÓÀé½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝâÀ ¼ÊÀ4; ÊÄÝ ÆÚÍÝ4À4Õ1ÀÐÆÝ!ÑÄÊ?ÑÉÀ Â`ÄÌÊÐÛ ö Ñɽ¼¥ÅìÆßJÕÀ ƾsÊÄ
ÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ¥¾ÂÄÖ¼àÆÝ4Â?ÄN¼?¼àÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ!¼àÀâýÉÝâÀ À ¾½ÍÉÎûÊ?ÑÉÀ3¼?ÌÉÖÉÖÕ[ßOÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ
7 .0/1/324252çW¡¢£¡/
R L ³ C
³120 V 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz
³120 V ZR ZL ZC
60 Hz
250 Ω ∠ 0o 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
è ½[Ê?ÑHÆÚÕÕÔÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ ÍÊéÓÆÕ[ÌÀ ¼`À4ýÖÂ?Àм?¼?À ¾ Ƽ3½[ÅÜÖÀ ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀм ¯{ç(° ÏXÞÔÀOÝ ÆÚÍH¼?ÀâÊ÷ÌÉÖHÆÍHÆÚÍÆÕ[ß¼?½¼Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀÆ;
ÖÉÂÄÝâÀ4Àо Ƽì½ÍçÊ?ÑÉÀsտƼ-ÊOÀâýÉÆÅûÖÕ[ÀJÖÉÂÄÈÕ[À ÅùÏàÀ4ýÝ4À4ÖÊìÊÑɽ¿¼ìÊ?½ÅÜÀJÁÃÄÕÕÄøÞP½[ÍÉÎ ÊÑÉÀsÂÌÉÕ[ÀмìÄÚÁ¥ÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4Õ_Ý4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[ʼ
½Í¼ÊÀ ƾÄÁU¼?À4½[Àм4î
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
ÄøÞ`ÏÞÒÀÝ ÆÚÍùÆÚÖÉÖÉÕß!*ÑÉÅ ¹ ¼#"ËÆÞ ¯å¸ hë ïçy° ÓÀ4Â?Ê?½¿Ý4ÆÕ[Õßܽ[ÍùÀ ÆÝ!ÑÝâÄÕ[ÌÅûÍáÊ?ÄܾÀ4Ê?À4ÂÅܽ[ÍÀÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÒÊ?ÑÉÂÄÌÎÑ
À ÆÝ!ÑùÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ ÍÊÐî
Ù ð »"©¼§Uñ8]Br¨½5ñ8© ð §$©¬ ð ñש"¬5ò ªóé¼+ñ+ò©¬ ¤)¦¤#©¬*ò
ð ñõô ¥ ð
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
$
480m + j0
0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m
I $ $ % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o
° 250 + j0 ±
0 + j245.04
±
0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
©R ªL ¬C « Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
,
480m + j0
±
0 - j489.71m
±0 + j67.858m
$
480m - j421.85m ®
I - % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o 639.03m ∠ -41.311o
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 141.05 + j123.96
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 187.79 ∠ 41.311o
Ohms
2 2 2 2
º º º
Vic Vil Vic
º /
4
Vi
øR
3 bogus 6
1 5
øR
0
L ³
C
³ V
120 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz
0 0 0 0
µI = 480 mA ∠ 0o
R
IL = 489.7 mA ∠ -90o
IC = 67.86 mA ∠ 90o
p Ê5ÊÄÄ]JÆOÕ½CÊ?Ê?ÕÀéȽCÊ¥ÄÚÁ¦ÊÂ?½¿Ý)À Â?ßÊ?ÄùÎÀ4Êrq8s p?êÒë ÞÔÄÂ(½ÍÉÎƼ5ÞÒÀ÷ÞÒÄÌÉÕ¿¾JÕ½tÀ÷ÄÍJÊ?Ñɽ¿¼¥Ýâ½ÂÝ4Ìɽ[Êouýͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½[ÍÎ
v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ¼?ÄÌÂÝ4À ¼ì½Í À ÆÝ!ÑõÈÉÂ!ÆÚÍÝ!ÑçÊ?Ä ÄÈÊ!ÆÚ½Í ÝâÌÉÂÂÀ4ÍNÊìíÎÌÂ?ÀмÆÚ; ½[ͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ Ê?ÑÀ v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v
ÂÀ ¼?½¼-Ê?ÄÂ3½[ÍHÊ?ÑÉÀO½Í¾ÌÝ8Ê?ÄÂéÈÂÆÍÝ!Ñ Ê?ÄÖÂ?À ÓÀ4ÍNÊ÷Æs¾É½[ÂÀ ÝâÊé½Í¾ÌÝâÊ?ÄÂ?ú Ê?ÄÚú ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀû¼?ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀÕ[ÄÄÖ#ÏXÞPѽÝ!ÑRq8s p?êÒë
Ý4ÆÍÉÍÉÄÊ1Ê?ÄÕÀ4Â!ÆøÊÀEwâÏÈÉÌÊÔÞÔÀ_¾½¿¾ÜÎÀ4Ê1Ê?ÑÉÀ5ÖÉÂ?ÄÖÀ ¦ÂÀ ƾɽ[ÍÉÎN¼4Û ë ÓÀ4ÍÜÅÜÄÂÀÔÊÑÆÚÍÜÊÑÆøÊÐÏÈßé½[ͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ¥Ê?ÑÉÀ*¾ÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß
ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ5¼-ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀ ¼guÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÒÅûÀ4Ê?À ¼)w1½ÍOÊÑÉÀ*ÖÂ?ÄÖÀ ÂÒ¾½ÂÀ Ý8ʽ[Äͼ ÏÞÒÀ5ÞÒÀ4ÂÀ*ÆÈÉÕ[À5Ê?ÄÜÆÓĽ¾ûÊÑÆøÊཾɽ[ÄN¼-ßÍÝ4ÂƼ-ßéÄÚÁ
q8s p?êÒë ÄÚÁÖɽÍʽ[ÍÎéÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+íÎÌÉÂÀ ¼5ØXx Ù ÄÌÊàÄÚÁÖÑƼ?ÀÛ ö Ñɽ¿¼ÔÞàÆßÏÄÌÉÂàÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+ÖÉÑƼ?À5ÂÀ ƾɽ[ÍÉÎN¼¦Ý4ÆÅÜÀ5ÄÌÉÊ
Ê?ÄÜÀ4ýÆÝ8ÊÕ[ßOÅìÆÚÊÝ!ÑÄÌÉÂPÑÆÚ;ùÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕÆÚÊ?½Äͼ Û
C1
4.7 µF
L 650 mH
120
V R 470 Ω
60 Hz
C2 1.5 µF
1 XL = 2πfL
XC1 =
2πfC1
1 XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XC1 =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(4.7 µF)
1
XC2 =
2πfC2
1
XC2 = R = 470 Ω
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
XC2 = 1.7684 kΩ
ZR = 470 + j0 Ω or 470 Ω ∠ 0o
ÄøÞgÞÔÀ`Ý ÆÚͼ-À4Ê_ÌÉÖùÊ?ÑÉÀ`½Íɽ[Ê?½¿ÆÚÕÓøÆÚÕÌÉÀ ¼_½[ÍÄÌÂÔÊ!ÆÚÈÉÕÀî
«C ¬L «C R ª Total
1 2
E
120 + j0 ¦ Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I
§ Amps
©Z ¯ 0 - j564.38 ¯ 0 + j245.04 ¯ 0 - j1.7684k ® 470 + j0 ¨ Ohms
° 564.38 ∠ -90o
± 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90 o ® 470 ∠ 0o
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
E Volts
À
I Amps
Z Ohms
à Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
Æ
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ç Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
qCÈXÈÉ»Ê ËÌ]Í`Î ÏÑÐGÏ]Ò ` Ó Í(ÈXÔÏ]Ê3ÕoÖ)Ì× Ø»ÈlÔÏ]ÊLÖ'Ì]ÉtÊ3Í`ÌÔÏØtÒ ÙÊÚÏÓ ] v Û ÏÖ)ÌØÝÜ v Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÍ'ÌÑÚÈØ»Þ¶Õ É»Í'ÔÌ]Ó'ÕoÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÔÏ]Ø»Ò ÙÊ
ÚÓ'Ï]ÙßÖ'Î È#à3Ó'ÍWÖ¾Ö'Ì]× ØtÈá Û 3Πɻ;ËÉtâÈXÍãÒ3;Ï]Ê3ÈÖ)Ì× Ø»ÈäÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎoÚÏ]Ò ÓeÔÏ]Ø»Ò Ù Ê3;ÌÊ3ÕoÌÊ Ï]Ö(Î ÈXÓ¾Ö'Ì]× ØtÈäÐ+ÉtÖ(ζÖ(Î Ó'ÈÈ+ÔÏ]Ø»Ò ÙÊ3Íá
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m À
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
449.11 ∠ -17.147 o
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z
#Ö>Ö'Î É»ÍVèjÏÉtÊLÖVÐ#È`ÌÍWçgÏ]Ò Ó)ÍWÈXØtâÈXÍ:Ö'Î È+×LÒ ÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]ÊVý>ÌÓ'ȾÖ(Î ÈXÓ(È`Ì]ÊCÞgÔÏÙèjÏÊ ÈÊLÖ'Í>Ï]ÓVÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊ ÈÊLÖ ÔÏ]Ù¶× ÉtÊjÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍ
Ð+Î ÉûÔ)ÎRÍ(Î3ÌÓ'ÈÈÉtÖ(Î3ÈÓ¶Ö(Î È|Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#â]ÏØåÖ)ÌË]È|Ï]ÓÖ'Î È!Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#ÔÒ Ó'Ó(ÈXÊLÖ p Ê Ö(Î ÉûÍÔÌÍWÈÜã×:ÏÖ'Î ¹ ÌÊ3Õ Ö'Î È|èjÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ
ÔÏÙô× É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê| úú u ö · wÍWÎjÌÓ'È}Ö(Î3ÈrÍ'ÌÙÈou Ö(Ï]Ö'Ì]Øûw#ÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖXÜCÍ(ÉtÊ3ÔÈlÖ'Î ÈÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØ:É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈÉûÍäÔÏÙoè:ÏÍ(ÈXÕÏÚ
Ö(Î3ÈÖdÐÏÍ(ÈÖ)ÍÏÚäÉtÙè:ÈXÕ Ì]Ê3ÔÈEÍÉ»Ê Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍXá Û ÎLÒjÍÜãÐÈÔXÌÊ¢Ö(Ó)ÌÊ3ÍWÚÈÓrÖ'Î Èà3ËÒ Ó'ȶÚÏÓÖ(Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø`ÔÒ Ó'Ó'ÈÊLÖÉtÊLÖ(Ïé×:ÏÖ'Î
ÔÏØtÒ3ÙoÊjÍý
C 1
L C 2 R
E Volts
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o
245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
$ 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z "
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
C L
C R
$ 70.467 - j43.4001 2
Ohm’s
7 Law
E = IZ
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E = IZ
£×LÒ ÉûÔ)çÕ8Ï]Ò3× ØtÈ î Ô)Î3ÈXÔ)çÏÚ>ÏÒ ÓÐ#Ï]Ó'çÌÑÖ`Ö'Î ÉûÍè:Ï]É»ÊLÖ#Ð#Ï]Ò3Ø»Õ×:ÈgÖ(϶Í(ÈÈÐ+Î ÈÖ(Î ÈXÓÏÓÊ Ï]Ö`Ö'Î ÈgâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]ÈlÕ8Ó'Ï]èjÍ
Ì ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í ¹ Ì]Ê3Õ¶Ö(Î ÈlÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍ î è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØCÔÏÙô× É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊoÏÚ\ ú]ú uö · wãÉtÊ3Õ ÈÈXÕÌÕ Õ¶Ò èÖ(ÏrÖ'Î ÈäÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØÝá;lÔÔÏ]Ó)Õ8É»Ê Ë
]
Ö(Ï=<rÉ»Ó'Ô)Î3Î Ï?>+ ÍA@ Ï]ØtÖ'ÌËÈöVÌ9ÐÜCÖ(Î3ÈÞ!Í(Î ÏÒ Ø»Õ>Å
B
Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)
C
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V Indeed, it is!
Û Î3ÌÖäØûÌ]ÍWÖ}ÍdÖ'ÈèÐäÌ]ÍäÙÈÓ'ÈØ»Þ|Ìoè Ó'ÈXÔÌ]Ò8Ö(É»Ï]ÊVá p ÊéÌoè Ó'Ï]× Ø»ÈÙíÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÌÍäÙÌÊCÞ|ÍWÖ(ÈèjÍ+Ì]Í#Ö(Î3É»Í+ÏÊ ÈrÎ3Ì]ÍXÜCÖ(Î3ÈÓ'È
ÉûÍÙ¶Ò3Ô)ÎüÏ]è è:Ï]Ó(Ö(Ò Ê3ÉåÖdÞÚÏÓ#ÈXÓ(Ó'Ï]ÓEáeõÔÔÌÍWÉ»Ï]ÊjÌØjÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í î Ô)Î ÈXÔ)ç8Íeػɻç]ÈgÖ(Î3ÌÖäÏÊ ÈrÔÌÊüÍ(Ì9âÈg̶èjÈXÓ'Í(Ï]ÊüÌôØ»ÏÖ+Ï]Ú Ð#Ï]Ó'ç
ÌÊjÕ|Ò Ê3Ê ÈXÔÈXÍ'Í(Ì]Ó(ÞÚÓ'Ò3ÍWÖ(Ó)ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|×CÞ|ÉûÕ8ÈÊLÖ'ÉåÚÞCÉ»Ê Ëè Ó(Ï× Ø»ÈÙÍäè Ó'ÉtÏÓäÖ(ÏoÖ(Î ÈràjÊ3ÌØVÍWÖ(ÈXè!Ï]Ú Ö'Î Èè Ó'Ï]× Ø»ÈÙá
+Ú Ö'ÈÓÎ3Ì9âCÉtÊ ËÍ(Ï]Ø»â]ÈEÕoÚÏ]Óâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È+Õ8Ó'Ï]è3ÍÌ]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í ¹ ÌÊ3ÕoÖ'Î ÈlÔÏÙô× É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê úú uö · wÜCÐ#ÈlÌËLÌÉ»ÊÌÍWç
Ï]Ò3Ó'Í(ÈØ»â]ÈEÍeÖ'Î È`×Ò3ÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]Ê>ý¾Ð+Î3ÌÖäÏ]Ö(Î ÈXÓ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]Ê ÈXÊLÖ'ÍäÍWÎjÌÓ'ÈlÖ'Î ÈÍ(Ì]ÙoÈâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈlÏ]Ó+ÔÒ Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖD p Ê|Ö'Î É»Í+ÔXÌ]Í(È]ÜLÖ(Î3È
Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ(ÏÓgugw`Ì]Ê3ÕÖ(Î3ÈgÔÏÙô× É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊÏÚVÖ(Î ÈgÉtÊ3Õ Ò3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓäÌÊ3ÕÖ'Î ÈrÍWÈEÔÏ]ÊjÕÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓgu ö · wÍWÎjÌÓ'È+Ö(Î ÈrÍ'ÌÙÈ
â]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈ]Ü×:ÈXÔXÌÒ3Í(È+Ö(Î3ÏÍ(ÈlÍWÈÖ'Í`ÏÚ>É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍ`Ì]Ó(È+É»Êè3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØ3Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎÈXÌÔ)ÎoÏ]Ö(Î ÈXÓXá Û Î ÈXÓ(ÈÚÏ]Ó'È]Ü]Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÖ(Ó)ÌÊjÍdÚÈXÓ
Ö(Î3Èâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]Ègà3Ë]Ò3Ó(F È EdÒ3ÍWÖlÍWÏØtâÈXÕ|ÚÏ]Ó+É»ÊLÖ(ÏoÖ(Î ÈÔÏ]Ø»Ò ÙÊ3Í#ÚÏ]Ó}AÌ]Ê3Õ ö · ý
Lþ8þJ8ÿdÿ g¡V¡ ÿ`¡r£j¡ £ ð
C L
C
H 49.533 + j43.400
R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
: 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90
o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0 o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
C L
C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
Ohm’s
% 7J
Law
E
I=
Z
x ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿,-¾ÿ.
½ l /10`ÿ-¾ÿ324r£j¡e£ 5
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 49.533 + j43.400 ! 49.533 + j43.400 1
8 Volts
E I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
120 + j0
120 ∠ 0o
&
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371 o
Ohm’s
Law
% J
I=
E
Z
105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
C
76.899m + j124.86m Indeed, it is!
qCÉ»Ê3ÔÈôÖ(Î ÈoöRÌ]Ê3ÕM · Ì]Ó(ÈôÔÏ]Ê Ê3ÈXÔÖ'ÈXÕéÉ»ÊÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍÜ:ÌÊ3ÕÍWÉ»Ê3ÔȶÐÈôçLÊ3ÏÑÐHÖ'ΠȶÔÒ Ó'Ó(ÈXÊÖlÖ(Î 'Ó Ï]Ò Ë ÎÖ(Î ÈXÉtÓrÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ
Ô ÏÙô× É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê ÉtÙè:ÈXÕ Ì]Ê3ÔÈÜ Ð#ÈÔÌ]Ê Õ8É»ÍWÖ(Ó'É»× Ò8Ö(ÈÖ'Î3ÌÑÖoÔÒ Ó'Ó(ÈXÊLÖàjË]Ò Ó'ÈÖ(ÏÖ'Î È|ö6ÌÊjÕN · Ô] Ï Ø»Ò Ù Ê3ÍrÚÏØtØ»ÏÑÐ+É»Ê Ë
Ö(Î3ÈÓ(Ò Ø»ÈrÏÚ ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍäÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ ÉtÖ'Í}Ð+Î ÈÓ'È×CÞÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]Ê ÈXÊLÖ'Í+Í(Î3ÌÓ'ÈlÖ'Î ÈÍ'ÌÙÈÔÒ Ó'Ó(ÈXÊLÖXý
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225o
& 76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
Z # 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
R 57.501 + j50.382
2
! 49.533 + j43.400
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 ∠ 221.22o 76.451 ∠ 41.225
I 65.857 ∠ 41.225o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
!
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o
! 105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m ∠ 41.225o
Amps
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ
æ ÏÑÐÜ8Ø»ÈÖE Í#Ö'Ò Ó'Ê!Ö'Ï|q8s p ù ÚÏ]Ó}ÌÔÏ]Ùè Ò8Ö'ÈÓ+âÈÓ'ÉåàjÔXÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|ÏÚ¾Ï]Ò3Ó#Ð#Ï]Ó'çý
0 0 0
UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)Z`UbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoK u,Njd_o;u,3[' j[gi\3[r_zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj v {,Njd_ v{,3[' j[)a`Vb.[_ j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{K l,Njd_{;l,3[' j[)a`Vb.[_ j\[)abVb
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½ l /10`ÿ-¾ÿ324r£j¡e£ 5
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Battery momentarily
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i=
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e=
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e=
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i=
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e=
i=
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i=
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ízero kinetic
maximum potential energy,
energy
mass
potential energy =
kinetic energy =
* ¢¡
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10 µF 100 mH
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1
XL = 2πfL XC =
2πfC
.representing
. . setting the two equal to each other,
a condition of equal reactance
(resonance) . . .
1
2πfL =
2πfC
1
f=
2π LC
XL = 2πfL
XL = 100 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
1
XC =
(2)(π)(159.155 Hz)(10 µF)
XC = 100 Ω
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¥ 1
Zparallel =
1
+
1
ZL ZC
1
Zparallel =
1 + 1
100 Ω ∠ 90o 100 Ω ∠ -90o
¥
Zparallel = 0.01 ∠ -90o 1+ 0.01 ∠ 90o
¥
Zparallel = 01 Undefined!
1 1
Rbogus 1 pΩ
2
C1 10 uF L 100 mH
1
0 0
0 0
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x_,'a $QitUVX[' j'kQ
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Z`YQ ['zj'kQ uxkgwdoQ^dlQv k~x1lclclQ^Qlcu uxkgwco)^dlcu k~xzlQ^Qlco
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k~xzldlclQbbldo x1wcucoQ^Qlcu x x x x !
k~xzld{cuQbbldo x1{clcwQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo yxv`{c{Q^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xkr{cQbbldo wxv`yclQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzokckbbldo {x1{Qv`oQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo vFx1wcwcuQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ux1cocQ^Qlcu x x x x! x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1lcucuQ^Qlcu x x x !x x
k~xvbo\kbbldo ox1ocy\k^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xvbyQvcbbldo k~x1{Qv`lQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo x1ucycuQ^QlQv x x ! x x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo k~x1{cclQ^QlQv x ! x x x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo vFx1cwcQ^QlQv x x ! x x x
k~xzwdQvcbbldo k~xkgucoQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1yQv`Q^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo ox1uc{clQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xz)v`oQbbldo ox1cuQvc^Qlcu x x x !x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ux1{clc{Q^Qlcu x x x x! x
k~xz)v`yQbbldo vFx1lcwcuQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
oxzldlclQbbldo vFx1wclcQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
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1
fresonant = =2π LC
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Ö(Î ÈÏ]Ö(Î ÈXÓXá
10 µF
100 mH
ê]ê9ò ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA 4¾ÿ
VZ = ZL + ZC
series
VZ = (0 + j100 Ω) + (0 - j100 Ω)
series
VZ =0Ω
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1Ω _C 10 µF
1
1V 3
L1 100 mH
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k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco ! x x x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x x! x x x
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k~xi`bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wxj``ycQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x x x ! x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uco'`c^Ql\k}x x x x ! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x x x ! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo uxj``lcwQ^Qlco x x! x x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x !x x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo oxj``w\k^Qlco x ! x x x x
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x ! x x x x
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kf =
1
resonant
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Ý ï¶-¹å « ²/²M²Mµ ´ ¹ « ± » ¹ª « ²°!´ Å ï ¹ »0À µ ´ ¯ªB²°«´ ¯ µ°´ ² ¹c¹ ¿ Å µ°´¹ ¬ » » ª ¶ µ°´ ´¹ ï µ ª ²/¬!²M¼½´ À« » ¼³«cª ¼½² ¯ ¼³Ã «c¾ ¼³ïÉ«²°ªBÃ0À ´ 0¯°¼½± ¾¼ ²M«c» ª ¬ ± ´º Ç ´ ¼½Ò «0¾bÃ0´¯ ´« « ²#Å ¹ ² ». ²°»0µ «2¬!¹ È « ²°Ãc´ Ĺ ±½» À ´
¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ªË ´ µ ¯ Ç
ÜÝ Üç TVUXWZY[]àDa\ áR_ ài`ã9]
åªBº± ¯°¹S¹RÄ ´ ¶ª ª±³«c±½´ ¬Á¬ º =@´ ?± ¹ ûÈ þSA/ªèÔèæê é~ª æJµ/û² ¼½?S¶ I»0æëÕ± ª û µÊ¿ µ =@ªB?«0û¾ þS´ Aì°¯ èë´í² è@Ö-º I Åb¿i¹ ²Mµ)Ã0´ ûÕS¶¹IÖ@À îÁ 8c¹±³« ²°´´ µ« ¯ ² ¿ ÄS²°ª à ±½¼Ì»0¯Ó´ ˯ Ç ¼½«cØʬ§¹ ¹ ² Â'¯ 8»0±Cµ°²Mc´µ µa¼Ì¯/ ¼½«0ª¾ ¯M±³¯ Å ´ ¿0¯X¼ ² ª ±½¶±dªBÂÑ«¸µ°´*º :´»c´ Àj«c¶ª¼ ¬ ´ ´ ¯
¹ »0² ¹  ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯Xª«c¬§ª à ¼³¾ Ã!;® ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¿vï » ¯ ²É± ¼½Ë ´b²MÃ0´ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯É¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«¿ ´-× ¶ ´ !²Ó²Mà ª ²a²°Ã ¼½¯ ² ¼½À ´)È'´
¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²#²°Ã0´¤²È ¹ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¯#¼³« ª µ ª ±³±½´±vÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ´ ª¶ à ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¼³«c¯ ²°´ ª¬[¹  ¼³«¸¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Ç
passes low frequencies
Low-pass filter
Signal
input
ðSignal
output
High-pass filter
pC
pC 1 pC
2 3
source nR nR
3 load
ñ!òCó ò21#ô 345¤£®õö·÷#øùGúûöiüdý4õ g OBþ
Í Ã0´j± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«§¼Ì¯X¶¹À 0µ ¼½¯ ´ ¬Î¹ ÂÊÿ ¿ ÿ ¿iªB«¬.Ù ¼³«ªÍ¸¶-¹« 8 ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹« Ç Í Ã0´bà ¼½¾ Ã0;
ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¼Ì¯É¶¹À 0µ ¼½¯ ´ ¬¹  ٠¿'ÙB¿%ª«c¬ ÿ )¼½«2ª Í i¶-¹« 8 ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼³¹«ª¯ Èd´ ±³±®Ç ͹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ¿ ²Mà ¼½¯
ª µMµ ªB«0¾ ´ À ´ « ² ¼½¯H¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ±½Å Ë«0¹ È «Ïª¯4ª Í È ¼³« ; Í 8c±³²°´ µ ¿v¾¼½Ä¼³«c¾b¯ à ª µ°¸µM´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´XÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ã0´ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²
ÄSª ±½»0´ ¯·ª µ°´ ¶ à ¹ ¯ ´ «)¼½« ²°Ã0´¤Â ¹ ±³± ¹ È ¼³«c¾ µ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯
Component value ratios for
the "Twin-T" band-stop filter
nR = R2 = 2(R3)
1
pC = C = (0.5)C
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Ý.å ª¯M=M¯°? ªû¾ B´ Aæ@¹I« Õ ±½bÅ^8² ¹±C²M´ÂѵMµÊ´ È : »0¹ ´µ Ë!«c¯¶-¼ ² ´ ¹b¯i¹ ¯°¶»!µ°² ´ ¯°´ ¼Ì¬ «Á´ ¹ ¹ »!²#²°ÂÑà µMª ´ ²i: »0µ ªB´ «c«¾ ¶-¼´´ Ç ¯ ²Mñ ¯/ª ¹^² ˪ «0µ°¹ ´HÈ È «a¼ ²MªÃ ¯ ¼½«Ï=@?ªaû!S¶ A/´èµ°Ô#² "êªé¼³« "Jûµ ?SªI$«0"ëÕ¾ û ´ ¿ ¿=M¾?¼½Ä û¼½B«0A¾ ì°èÑ´íªè@Ö¯ IÅ ¿
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²°Ã0´ «cªÀ ´ Í È ¼³« ; Í ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ºcªB«¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ ¶¹Àɺ0¼³«ª ² ¼½¹« Ç
Ý Í Ã0´HÂѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹  Àjª × ¼³À » À ª ²/²°´ « » ª ² ¼³¹«[¼Ì¯Ê¶ª ±³±½´ ¬ ²°Ãc]´ ûÕSIÖ@îÓÂѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅÇ
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¹  ª µ ¿ ²MÃ0´8c±³²°´ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ È'´ Ä ´ ¶-¹«c¶ ´ « ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¬Ï¹« à ªÄ ´É´ À 0± ¹ Å´ ¬ è3"êIÑî0èì ¶ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯ ÕBì ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¿º »!²
« ´ Ä ´µ º¹ ²°Ã ª ²H²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´X² ¼³À ´Ç Ò ´ ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬ÏË«0¹ È º Å «0¹ Ȳ°Ã ª ² ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ² ¼³¹«c¯Ê¹ Â54 ªB«c¬>Ù È ¼ ±½±D²°´ «c¬ ² ¹
µM´ ¯°¹«cª ²°´ ¿!ª«c¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ 0µ ¹ ´µ°²Å ¶ª«[º ´^´-×!0± ¹¼ ²°´ ¬[¼½«¸¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«0¼½«0¾aºcªB«c¬ ;® ª¯°¯·ª«c¬[ºcªB«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ )8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ Ç
´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯É¾¼½Ä ´ Àa¼½«0¼½À » À ¼½À ´ ¬0ªB«¶ ´ ª ²ÉµM´ ¯°¹«ªB«c¶ ´ ¿ È·Ã ¼ ±³´Á ª µ ª ±½±½´5± 4 0 Ù 6 ² ª«0Ë7^¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯
¾¼½Ä ´ Àª × ¼³À » À ¼³À ´ ¬0ª«c¶ ´ ª ²4²MÃ0´ ¼ µ¤µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²·ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅÇ 8 «0¹ È ¼½«0¾ ²Mà ¼½¯ ¿ Èd´Éà ªÄ ´X²È ¹bºª¯°¼½¶É¯ ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¾¼ ´ ¯
 ¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«0¼³«c¾ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯#¹ µ ºªB«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ [8c±³²°´ µ ¯ Ç
70¹ µ ºcªB«¬ ;® ª¯M¯ 8±C²M´µ ¯¿ ²°Ã0´²È ¹¸ºcª¯°¼Ì¶ µM´ ¯°¹«ªB« ² ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´ ¾¼ ´ ¯Hª µ°´a²Mà ¼½¯ Ó¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù ² ¹ ª¯°¯^ª¸¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¿¹ µ
ª µ ª ±³±½´9± 4 Ù ² ¹j¯ à ¹ µ°² ª¯/¼½¾«cª ± Ç Í Ã0´¤²È ¹j¯°¶ Ãc´ À ´ ¯ È ¼ ±³± º ´ ¶¹« ²°µ ª¯ ²°´ ¬)ªB«¬[¯°¼³À »0± ª ²°´ ¬ Ã0´µM´
Series resonant band-pass filter
lfilter
:L pC
1
1
1 2 3
mV 1V
1H 1 µF
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
0 0
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¶¹ »0c±³´ ¹ Â4 ¹¼½« ² ¯ ² ¹R«c¹ ²°´ )¯ ´´)à ¹ È ²°Ã0´ µ°´ ¼½¯Éļ µ°²°» ª ±³±½Å «0¹K¯°¼½¾«cª ± ª ²/²°´ « » ª ² ¼³¹« È ¼ ²Mà ¼³« ²°Ãc´ ª¯M¯
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¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯Ê¹ µ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª ± ¹« ´Ç ± ¯°¹c¿F¯°¼³«c¶ ´X²Mà ¼½¯ 8c±³²°´ µ¤È ¹ µ Ë!¯Ê¹« ²°Ãc´É0µ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´ ¹  ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù µM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´ ¿
²°Ãc´[µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²^Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ ÂÊÈ·Ã ¼Ì¶ å à ¼½¯ » «cªBÐ ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬º Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²ÉµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¿ ²°Ã0´ Ī ±³»c´ ¹ ·²°Ã0´[± ¹ ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ µ
È ¼ ±³± «0¹ ² ¯°Ë ´È ²MÃ0´)´ ªË Âѵ°´*: »0´ «c¶ ÅIÇ H ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿D¬!¼³Ð ´µM´ « ² ÄSª ±½»0´ ¯  ¹ µX²MÃ0´[± ¹ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ Kµ JL"êÔêÔ ¶ à ªB«0¾ ´b²°Ãc´
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Í Ã0´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ºª¯°¼½¶^¯ ²Å±³´ ¹ ÂDµ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ºcª«c¬ ; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ ´ À 0± ¹ Å ¯#ª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª µ ª ±³±½´N± 4 Ù¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ;
² ¼½¹« ² ¹j¯ à ¹ µ°² ¹ »!² ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹¹ à ¼½¾ à ¹ µ#² ¹¹ ± ¹ È ¼½« ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅbÂѵ ¹ÀV¾ ´²/² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´^± ¹ªN¬
g OPO ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Parallel resonant band-pass filter
lfilter
nR
1 2 2
1
Q 2
mV 500 Ω
:L pC
1
1 1 Rload 1 kΩ
1V 100 10
mH µF
0 0
Í Ã0´4² ªB«c˶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²#È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´ ª ± ¹ ² ¹  ¼³À ´ ¬0ª«c¶ ´ ª ²'µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«¶ ´ ¿ª ±½± ¹ È ¼³«0¾ ²°Ã0´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ±0² ¹Ó¾ ´-²'² ¹ ²MÃ0´H± ¹ ª¬
0 0
È ¼ ²°Ã À¼½«0¼³Àjª ± ª ²°²°´ « » ª ² ¼½¹« ÇÊk «c¬ ´ µ ¹ µ ¹SÄ ´ µ·µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²·ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶ Å ¿ à ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿ ²°Ã0´Ó² ª«0ËÁ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²4È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´ ª
± ¹ È ¼½À ´ ¬cªB«c¶ ´ ¿c¯ à ¹ µ°² ¼½«0¾a¹ »!²·²MÃ0´ ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª«c¬[¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾Àa¹ ¯ ² ¹  ¼ ² ª¶ µ ¹ ¯°¯'¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼Ì¯ ² ¹ µ·ÿÇ
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T » ¯ ²X± ¼½Ë ´j²MÃ0´)± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯^ªB«c¬ à ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ µM´±½Å ¼³«0¾¸¹«§ªÏ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬§ª ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±
¯ à ¹ µ/² ¼³«0¾Z¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²X² ¹Rª ²/²M´ « » ª ²M´b» « È ªB« ²°´ ¬ Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶ª«§« ´ Ä ´µXcµ ¹Sļ̬ ´
ÂÑ»0±½± ¼½« 0»!² ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ %Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´² ¹ ²MÃ0´¤± ¹ ª¬ Ç Í Ã ª ² ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´HÈ ¼ ±½± ª ±½È ª Å ¯dº ´ ¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾¯/¹À ´ ªÀa¹ » « ²
¹  Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ ± ¹«c¾ª¯ ²°Ã0´ µ°´ ¼Ì¯·ª ± ¹ ª¬ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¹ »0²°0»!² ¹ ²MÃ0´¤8c±³²°´ µ Ç
² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Éº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ²9²°Ã ¼Ì¯  ¹ µ À¹  ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¼½¯9Ä ´µMÅ^ ¹ 0»0± ª µ ¼½«jªB«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²°» «0¼³«c¾
¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²°µMÅ ¿  ¹ µ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½«0¾Óª ª µ°² ¼Ì¶ »0± ª µ%µ ª¬!¼³¹ Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅÓÂѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ À »0±³² ¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¯d¹ ÂFÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯dªÄª¼ ± ªBº ±³´#Âѵ ¹À
²°Ãc´ ª« ²M´ «0«ª Ç «.À¹¯ ² ª«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²M» « ´ µ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿ ²MÃ0´[µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾Î¬!¼Ìª ±d ¹ µ ¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«2¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«.Àa¹SÄ ´ ¯Éª
ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¼½«Zª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² Ç
Í Ã0´ ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ªB«¬Kª¼ µ°; ¶¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ à ¹ È «Î¼³« ²°Ãc´ ªº¹SÄ ´Écà ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª cà ¹  ªÁ¯°¼½À c±³´µ ª¬!¼½¹
-¶ ¹À 0µ ¼Ì¯ ´²MÃ0´ ÀjªB¼½« ´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯·¼³« ²MÃ0´¤² ª«0Ë[¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²·8c±³²°´ µÊ» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹b¬!¼Ì¯M¶ µ ¼³À¼½«cª ²M´ ¹« ´^µ ª¬!¼½¹¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«U ¯Ê¯°¼½¾«cª ±
Âѵ ¹À ª«0¹ ²MÃ0´µ*Ç
T » ¯ ² ª¯ Èd´ ¶ ªB« » ¯ ´ ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯9ª«c¬ ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±F4 Ù µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ ² ¹ ª¯M¯i¹« ±½ÅX²Mà ¹¯ ´'Âѵ°´*: »0´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã ¼½«jª
¶ ´ µ/² ªB¼½« µ ªB«c¾ ´ ¿ Èd´ ¶ ªB«jª ± ¯/¹ » ¯ ´#²°Ãc´ À ² ¹^º ± ¹¶@Ë Âѵ°´*: »0´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²Mà ¼½«bª^¶ ´µ°² ª¼³« µ ªB«0¾ ´ ¿¶ µ°´ ª ² ¼½«0¾^ª¤ºcª«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹
8c±³²°´ µ Ç å ¾ªB¼½«¿ Èd´Ã ªÄ ´É²È ¹ÁÀªBï¹ µ ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´ ¾¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹  ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼³«§¬!¹¼³«0¾ ²Mà ¼½¯ ¿ ² ¹ » ¯ ´a´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯H¹ µ^ ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±
µM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´Ç 7D¼ µ ¯ ² ¿ È'´ ±½±F± ¹¹Ë[ª ²#²°Ã0´ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯#ÄSª µ ¼ ´²Å
g OPV ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Series resonant band-stop filter
R1 2
1 2
Q
500 Ω
mV 1V
L1 100 mH
Rload
n 1 kΩ
1
pC 3
10 µF
1
0 0
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Parallel resonant band-stop filter
pC 10 µF
1
1 2
:L
mV 1V
1 100 mH
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
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«ª ±½±²°Ã0´ ¯ ´#µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²G8c±³²°´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯¿ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼³Ä¼ ²Å ¬ ´ ´ «c¬0¯i¾ µM´ ª ²°±½Å^»0 ¹« ²°Ã0´ 0»0µ ¼ ²Å ¹ Âc²MÃ0´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ;
² ª«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬¸¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ª«c¶ ´X» ¯ ´ ¬ Ç Â9²°Ãc´µM´ ¼Ì¯ª« Å ¯ ²Mµ ª ÅÁµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ´ ¯ ´ ¶-¼Ìª ±½±³ÅZ± ¼³Ë ´±½Å ¼½« ²°Ãc´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ü¿ ²Mà ¼½¯
È ¼ ±³± ¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃZ²MÃ0´X8c±³²°´ µ ¯Êªº0¼ ± ¼ ²Å)² ¹ 8 « ´ ±³Å ¬!¼½¯M¶ µ ¼½Àa¼½«cª ²°´^ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯ ¿ª¯ Èd´ ±³± ª¯·¼½« ²°µ ¹¬ » ¶ ´ ª« ² ¼ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²
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È ¹ µ ¬É¹  ¶ª »!² ¼½¹« ² ¹ ²Mà ¹¯ ´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«0¼½«0¾ ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯iªB«c¬ à ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯i¼Ì¯9¼½«¹ µ ¬ ´µ ª ²i²Mà ¼½¯ ¹¼³« ² Ç Âê²°´µ
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¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¼³Ä ´ ª«c¬Á¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´^´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯ ² ¹¾ ´-²MÃ0´µ·± ¼³Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
Capacitive/inductive low-pass filter
filter
L1 2 L2
1 3
100 mH 100 mH
mV 1V pC nR 1 kΩ
1
1 1 µF load
0 0
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AC/DC power supply filter
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nR
12 V
2
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9500 1 kΩ
1 µF
load
mV
1
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¼½À ¹¯ ´ ¬Zª¶ µ ¹¯M¯ ²MÃ0´^± ¹ ª¬F¿ ²Mà ¼Ì¯Ê¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« cµ ¹SÄ ´ ¯d¼ ² ¯ ´ ±CÂD² ¹jº ´ ªaå Ä ´µMÅb´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä ´¤ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »c00å ±½Åj8c±³²°´µ*Ç
Í Ã0´Ê±½´ ¯M¯°¹« ±³´ ª µ « ´ ¬ Ã0´ µ°´ ªº¹ »!²%µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²N´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¯%ª ± ¯°¹Xª 0c± ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«¹ ÂFà ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ » ¯°¼³«c¾
º¹ ²°Ã ¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯4ªB«¬Ï¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç ¹ ± ¹«0¾Áª¯ ²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ÏªB«c¬ » «c¬ ´ ¯/¼ µM´ ¬ ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯Hª µM´ÓÈ'´±½±D² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ
¯°¼½¬ ´ ¹ ÂG²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²# ¹¼³« ² ¿ ²°Ã0´¤8c±³²°´ µÊÈ ¼ ±³±FÈ ¹ µ Ëb¹ËSª ÅÇ © »!² ¼  ª« Å ¯/¼½¾«ª ± ¹  ¯/¼½¾«c¼ 8 ¶ ªB« ² Àª¾«0¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¶ ± ¹¯ ´
² ¹ ²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²#ÂѵM´ : »0´ «¶ Å ¼Ì¯·ª 0c± ¼ ´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¼³« 0»!² ¹ ²°Ãc´¤8c±C²M´µ ¿c¯ ²°µ ªB«0¾ ´4²Mà ¼³«c¾¯ È ¼ ±³±Fà ª 0´ N« f
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
g V@ ih ô Hø öiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Ý ºcÿ·ªB´ «c¯°¹¬ «c;® ªª« ¯°² ¯#¶ª¹«cÀɬÁº0ºc¼³«ªBª «c² ¬ ¼½¹; ¯«² ¯i¹ ¹ [ 8¶±Cª ²M ´ªµ ¯ ¶-¼ È ² ª¼ «c²Mà ¶ ¹´ »0ª²·«c²°¬aÃ0¼³´ «c¬« » ´´ ¶ ¬² ªB «c¹ ¶ µ ´ ª¶¬0ªB¬ «´ º ¬ ´Êµ°´´ À¯/¼Ì¯ 0² ± ªB¹ «Å ¶ ´ ´ ¬ ¼³² «¸¹Xªj¶ µM¶´ ¼ ª µ ²°¶ ´ » ¼ Ä ²·´ ²°µ°ÃÅXª ´ ²4Ð È ´ ¶ ¹ ² »0¼³Ä ± ¬ ´
¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃÁ²°Ãc´^ ª¯M¯°ª¾ ´ ¹  ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ ¬ ÂѵM´ : »0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ Ç
o2π
1
fresonant = :LC
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st
å¬ ´ ¯ ¯/¼½±½¾´ « «0¾Ç ²°ÃÅ : »ª¯¼½¶@˲°Ã ¼Ì¯¤´ µ°¶ » à ¯Mª ª 0± ²°¹ ´ÂµªBà « ªÅ ¯ªº ¬0´Ä´ «ª«c»0¶ ¸´ ¬ ² ¹8c±C²M²Môµ ¼Ì¯ ¬ ´ ¹¯°¼³¼½¾« « ² ¿v²M¼ ´-² ×¹² º« ¹±³Å ¹Ë[º ´ ¼½¯Ê¾¼³¯ «»!¯ < ² ¶-¹[¼ ´ ¯M« ¶ ²·µ ª ² ² ¹ ¶ ÃÏ0µ ²°¹SÃ0Ä ´ ´ ¯ À »cµ/Å) ª ¶ ¹´ ¼½« ¹ ² Â9Ç 8cÍ ±³²°Ãc´´µ
Àjª ²MÃ0´ Àjå ª ² ¼½¶ ¯^¼½« Ĺ ± Ä ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¶¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«§ªB«c¬ ÂѵM´ : »0´ «c¶ ÅKµ°´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´j0µM´ ¬!¼Ì¶ ² ¼³¹«>¼½¯X¬cª » « ² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹
¯Mª Ť²°Ã0´·±½´ ª¯ ]² XÈd´ ±³± º ´Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯M¶-¹ ´ ¹ Âc²°Ãc´ º ´ ¾¼³«c«0¼³«c¾ ´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯i¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²*Ç ²Nà ª¯Dº ´ ´ «À Å ¼³« ²°´ « ²NÃ0´µM´
² ¹ 0µ°´ ¯ ´ « ²Ê²°Ã0´ ºcª¯°¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼³«c¶¼ c±³´ ¯4¹ ÂD8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« È ¼ ²Mà ª¯ ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ Àjª ²°Ã ª¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´ ¿ ±½´ ªB«c¼³«0¾)¹« ²°Ãc´Ó ¹ Èd´ µ
¹ Âi²MÃ0´ u°Ù'Ú¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯ 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀ ² ¹ ´×!0± ¹ µ°´H8c±³²°´ µ4´µ°Â ¹ µ ÀjªB«c¶ ´Ç Í Ãc´ º ´ « ´-8c² ¹  ¯ » ¶ à ¶-¹À 0»0²°´µ
¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«Z¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´ ¶ª«0«0¹ ² º ´^» «c¬ ´µ ¯ ² ª ²°´ ¬F¿  ¹ µ#²MÃ0´ º ´ ¾¼½«0«0¼½«0¾b¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² ¹ µ# ¹ µ#²°Ã0´^È ¹ µ ˼³«0¾ ´ «c¾¼½« ´´ µ Ç
Ùd¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«j¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´·´ À ¹ È'´µ ¯ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²d² ¹ ´×c± ¹ µ°´ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯  ª µ º ´ Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´4µ°´ ª¶ Ã
¹ '²°Ãc´ ¼ µ Àjª ²°Ã ¯°Ë¼ ±½± ¯ Ç Ò¼ ²°Ã>²MÃ0´ ªBº0¼ ± ¼ ²ÅR² ¹¸¾ ´ « ´µ ª ²M´ ©d¹!¬ ´jc± ¹ ² ¯^ªB«¬ cµ°´ ¶-¼Ì¯ ´8 ¾ »0µM´ ¯ ¿ªB«>¼½« ²M» ¼ ² ¼½Ä ´j» « ;
¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾Ï¹  ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¯É¶ªB«.º ´ ª ²°² ªB¼½« ´ ¬F¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à ¼½¯a¯°¹À ´-²Mà ¼³«c¾R¹ Âê²M´ « ± ¹¯ ²ÉÈ·Ãc´ «2ªK¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ² ¼½¯
º »0µ ¬ ´ « ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ãb²°Ã0´² ª¯/Ëa¹  ¯°¹ ± ļ³«0¾ ±³´ «0¾ ²Mà Åa´ : » ª ² ¼½¹«c¯%º Åaà ªB«c¬ Ç ÂÅ ¹ » ª µM´ «0¹ ²% ªÀa¼ ± ¼½ª µdÈ ¼ ²°Ãj²MÃ0´4» ¯ ´ ¹ Â
u°Ù'Ú.¹ µ ¹ ²°Ãc´µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹« 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀj¯¿ ² ªË ´²°Ã0´¤² ¼³À ´¤² ¹aº ´ ¶¹À ´ ¯/¹ fi ²ÊÈ ¼ ±½± º ´ ¹  ¾ µ°´ ª ² º ´ « ´-80²
² ¹ Å ¹ »cµ ¯ ²M» ¬ ÅÇ ÍG¹X¯ ´ ´ u°Ù'ÚΪ«cª ±½Å ¯ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ¯ ´ « ²°´ ¬a¼³« ²Mà ¼½¯%º¹¹ËӼ̯%ªB«jª¼½¬ ² ¹ » «c¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾X¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ ¿º »!²
² ¹Xª¶ ²M» ª ±½±³Å ¯ ´²N»0 ªB«¬aª«cª ±½Å b ´#Å ¹ »0µ ¹ È «¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯i¼Ì¯Nª¤À » ¶ à À¹ µM´#´ «0¾ ªB¾¼³«0¾^ª«c¬ È ¹ µ/²Mà ȷà ¼ ±½´
´ «¬ ´ ªÄ¹ µ ª¯·ªj¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² Ç
d
Ò ´ ª ± ¯/¹§Ë«0¹ È ²°Ã ª ² ª«¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µb´× ¹¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ª¶ à ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´ ± ¬ È ¼ ±½± ¬ ´ Ä ´± ¹ ª§Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
l = Average length of coil in meters
ª ¶ µ ¹ ¯°¯4¼ ² ¯ ±³´ «0¾ ²MÃÇ Í Ã0´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ² ¼³¹« ² ¹Z¶ à ª«0¾ ´ ¯Ê¼½«K¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¼Ì¯HªbÀjªB«0¼ ÂÑ´ ¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«K¹ ÂN²Mà ¼½¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¿
²°Ãc´ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ´ ¬[Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´H0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬[º Åb²MÃ0´ ¶ à ªB«c¾ ´ ¼³«Z¼ ² ¯·¹ È «ÁÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´± ¬Z¯ ²Mµ°´ «0¾ ²MÃ[cµ ¹!¬ » ¶¼³«c¾ªÄ¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃZ²°µ ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹)ÀjªB¼½« ² ªB¼½«Ï¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ª ²Ê²°Ã ª ² ¯MªBÀ ´ ÀjªB¾«0¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ªB«c¬Z¼½« ²°Ã ª ² ¯MªBÀ ´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ² ¼½¹« Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯Ê¼Ì¯4¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬
¯ ´±³Âê; ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¼³¹« Ç Í Ã0´ ¾ µ°´ ª ²M´µ'²°Ã0´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯·¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ëÀ ´ ª¯ »0µM´ ¬[¼³« ²°Ãc´^» «0¼ ² ¹ ÂLHÊ´ « µ°Å ¯)Ü¿ ²MÃ0´ À¹ µM´
g V7?
g V7O ih ô øöiüdý¬ ò iö ý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
¯ ´±³Âê; ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ÁĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´È ¼ ±³± º ´^0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬  ¹ µ ªa¾¼½Ä ´ « µ ª ²M´ ¹  ¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¶ à ª«0¾ ´ ¹SÄ ´ µ%² ¼³À ´ Ç
² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬ ¯ ² ªB«c¬ ² ¹ µM´ ª¯/¹«¿ ²MÃ0´ «¿ ²Mà ª ² ¼  ª>¶ à ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8c´ ± ¬ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ º Å ¹« ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¶ ª µ°µMÅ ¼³«c¾Kª ±³²°´ µ «ª ² ¼½«0¾>¶ »0µMµM´ « ²aÈ'´µM´[² ¹~ ± ¼³«cË\ È ¼ ²°Ã2²°Ã0´Z²M»0µ «¯¹ Â4È ¼ µ°´ ¼½« ª«0¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¿d¼ ²bÈ ¹ »0± ¬
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ´ ªB« å ÙĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¼³« ²MÃ0´X» « ¹ È'´µM´ ¬Z¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯Ê¼Ì¯¬ ´-8 «0¼ ²°´ ±³Å[²°Ãc´ ¶ª¯ ´ ¿ª«c¬ ²°Ã0´Ó0Ã0´ «c¹À ´ «0¹«
¼Ì¯·¶ª ±½±½´ ¬ é°¯!I$¯c?SÔ9"Jû!¯cÖI?ûÖ@è-Ç å ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¶¹«c¯ ²°µM» ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ´×c± ¹¼ ²#²°Ã ¼½¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼Ì¯·¶ª ±½±½´ ¬Áª I®ì°?û0æÑJ-ÕSìÜéjè-ìÜÇ Í Ãc´
¯ Å Àɺ¹ ±v ¹ µ ª ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#± ¹¹Ë!¯ ± ¼½Ë ´H²Mà ¼½¯
Transformer
Í Ã0´a²È ¹[¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯Hª µ°´a´ ª¯/¼ ±½Å ¬!¼½¯ ² ¼½«0¾ » ¼½¯ Ã0´ ¬R¼½« ²MÃ0´ ªBº¹SÄ ´ ¯ Å Àɺ¹ ± Ç Í Ã0´ ªB¼ µ ¹ Â Ä ´µ°² ¼Ì¶ª ±i± ¼½« ´ ¯
Mµ ´0µM´ ¯ ´ « ² ªB«¼ µ ¹«¶-¹ µ°´ ¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ² ¹¤º¹ ²°Ã ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ Àjª« ÅX²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ à ªÄ ´dÂÑ´µMµ ¹Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶d¶¹ µM´
Àjª ²M´µ ¼½ª ± ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´µM´ ª µM´ ¯°¹À ´'²°Ã ª ² ¬!¹^«0¹ ² ¿ ²°Ã0´ ¼ µ ¶¹«c¯ ² ¼ ²°»c´ « ² ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯iº ´ ¼³«c¾^Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½ÅX± ¼³«0Ë ´ ¬ ² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ
²°Ãcµ ¹ » ¾ Ã>²MÃ0´ ª¼ µ*Ç Í Ã0´b ¹ ±³± ¹ È ¼³«c¾ 0à ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª 0à ¯ à ¹ È ¯ ²È ¹¸¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶¹¼ ± ¯ È ¹ » «c¬§ª µ ¹ » «c¬§ª ²°» º ´) ¹ µ ÀÁ¿
 ¹ µ4²°Ã0´É0»0µM ¹ ¯ ´ ¹ Âi ¹ µ À¼³«0¾[ªjÀ »!²M» ª ± ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¯ ² ª«c¬0ª µ ¬ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ À¹¯ ²Ê²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ´ «c¶ ± ¹¯ ´
²°Ãc´ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯4ª«c¬¸¶-¹ µ°´ ¼³«RªbÀ ´² ª ±Âѵ ªBÀ ´^ ¹ µ40µ ¹ ²M´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¼Ì¯Ê¹ ´ «  ¹ µ ļ ´È ¼½«0¾)ª«c¬Ï¯°¹)¯ ´ µ Ä ´ ¯·¼ ² ¯
¼ ±³±½» ¯ ²°µ ª ² ¼½Ä ´¤0»cµ° ¹¯ ´¤Èd´ ±³±
¬ cò ±ò ®³²'ö§² ô û>új=´K²>·ö ô =°iü ô =µ´·¶ ô õ!ú÷#ødü%ý ô öDú÷>= g VO
^ « ´ ¶¹¼ ± ¹ ÂNÈ ¼ µM´ ¶ ªB«Ïº ´ ¯ ´´ « Ã0´µM´XÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¶-¹ c´ µ/; ¶-¹ ± ¹ µ°´ ¬[ÄSª µ «0¼Ì¯ à ¼³«c¯ »0± ª ² ¼³¹« Ç Í Ã0´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¿À » ¶ Ã
¾ µM´ ª ²°´ µ ¼½« ±³´ «0¾ ²Mà ¿ à ª¯·ªB«Z¼³«¯ »0± ª ² ¼³¹« ± ª Å´ µ'²°Ã ª ² ¼½¯#¾ µ°´ ´ «Á¼³«¸¶-¹ ± ¹ µ Ç
© ÅKà ªÄ ¼½«0¾ ²È ¹¸¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Ó¶¹ »00±½´ ¬ ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ º Å ªÏ¶-¹ÀÀa¹«§ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´ ± ¬ ª ²°Ã ¿D¼ ² ¼Ì¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´j² ¹
I®ì°? ûcæêJ-èì9´ « ´µ ¾ ÅÉÂѵ ¹À ¹« ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²d² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¹ ²°Ãc´µ ¿ µ ª ²MÃ0´µ%²°Ã ª«^ï » ¯ ²æÜIÕSì°è%´ « ´ µ ¾ Å ¼½« ²MÃ0´ Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶
8c´ ± ¬ Ç «^¹ µ ¬ ´ µÂ ¹ µ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ² ¹ È ¹ µ Ëv¿ ¹  ¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8´± ¬ à ª¯ ² ¹º ´ ¶-¹«¯ ² ªB« ²°±½Å ¶ à ªB«0¾¼³«0¾·¼½«Ó¯ ²°µM´ «0¾ ²°Ã ¿
¹ ²MÃ0´µMÈ ¼Ì¯ ´ «0¹jĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´¤È ¼ ±½± º ´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ´ ¬Z¼³« ²MÃ0´^» « ¹ È'´µM´ ¬Z¶-¹¼ ±®Ç Í Ã» ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´¤²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼Ì¯ ´ ¯M¯ ´ « ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Å ª«
ª ±³²°´ µ «ª ² ¼½«0¾j¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² å >Ù #¬ ´ Ä ¼Ì¶ ´Ç
« ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯%ª µ°´ ¹ Âê²°´ « µ°´ÂÑ´µMµ°´ ¬ ² ¹aª¯ JL"Jû!"Jû\¸Sæ ¿¼³« µ°´ÂÑ´µM´ «c¶ ´·² ¹ ²°Ã0´ Àª« »! ª¶ ;
²°»cµ ¼½«0¾ 0µ ¹¶ ´ ¯M¯ È·Ã0´µM´#È ¼ µM´ ¼½¯ J%PÕ ¯sû ª µ ¹ » «¬ ²°Ãc´ ¶-¹ µM´ Àª ²°´ µ ¼Ìª ±®Ç Í Ã0´· ¹ È'´µM´ ¬X¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¹  ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¼Ì¯%¶ª ±³±½´ ¬ ²MÃ0>´ 1ì "êéj?S1ì ¹4È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾¿ È·Ã ¼ ±½´·²°Ãc´Ê» « ¹ Èd´ µ°´ ¬¶-¹¼ ± ¼Ì¯%¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬ ²MÃ0´Xæè@Ö@Õ û!?S1ì ¹·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç ² ¼½¯ ´ ª¯ ÅX² ¹
g V7V ih ô øöiüd ý ¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
¬ ´ Àa¹«c¯ ²°µ ª ²°´ ¯°¼³À 0±½´Ó²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ª¶ ² ¼³¹« » ¯°¼³«c¾nu°Ù'ÚÊ¿F¯ ´-²/² ¼³«c¾ »0K²°Ãc´acµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬R¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅÁÈ ¼½«c¬ ;
¼½«0¾¯#¹ ÂG²MÃ0´ ¯/¼½À »c± ª ²°´ ¬ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ª¯·ª ªB¼ µ ¹  BÀ »!²°» ª ± a¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç Í Ã0´ ¶-¹ ´< ¶¼ ´ « ² ¹  Àjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ 8c´± ¬
¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾É¼Ì¯#¾¼½Ä ´ «)ª ²#²°Ãc´H´ «c¬b¹ ²MÃ0´ BË ± ¼³« ´ ¼½« ²°Ã0´ u°Ù'Ú2¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯M¶ µ ¼ 0² ¼½¹«¿ ²°Ã ¼½¯ ´× ªÀ 0±³´ º ´ ¼½«0¾j¯ ´²
Ä ´ µ°Å « ´ ª µ°±½Å ª ²4´µ°ÂÑ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹º « g Ç PPP Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯¶¹ ´-< ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¬ ´ ¯°¶ µ ¼½º ´ ¯ à ¹ È ¶ ± ¹ ¯ ´ ±³Å ± ¼½«0Ë ´ ¬F ²°Ã0´Ó²È ¹)¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯
ª µM´ ¿vÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ ª ±½±³ÅÇ Í Ãc´ º ´-²°²°´µH²MÃ0´ ¯ ´Ó²È ¹)¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª µM´ Àjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶¹ »00±½´ ¬¿ ²°Ã0´ À¹ µM´Ó´-< ¶¼ ´ « ²H²°Ãc´
´ « ´µ ¾ Ų°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ º ´²Èd´ ´ « ²°Ã0´ À ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬[º ´Ç
(for SPICE to measure current)
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²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯  ¹ µ ¯Mª ÂÑ´µ ¹ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹«bªB«c¬ ±½´ ¯M¯ ´×!´ «c¯/¼½Ä ´4´Ä » ¼ À ´ « ² Ç å ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ9²°Ã ª ² ¼½«c¶ µ°´ ª¯ ´ ¯NĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
¬ ò 0Ï ò õöiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ Å Ûþ
Âѵ ¹À cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅj² ¹b¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ÑÀ¹ µM´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»0µ «c¯ ²Mà ªB« cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅbÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾ ²°»0µ «c¯)'¼½¯¶ª ±½±½´ ¬Áª
æ1Ñèlæl¯SX²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ Ç Ùd¹«Ä ´ µ ¯ ´±½Å ¿Bª ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹X¬!¹'ï » ¯ ²N²°Ãc´ ¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ²M´ ¼½¯N¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬Éª æ1ÑèÕ!æÌÕJLç
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
«b¶ª¯ ´4Å ¹ »jÈ'´µM´·È ¹«c¬ ´ µ ¼½«0¾¿¼ ² "Ìæ9 ¹ ¯°¯°¼½º ±³´Ê² ¹X¹ ´ µ ª ²°´Ê´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¹ ÂF²°Ãc´ ¯ ´·²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ9²Å´ ¯%ºcª¶@Ë È ª µ ¬0¯
¹ È'´µ ¼³«0¾ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅaÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾ È ¼ ²°Ã ªB« å Ù¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ ªB«c¬ ±³´²/² ¼³«0¾ ²°Ãc´0µ ¼½Àª µ°ÅÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ¹ È'´µ ª ± ¹ª¬`
² ¹ ´ µ/ ¹ µ À ²°Ãc´ ¹ 0 ¹ ¯/¼ ²°´XÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼³¹«Nʪ)¯ ²°´ Í»0 ¶ª« ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼½¹«Rª¯4ª[¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «ÏªB«¬¸Ä¼½¯Mª Í Ä ´ µ ¯Mª ÇH ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿
ª¯ È'´ ¯Mª È ¼³« ²MÃ0°´ Écµ ¯ ² ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«K¹ Â9²°Ã ¼½¯¤¶ à ª !²°´ µ ¿ 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¹ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹«¸¹  ª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ4µM´ Ä » ¼ µM´ ¯ ²Mà ª ²H²°Ãc´
¼½«c¬!¼½Ä ¼Ì¬ » ª ±9È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾[¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯¤º ´´ «c¾¼½« ´´ µ°´ ¬  ¹ µ ¯ ´ ¶-¼ É ¶É¹ ´µ ª ² ¼½«0¾ µ ª«0¾ ´ ¯4¹  Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«¬K¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¿
¯°¹Î¼  ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼½¯ ² ¹>º ´¸» ¯ ´ p ¬ ºcª¶@Ë È ª µ ¬0M¯ ± ¼½Ë ´Z²Mà ¼½¯b¼ ² À » ¯ ² º ´Ï´ À 0± ¹ Å´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¼½« ²°Ãc´ ¹ µ ¼³¾¼³«cª ±
¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ª µ ªBÀ ´-²M´µ ¯·¹  Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬R¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²4 ¹ µ´ ª¶ Ã¸È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾¿ ±³´ ¯ ² ¼ ²¤0µ ¹SÄ ´¤² ¹[º ´ ¼½« 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ѹ µH±½´ ¯ ² ¼ ²
º K´ @ÔS'é Ô¸ )è º Å)´× ¶ ´ ¯M¯/¼½Ä ´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹ µ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² fè Ç
Í µ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯aª µM´ ¹ Âê²°´ «¶¹«c¯ ²°µM» ¶ ²°´ ¬2¼½«¯ » ¶ à ª È ª ŧ²Mà ª ² ¼ ² ¼½¯b«0¹ ² ¹ºÄ¼½¹ » ¯ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ Ã È ¼ µM´ ¯ ±½´ ª¬ ² ¹
²°Ãc´acµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ¸È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾Ïª«c¬ È·Ã ¼½¶ Ãα³´ ª¬ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅÇ ^ « ´ ¶¹«Ä ´ « ² ¼½¹« » ¯ ´ ¬R¼½« ²MÃ0´j´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ¹ Èd´ µ
¼½«c¬ » ¯ ²°µMÅR² ¹ Ã0´±½ ª ±½±½´ ļ½ª ²°´ ¶¹« ÂÑ» ¯°¼½¹«§¼Ì¯ ²°Ã0´)» ¯ ´ ¹  H ¸¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«cª ² ¼³¹«c¯  ¹ µ^²°Ã0´)à ¼³¾ Ã0´Mµ Í Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´aÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾
²MÃ0´·0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å^È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¤¼³«jªH¯ ²M´ Í ¬!¹ È « » «0¼ ² é²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å^È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¤¼½«aª¤¯ ²°´F Í®»0 iªB«c ¬ Pꧬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ² ¼½¹«¯
 ¹ µÊ²°Ã0´^± ¹ Èd´ ̵ Í Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´4È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç Í Ã0´µM´- ¹ µ°´ ¿0ªj¯/¼½À 0±³´^ ¹ È'´µ#²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ·È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´^È ¼ µM´ ¯ ± ªBº ´±½´ n¬ H 0¿
H c7¿ Pê c¿ ª«c. ¬ Pê Ç Í Ã0´ µ°´ ¼Ì¯ » ¯ » ª ±³±½Å ¯°¼³¾«0¼ É ¶ª«c¶ ´#² ¹ ²°Ã0´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¼³«0¾Ó¹ Âv²°Ã0´4È ¼ µM´ ¯ H§ į iÇ Hµ ¿ ´² ¶ Ç Ü¿
È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃZÈd´ ±½±F´-×!0± ¹ µM´ ª ± ¼ ²/²°±½´^± ª ²°´ µ ¼³« ²Mà ¼½¯4¶ à ª !²M´µ*Ç
Í Ã0´Â ª¶ ²d²Mà ª ² Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬[¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ¾ ´-² ¯ ²°´ 0´ F¬ X¼½«Á¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ²M´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«c§¯ ѹ« ´»c ¿ ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¬!¹ È «
ÀjªBË ´ ¯ ´µ°ÂÑ´ ¶ ² ¯ ´ «¯ ´ÉÈ·Ã0´ « Å ¹ »Rµ°´ ¶ª ±½±²Mà ª ²¤ ¹ Èd´ µ ¼Ì¯ S´ Ä » ª ±G² ¹[Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´^² ¼³À ´ ¯H¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¿ª«c¬ µM´ ª ± c¼ b ´Ó²°Ã ª ²
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯N¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² vì°Õ P¯cÖ@è% ¹ È'´µ ¿¹« ±³Å ¶¹«Ä ´ µ/² ¼ ² Ç å « Å ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´Ê²Mà ª ² ¶-¹ »0± ¬b¹ »!²M0»!² Àa¹ µ°´ ¹ È'´µ%²°Ã ª«
¼ ²Ê² ¹¹ËÁ¼½« È ¹ »0± ¬Áļ½¹ ± ª ²°´¤²MÃ0´ë]ÔJÕÌÖ§ìçvè-ì$¸P¹díNÕPç0æè-ì1îÔÑ$"ëÕç ¼½« 0ÃÅ ¯°¼Ì¶¯ ¿0«cªBÀ ´ ±³Å[²°Ã ª ²4´ « ´µ ¾ Å ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² º ´
¶ µM´ ª ²°´ ¬K¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯ ²°µ ¹ Å´ ¬F¿¹« ±½Å ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²°´ ¬ Ç ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã>²°Ãc'´ Écµ ¯ ²^²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ^´-× ªBÀ 0±½´jÈd´j± ¹¹Ë ´ ¬Îª ² ¿ ¹ Èd´ µ
²°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ·´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯·Ä ´ µ°Å ¾¹ ¹!¬ Âѵ ¹À ²°Ãc´^å 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅj² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¯°¼½¬ ´ ¯#¹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´Ç
Í Ã0´'0µ ª¶ ² ¼½¶ ª ± ¯/¼½¾«c¼ É ¶ ªB«c¶ ´ ¹ Â0²°Ã ¼½¯i¼Ì¯DÀª¬ ´ Àa¹ µ°´ ª 0 ª µM´ « ²DÈ·Ãc´ «Éª«Éª ±C²M´µ «cª ² ¼³Ä ´ ¼Ì¯9¶-¹«¯/¼Ì¬ ´µM´ N¬ Fº ´Â ¹ µM´
²°Ãc´ ª¬0Ä ´ « ² ¹ Âv´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ²%²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿BĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ aS¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²i±½´ Ä ´ ± ¶-¹«Ä ´µ ¯°¼³¹«a¶¹ »0± ¬¹« ±½Å º ´ ª¶ à ¼ ´ Ä ´ ¬ ²°Ã0µ ¹ » ¾ Ã
²°Ãc´[» ¯ ´ ¹  À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ Ç å ¬ µ ª È ¼³«0¾K¹  ªKÀ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-²µ°´ Ä ´ ª ± ¯ ²°Ã0´ ºcª¯/¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´
¼½« Ĺ ± Ä ´ ¬9
A motor/generator set
Power
in
ð
Power
out
ïcoupling
Shaft
Motor Generator
«§¯ » ¶ à ªÁÀjª¶ à ¼³« ´ ¿GªZÀ¹ ² ¹ µ ¼Ì¯^À ´ ¶ à ª«0¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶-¹ »00±½´ ¬ ² ¹ÏªZ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹
0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´a²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ ±½´ Ä ´± ¯¤¹  Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ªB«c¬>¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ª ²¤²°Ãc´jµ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«c¾Á¯ ´ ´ ¬Î¹ Â'²°Ãc´ Àa¹ ² ¹ µ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ º¹ ²MÃ
À¹ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª«c¬Ï¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ª µM´Ó ª¼ µM±³Å¸´Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¬ ´ ļ̶ ´ ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´a» ¯ ´ ¹  º¹ ²°Ã ¼³« ²°Ã ¼½¯  ª¯ à ¼½¹«>¶-¹À ¹ » «c¬0¯ ²°Ã0´ ¼ µ
¼½« 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯b¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ²j²°Ã0´ ¹SÄ ´µ ª ±½±#´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯j¼½« ²°Ã0´¸µ ªB«0¾ ´ ¹ Â^Û Æ È ¹ µj±½´ ¯M¯ Ç Ò »0µ°²°Ã0´ µ À¹ µ°´ ¿%º ´ ¶ª » ¯ ´
À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯H¹ºÄ¼³¹ » ¯ ±½ÅZµ°S´ Ä » ¼ µM´ À¹Sļ½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿À ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±iÈd´ ª µ ªB«c¬Rºcª ± ªB«c¶ ´ ª µ°´É ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¼³« Í
Å @Û iË ô ø öiüdý¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
g »0´ «c¶-¼½«0¾Áº¹ ²°Ã ¯ ´ µ ļ̶ ´a± ¼ ÂÑ´ ªB«c¬ ´ µ/ ¹ µ Àjª«c¶ ´Ç Í µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯¿¹« ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µHà ªB«c¬F¿Gª µM´ ªBº ±³´É² ¹¸¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²
±½´ Ä ´ ± ¯d¹  å ٠Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬[¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ª ² Ä ´ µ°Åà ¼½¾ Ã[´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²Mà «0¹ÉÀ¹SÄ ¼½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿ÀªË¼³«0¾ ¹ ¯°¯°¼½º ±³´²°Ãc´
È ¼Ì¬ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ª¬Á¬!¼Ì¯ ²Mµ ¼½º »!² ¼³¹«Áª«c¬ » ¯ ´ ¹ ÂD´ ±³´ ¶ ²Mµ ¼Ì¶ ¹ È'´µ#È'´¤² ªBË ´4 ¹ µ ¾ µ ªB« ²M´ ¬ Ç
«¸ª ±½±F ªB¼ µ « ´ ¯M¯·¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Áº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ² À¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ à ªÄ ´ «0¹ ² « ´ ¶ ´ ¯°¯Mª µ ¼ ±½Å º ´´ «¸¹ºc¯°¹ ±½´-²M´ ¬
º ÅÁ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯  ¹ µ'ÔSÔêÔ ª 00± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´É²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯Êª µ°´ ¶ ±³´ ª µM±³Å ¯ »0´ µ ¼½¹ µ ¹SÄ ´ µ À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ
¯ ´-² ¯  ¹ µ ÙĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬Î¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²¤±½´ Ä ´± ¶¹«Ä ´ µ ¯°¼³¹«¿ ²°Ã0´ Å ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² ¹« ´aÂѵ°S´ Ä»c´ «c¶ Å ¹  ٠¹ Èd´ µ
² ¹KªB«0¹ ²°Ã0å ´ µ ¿D¹ µ ëº ÅR²MÃ0´ Àj¯ ´± Ä ´ ¯)^¶¹«Ä ´ µ/² o^Ù ² ¹ å Ù¹ µ Ä ¼Ì¯Mª Í Ä ´µ ¯Mª sÇ ð ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Ó¶å ªB«¬!¹Ïª ±³±
²°Ãc´ ¯ ´²Mà ¼½«0¾¯ È ¼ ²°ÃZµM´± ª ² ¼½Ä ´ ¯°¼³À 0± ¼½¶¼ ²Å ¿cª ± º ´ ¼ ²#È ¼ ²°ÃÁ²MÃ0´¤± ¼½À¼ ² ª ² ¼½¹«¯·¹ ÂD3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ªB«¬)À ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±Â ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯
ª ±½µM´ ª¬ Å ¬ ´ ¯M¶ µ ¼½º ´ ¬ Çtð ¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Éª ± ¯/¹ à ªÄ ´²°Ã0´b» «0¼ Ä »0´[0µ ¹ ´µ°²Å ¹  ˼³« ´-² ¼Ì¶ ´ « ´µ ¾ Å ¯ ² ¹ µ ªB¾ ´
²°Ã ª ² ¼Ì¯ ¿S¼ Â0²MÃ0´ À¹ ² ¹ µ ¯ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »000±½Å ¼½¯GÀ¹À ´ « ² ª µ ¼ ±½Å ¼½« ²°´ µ°µM»0!²M´ ¬  ¹ µ ªB« ŤµM´ ª¯°¹«¿ ¼ ² ¯DªB«0¾ »0± ª µ À¹À ´ « ²°» À
²MÃ0´ ¼³« ´µ°² ¼ÌªÓ¹ ²°Ã ª ²'µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾ÉÀjª¯M¯ È ¼ ±½± ÀjªB¼½« ² ªB¼½« µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼½¹«)¹ ²MÃ0´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µN ¹ µ ªa¯ à ¹ µ°² ¬ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹«¿ ²°Ã» ¯
¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0¾jªB« Åj± ¹ ª¬0¯ ¹ È'´µM´ ¬bº Å)²°Ã0´ ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µdÂѵ ¹ñ À ¾ ± ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯ Ó¼½« ²°Ã0´ Àjª¼³« ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ Å ¯ ²M´ À Ç
4 ¹¹Ë ¼½«0¾¶ ± ¹¯ ´±½Å ª ²#²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¯#¼³« ²°Ãc´ °Ù'Ú ªB«cª ±³Å ¯°¼½¯ ¿ Èd´ ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬Z¯ ´´ ª¶-¹ µMµM´ ¯ ¹«c¬ ´ «¶ ´ º ´-²È'´´ «
²°Ãc´[²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ µ ª ² ¼½¹Îª«c¬ ²MÃ0´Z²È ¹K¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯ Ç Øʹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´Zà ¹ ÈV²MÃ0´Z0µ ¼³Àjª µMÅ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ± ÅY à ªG¯ ÅÆ7Æ
² ¼½À ´ ¯dÀ¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´Ê²Mà ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ jÅÆ7Æ@Æ7Æ H Ä ´ µ ¯ » µ¯ ÅÆ@Æ H Ü¿!ª«c¬ ²°Ã ª ²%²MÃ0´ À ´ ª¯ »0µM´ ¬
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²°´ Í ¬0¹ È « µ ª ² ¼³¹ È ª¯ ÅÆ ² '¹ Å Ç Í Ã0´·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ ²°Ã À¹ µM´ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´·È ¼ ±½±0à ªÄ ´dà ¼½¾ Ãc´µ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬
±½´ ¯M¯^¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²²Mà ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ Ç ¼½«c¶ ´a²MÃ0´a²È ¹Z¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¤ª µM´È ¹ » «c¬Rª µ ¹ » «c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´ ¶-¹ µ°´ Àjª ²°´ µ ¼Ìª ± ¼½«
²°Ãc´·²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ  ¹ µN²MÃ0´ À¹¯ ²%´ Ç ¶¼ ´ « ² Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶Ê¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾^º ´²Èd´ ´ « ²°Ãc´·²È \¹ Ü¿ ²°Ã0´Ê ª µ ªBÀ ´-²M´µ ¯9ªSÐ ´ ¶ ² ¼³«c¾
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´·Â ¹ µN²°Ãc´·²È ¹É¶-¹¼ ± ¯Nª µM´·´ Ä » ª ±c´-× ¶ ´!²N ¹ µ9²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¹ Âv²°»cµ «c¯%¼³« ´ ª¶ à ¶-¹¼ ±®Ç ÂÈd´·² ªBË ´ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ
± ¹ ¹Ëbª ² ¹ »0µ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Â ¹ µ À »0± ª0¿ È'´ ¯ ´´H²°Ã ª ² ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¼½¯ cµ ¹ ¹ µ/² ¼³¹«cª ±² ¹ ²MÃ0´a3æ ò¯`ÔSìMè ¹ ÂG²°Ã0´ « » ÀÓº ´µ
¹ Â ¶-¹¼ ±v²M»0µ «c¯
óL = ªN2µA
ôl
Where,
óL = Inductance of coil in Henrys
ªN = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
«µ = Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
õA = öArea of coil in square meters
ôl = öAverage length of coil in meters
¹¿!¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬[º ´ ª 0 ª µ°´ « ²'²°Ã ª ² ¹ »cµ#²È ¹¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯#¼½« ²MÃ0´^± ª¯ ² F° Ù'Ú ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#´-× ªBÀ 0±½´ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²
ÁÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Éµ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯Ê¹  ÅSÆ@Æ`<Å ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬ à ªÄ ´ ¶-¹¼ ±G²°»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯4¹  ÅSÆFcÅ¿º ´ ¶ª »¯ ´ ÅÆb¯ Ä » ª µM´ ¬ ´SÄ» ª ± ¯
ÅÆ7Æ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯ È ¹ µ Ë!¯H¹ »!²¤² ¹¸º ´²MÃ0´ ¯°ªÀ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹ È'´É ¹ » «c¬Kº ´²Èd´ ´ « 0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å ª«c¬K¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMŠĹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯ª«c¬
¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¯jÅSÆFcÅSÜ¿¯°¹ È'´ ¶ª«)¯Mª Å ª¯%ª µM»0±½´Ê²Mà ª ²'²°Ã0´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬b¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²%²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ Àjª ² ¼½¹« µ ª ² ¼³¹Ó¼½¯ ´Ä » ª ±c² ¹
²°Ãc´^µ ª ² ¼½¹a¹ ÂGÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «c¯#º ´-²È'´´ « 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÇ
Step-down transformer
÷
many turns few turns
high voltage low voltage load
low current high current
¬ ò 0Ï òõ öiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ Å Û?
Í Ã0´ ¯ ²°´FÍ®»0 aS¯ ²°´FÍ ¬!¹ È « ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¹  ¶-¹¼ ±!²M»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯i¼½«jª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯%ªB«cª ± ¹¾¹ » ¯ ² ¹H¾ ´ ª µi² ¹¹ ²MÃɵ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯
¼½«ÁÀ ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ± ¾ ´ ª µ ¯ Å ¯ ²°´ À¯ ¿ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À¼½«0¾ÉÄSª ±³»0´ ¯#¹  ¯ ´´ ¬[ª«c¬ ² ¹ µ Ä »0´ ¼½«ÁÀ » ¶ Ã[²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´¤È ª Å
Torque reduction geartrain
ø
LARGE GEAR
(many teeth)
ø
SMALL GEAR
(few teeth)
low torque
high torque high speed
low speed
¯/Àjª ±½± ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È « ¹ È'´µ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ4» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹Z¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² Å e ÆbĹ ±³² å Ù ² ¹ OcÇ þ Ä ¹ ±C² å ټ̯H¯ à ¹ È «Ï¹«
²°Ãc´^å ±³´Âê² ¼³« ²°Ãc´¤Â ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼½«0¾ 0à ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª 0Ã
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² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯/Àjª ±³±F²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ à ¹ È «ÁªBº¹SÄ ´ ¿0¯/¹À ´¤» «c¼ ² ¯Ê¯ ² ªB«c¬0¼³«0¾jª¯ ² ª ±½± ª¯·ª à ¹À ´Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ÈÍ µ ¼ µMªB´H«c¯ ²°Â »0¹ µ µ «cÀ ¯ Ç´µ ¯U¯ ²M´a»0 H¹ µ ¯ ²°´ ¬0¹ È «`4Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª¶¶¹ µ ¬!¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´·µ ª ² ¼½¹¯D¹ Â0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å¤² ¹¤¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ
Å 7Û O iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
ùN
Voltage transformation ratio = ùN secondary
primary
ùN
Current transformation ratio = ùN primary
secondary
Ý
Where,
ù N = number of turns in winding
Ý.²°å µ ªB²°«cµ ¯ ªB «¹ µ¯ À ¹ µ´Àµ*Ç ´µ ¬ ²Mµ´ ª¯°¼½«c¾¯ «  ¹´ ¬µ À ² ´ ¹2µ ¼³¬ «c´ ¶ ¯°µ°¼³´¾ª« ¯ ´ ´ ¬ IJ ¹¹ ±C² µMªB´ ¾ ¬ ´¸» ¶ ÂÑ´ µ ¹ÄÀ ¹ ±C² 0ªBµ ¾ ¼½´¤ÀjÂѪ µ µM¹Å.À ² 0¹2µ ¼³¯ Àj´ ¶ª ¹µM«cÅb¬0² ª ¹)µ°Å ¯ ´ ¼Ì¶-¯[¹«c¶ ¬0ª ±½ª ±³µ°´ Å ¬¥¼Ìª¯4¶ æ1ª ѱ½èÕ±³!´ ¬Zæl¯Sª
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å
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²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#È ¹ »0± ¬[¼½¯°¹ ± ª ²M´ ¼ ²·Âѵ ¹À ²MÃ0´^0µ ¼³Àjª µMÅ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª ±½±v²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´Ç
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Å 7Û V iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
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¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯N¬!¹N« ²%» ¯ » ª ±½±³Å ¶-¹À ´·È ¼ ²MÃj ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å Àjª µ ˼³«c¾¯i¹  ª« Š˼³«c¬ Ç ÂFÈ'´·Èd´ µ°´#² ¹ ± ¹ ¹Ëɪ ² ªB« » «0Àjª µ Ë ´ ¬
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e Æ7Æ iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
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+ + -
or ???
- - +
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Àjª µ ˼³«0¾X¯ ² ª«c¬0ª µ ¬ ² ¹X¬ ´ «0¹ ²°´Ê0à ª¯ ´Êµ°´ ± ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ à ¼ ¯ Ç ² ¼Ì¯%¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬ ²°Ã0´°ÕÑ%Ö@Õçîèç`Ñ$"ëÕç ¿ ª«c¬a¼½¯%«0¹ ²Mà ¼½«0¾XÀ¹ µM´
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Í Å ¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å ¿ ²°Ã0´·²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µiÈ ¼ ±½± ¶-¹À ´·È ¼ ²°Ã ¯°¹À ´ ˼³«c¬a¹  ¯M¶ Ã0´ Àjª ² ¼Ì¶'¬0¼½ª¾ µ ªBÀ ± ªBº ´± ¼³«0¾ ²MÃ0´·È ¼ µM´·±½´ ª¬c¯
 ¹ µ40µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç ^ « ²MÃ0´ ¬!¼ÌªB¾ µ ªÀ È ¼ ±³± º ´ ª ªB¼ µ ¹  ¬!¹ ² ¯Ê¯°¼½Àa¼ ± ª µ·² ¹ È·Ã ª ² ¼½¯Ê¯ ´´ «
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È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ µM´ ¯ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ » ºc¯M¶ µ ¼ !² « » Àɺ ´ µ ¯9ª µ°´ ¯ »00 ¹¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ µM´cµ°´ ¯ ´ « ²9È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²ÅÇ Í Ã0´ `Å È ¼ µ°´ ¯ H§
ªB«K¬ ê µM´0µM´ ¯ ´ « ²#È·Ã0´µM´H²°Ã0´^ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²7Å Í Àjª µ ˼³«0¾a¬!¹ ² ¯ È ¹ »0± ¬)«c¹ µ Àª ±³±½Å º ´^0± ª¶ ´ ¬ Ç
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Ý ²°Í µ Ã0ªB´Ó«c¯ 0 ¹ à µ ªÀ ¯ ´X´µ µ°´ ª ± µMª ´ ² ¼½¬0¹¼«cµM¯ ´ à ¶ ¼² 9¼¯ ̬  ¹ ´ µª ±³Ä±½Å ¹ ¿±³² b ªB´¾ µ ¹´ ªBc«Ã ¬¸ª¯ ¶ ´ »0¯ µMà µ°´¼ Âê« ² ²Ç º ´²Èd´ ´ « cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬Ï¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯4¹  ª
Ý ¹Í ÂÃ0²M.´ Ã0´^Õ È Ñ#¼½ÖM«cPÕ ¬!ç`¼½«0îS3è¾jç¼½Ñÿ¯ "ëPÕ È·ç à ¼½¼½¯·¶ à ª ¿ ²µ°Å´ ± ª ´ ² ¹¼½Ä ÂG´ ² ¹ ¹ ± ª ²°µ Ãc¼ ²´ Å ¹ Àj²°Ãcª ´µ µ·Ë ȼ½«0¼½¾ «c¬! ¹ ¼½«0µ'¾²°¯ µ Ç ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ'È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾¯#¯ à ¹ È ¼³«0¾ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ Ã[´ «c¬
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HÊ´ µ°´ ¿ ²MÃ0µ°´ ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯4¯ à ª µM´ ªb¶¹ÀÀ¹«ZÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶X¶¹ µM´ ¿cÀjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶¹ »0c± ¼½«0¾7¹ µ ± ¼½«0˼³«0¾
²°Ãc´ À ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ*Ç Í Ãc´HµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¹ ÂDÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾ ²M»0µ « µ ª ² ¼³¹ ¯'ª«c¬[Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´Hµ ª ² ¼½¹¯'¯ ´ ´ « È ¼ ²Mà ªa¯°¼½«0¾ ±½´¤ ªB¼ µ ¹ Â
À »0²°» ª ± ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯H¯ ² ¼ ±½±Dà ¹ ± ¬0¯ ²°µM»0´ÓÃ0´ µ°´X ¹ µ À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´É ª¼ µ ¯Ê¹  ¶-¹¼ ± ¯ Ç ² ¼Ì¯ ´ « ² ¼ µ°´ ±³ÅÁ ¹ ¯°¯°¼½º ±³´Ó² ¹Áª¯M¯ ´ ÀÓº ±½´
ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ » ¶ à ª¯ ²°Ãc´ ¹« ´ ªº¹SÄ ´ ѹ« ´Ó0µ ¼½Àª µ°ÅZÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿ ²È ¹)¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÁÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾¯)·¼½« È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à ¹« ´
¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅKÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾R¼½¯aªÏ¯ ²°´F Í ¬!¹ È «ª«c¬ ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¼½¯ÉªÏ¯ ²°´FÍ®»0Ç «  ª¶ ² ¿ ²°Ã ¼½¯a¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«§¹ ·²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
È ª¯ Ä » ¼ ²°´ ¶-¹ÀÀ¹«j¼½«jÄSª¶ »0» À ²°» º ´4 ¹ È'´µ ¯ »000±½Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃjÈd´ µ°´·µM´Ä » ¼ µM´ ¬ ² ¹É¯ »0c0±³Åa± ¹ È Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
 ¹ µb²°Ã0´¸²M» º ´ ¯ Éc± ªBÀ ´ « ² d¯ ²Å ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½p Å O ¹ µ Å e Ĺ ±³² )¯ ªB«¬ à ¼³¾ à Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´Á ¹ µ)²°Ã0´Ï²°» º ´ ¯ 0± ª ²M´ ¯ ë¯ ´ Ä ´ µ ª ±
û «c¬ µM´ ¬)Ĺ ±C² ¯ Âѵ ¹À ªÉ«0¹À¼½«cª ±v0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹  Å@ÅÆÉĹ ±C² ¯ å Ù Ç Ø4¹ ² ¹« ±³Å ª µ°´ Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯dª«c¬)¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¯
¹  ¶-¹À c±³´²°´±½Å ¬0¼CÐ ´µM´ « ² ÀjªB¾«c¼ ²M» ¬ ´ ¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´¤È ¼ ²Mà ¯ » ¶ à ª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¿º »!² ª ±½± ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯Êª µ°´H´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å
¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬ Âѵ ¹ÀV¹« ´ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ Ç
ÂN´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼Ì¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½¹«¸º ´-²È'´´ «Ï¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯4¼Ì¯Ê«0¹ ² ¹  ¾ µ°´ ª ² ¼½À ¹ µ/² ªB«c¶ ´ ¿ª)¯°¼³À¼ ± ª µÊ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¶ª«
º ´ ¹º ² ªB¼½« ´ ¬[º Å ² ª 0 ¼³«0¾ ɪ¯°¼³«c¾ ±½´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅjÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾bª ² À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´^ ¹¼³« ² ¯4ª ± ¹«0¾a¼ ² ¯ ±½´ «0¾ ²°Ã ¿ ± ¼½Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
eÆe iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
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load #2
² ª ¼½¯9«c¹ ²°Ã ¼³«0¾^À¹ µ°´#²Mà ªB«jª È ¼ µ°´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«Àjª¬ ´ ª ² ¯°¹À ´# ¹¼³« ² ¹«ª È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾Xº ´-²È'´´ « ²MÃ0´ Ä ´ µ°Å
´ «¬0å¯ Ç Øʹ ² ¯ »0µM0µ ¼½¯°¼½«0¾ ±½Å ¿ ²MÃ0´bÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «aSĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ÀjªB¾«0¼ ²M» ¬ ´jµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¹  ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ±i²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
à ¹ ± ¬0¯ ²°µM»0´Â ¹ µ ª ±½±² ª c´ ¬)¯ ´ ¾À ´ « ² ¯%¹ ÂÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç Í Ã ¼½¯  ª¶ ² ¶ªB«)º ´¤´-×!0± ¹¼ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¶ª ªBº ±³´ ¹  À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´Xµ ª ² ¼½¹¯
multi-pole
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load
Ù'ª µMµMÅ ¼½«0¾ ²MÃ0´ ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¹ ÂÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ª ¯ ÂÑ»0µ°²°Ãc´µ ¿ Èd´H´ «c¬ »0ÁÈ ¼ ²Mà ªBÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´Ê²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¿ È·Ã0´ µ°´ ª
¯ ± ¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾b¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¼Ì¯·À¹SÄ ´ ¬Zª ± ¹«0¾ ²°Ãc´^±³´ «0¾ ²Mà ¹  ªB« ´-×! ¹¯ ´ ¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿cªº ±½´¤² ¹b¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²ÊÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼ ²
ª ² ª« Å) ¹¼½« ² ª ± ¹«0¾¼ ² ¯ ±½´ «c¾ ²°ÃÇ Í Ã0´^´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼Ì¯ ´SÄ » ¼³ÄSª ±³´ « ²·² ¹ à ªÄ¼³«c¾bª È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾ ² ª ª ²Ê´ Ä ´ µ°Å)²°»0µ «Z¹ Âi²°Ãc´
È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿cª«c¬Áªa¯ È ¼ ² ¶ ÃZÈ ¼ ²MÃZ ¹ ±³´ ¯·ª ²Ê´ Ä ´µMŲ ª Á ¹¯°¼ ² ¼½¹«N
Variable transformer
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^ « ´ ¶-¹«¯ » À ´ µ ª 00± ¼½¶ ª ² ¼½¹«R¹ ÂN²MÃ0´ ÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´X²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼Ì¯H¼³«Î¯ ´´ ¬R¶-¹« ²°µ ¹ ± ¯  ¹ µ À¹!¬ ´±D²Mµ ª¼³«R¯ ´-² ¯¿
´ ¯ ´ ¶-¼Ìª ±½±½ÅR²MÃ0´b²Mµ ª¼³«.¯ ´-² ¯X¹ ·²°Ã0´ Å Û7? ÆF ¯^ªB«c¬|Å Û@O ÆF ¯ Ç Í Ã0´ ¯ ´)²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ Èd´ µ°´)´ ¯M¯ ´ « ² ¼½ª ±³±½Å ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «
» «0¼ ² ¯ ¿ ²°Ã0´aà ¼½¾ Ã0´ ¯ ² Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹º ² ª¼³«ªBº ±½´XÂѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å[È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾[º ´ ¼³«c¾[¯ » ºc¯ ² ªB« ² ¼½ª ±³±½ÅZ±³´ ¯°¯ ²°Ã ª« ²°Ãc´
¬ òCó ò ÐÏúj=µ´új= ·>÷ =4ùDú .²Dý ô öDú÷>=õ
eÆþ
0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹  Å7ÅÆ ² ¹£Å e ƸĹ ±³² ¯ å Ù Ç Í Ã0´ ÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´3Í ¯ Èd´ ´ ¶-¹« ² ª¶ ²É0µ ¹Sļ½¬ ´ ¬ªÎ¯/¼½À 0±½´ À ´ ª«c¯É¹ Â
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¶¹« ²°µ ¹ ±vÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ÓÈ ª¯ ²M´ ¬ ¹ È'´µ ¿À » ¶ à À¹ µM´H´Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ²·²°Ã ª«¸¶-¹« ²Mµ ¹ ±» ¯/¼½«0¾jªaĪ µ ¼ÌªBº ±³´¤µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ µ f
ð ¹Sļ½«0¾ Í ¯ ± ¼Ì¬ ´ ¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¯ª µM´9² ¹ ¹4¼³À 0µ ª¶ ² ¼Ì¶ª ±B² ¹Êº ´%» ¯ ´ ¬¤¼½« ± ª µ ¾ ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¯ ²°µ ¼½ª ± ¹ Èd´ µF²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ¿
º »!² À »0±³² ¼ Í® ¹ ±½´ ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯^ªB«c¬ È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ª ¯^ª µM´ ¶¹ÀÀ¹«  ¹ µ Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ª¬ï » ¯ ² À ´ « ² Ç å ¬ï » ¯ ² À ´ « ² ¯^« ´´ ¬
² ¹Zº ´ Àª¬ ´´ µ ¼½¹!¬!¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¼³« ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ Å ¯ ²M´ Àj¯ ² ¹¸ª¶ ¶-¹ÀaÀ¹!¬0ª ²°´ ¶ à ªB«0¾ ´ ¯H¼½« ± ¹ª¬0¯¤¹SÄ ´ µ À¹« ²Mà ¯¤¹ µ¤Å´ ª µ ¯
¼½« ² ¼½À ´ ¿9ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ à ¼³«c¾Ï¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ 0µ ¹Sļ½¬ ´ ª¸¶-¹«Ä ´ «0¼ ´ « ² À ´ ª«c¯ Ç Í Å ¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å ¿D¯ » ¶ à ² ª ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯
ª µM´ «c¹ ²d´ «0¾¼½« ´ ´µM´ ¬ ² ¹ à ª«c¬ ±½´ÊÂÑ»0±½<± Í®± ¹ª¬)¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¿ º »!² À » ¯ ² º ´ ª¶ ²°» ª ²°´ ¬j¹« ±½ÅjÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ãc´4²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ%à ª¯
º ´´ «¸¬ ´ Í®´ « ´µ ¾c¼ b ´ ¬ ë«0¹ ¹ È'´µ Ç
´ ´ ¼½«0¾bª¯ à ¹ ÈÈ'´ ¶ª« ² ª ª« Å)²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ¹j¹º ² ªB¼½« ²MÃ0´XS´ Ä» ¼³ÄSª ±½´ « ² ¹  ¯ ´ Ä ´µ ª ±FÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯
ëª ± º ´ ¼ ²¤È ¼ ²MÃK± ¹¯M¯Ê¹ Â%´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼³¹«Ïº ´²Èd´ ´ « ²MÃ0´ À -¿¼ ² ÀjªBË ´ ¯H¯ ´ «c¯ ´Ó²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Ïº ´É ¹¯M¯/¼½º ±½´X² ¹
 ¹ µM´ ¾¹ ´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼³¹«Rª ±³² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ª«c¬Ïº » ¼ ± ¬Rª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ4Âѵ ¹Àƪ)¯°¼³«0¾ ±³´aÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç «c¬ ´´ ¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯H¼½¯
¹¯M¯/¼½º ±½´ ¿0ªB«¬ ²MÃ0´^µM´ ¯ »0±C² ¼³«c¾¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¼½¯Ê¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬[ª« ÔP¯ÑPÕ Ñ ì Ôç0æ Ö-ÕBìÜéèì
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Autotransformer
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Í Ã0´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¼Ì¶ ²M´ ¬.ªº¹SÄ ´j´ µ/ ¹ µ Àj¯aª¸Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²M´Í»0§ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼³¹« Ç å ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «ª »!² ¹ Í
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#È ¹ »0± ¬ ± ¹¹Ë[¯/¹À ´²°Ã ¼½«0¾ ± ¼³Ë ´²Mà ¼Ì¯
Autotransformer
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»0² ¹ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ É «c¬ ¹ 0»c± ª µ9» ¯ ´ ¼½«jª 0c± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ Mµ ´Ä » ¼ µ ¼½«0¾¤ª¤¯ ± ¼³¾ à ² º¹¹¯ ² ¹ µ9µM´ ¬ » ¶ ² ¼½¹«a¼½«aĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
² ¹Ïª å ± ¹ ª¬ Ç Í Ã0´ ª ±³²°´ µ «cª ² ¼½Ä ´jÈ ¼ ²°Ã ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ± Ѽ̯/¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬` °² µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ^È ¹ »0± ¬Îº ´b² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µXà ªÄ ´ ï » ¯ ²Ó²°Ãc´
eÆ iËô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
µ ¼³¾ òÊcµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ aB¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ µ ª ² ¼½¹jÀjª¬ ´X ¹ µÊ²MÃ0´ ﹺ¸¹ µÊ» ¯ ´ ª)¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «¸¶-¹« É ¾ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹« È ¼ ²Mø²°Ãc´
¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å¸È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾R¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬Î¼³«§¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ªB¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾~6º¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¹ µ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ¹ c ¹ ¯/¼½«0I¾ 6Bº » ¶@˼³«0¾ 7  ª¯ à ¼½¹« Ç
µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¿!¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¿!ªB«¬ ± ¹ª¬)Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯#ª µM´ ¾¼½Ä ´ « ² ¹j¼ ±½±³» ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´¤Ã ¹ È¥²Mà ¼½¯ È ¹ »0± ¬ È ¹ µ Ë Ç
ÒD¼ µ ¯ ² ¿ ²°Ã0´ Bº¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¸¶¹« É ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇdHÊ´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¹¼ ± ¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼½¯Ó¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬§¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ª¬0¬0¯ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´^cµ ¼½Àjª µMŠĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
"boosting"
120 V 30 V 150 V
Ø ´×² ¿ ²MÃ0´ Bº » ¶@˼½«0¾7K¶-¹« É ¾ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇÀH4´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼Ì¯¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ¯ » º ²°µ ª¶ ² ¯ Âѵ ¹À ²°Ãc´^0µ ¼½Àjª µMŠĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´
"bucking"
120 V y
30 V 90 V
Í Ã0´[0µ ¼½À ´ ª¬!ÄSªB« ² ª¾ ´ ¹  ªB« ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯ ²°Ã ª ²É²MÃ0´ ¯°ªÀ ´ º¹¹ ¯ ² ¼³«0¾K¹ µ º » ¶@˼½«0¾ ÂÑ» «¶ ² ¼½¹«2¼½¯
¹º ² ªB¼½« ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¹« ±½Å ªÁ¯°¼³«0¾ ±³´ÉÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾c¿FÀjªB˼½«0¾)¼ ² ¶ Ãc´ ª ´µ ªB«¬ ± ¼³¾ òM´µ² ¹[Àª« »! ª¶ ²°»0µM´Ó²Mà ªB«Kª µM´ ¾ »0± ª µ
Ѽ̯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0\¾ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ#à ªÄ¼³«0¾aº¹ ²°Ã¸cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç
4 ¼½Ë ´'µM´ ¾ »c± ª µ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿Sª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µDÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯9¶ ªB«aº ´'² ª 0´ ¬ ² ¹ 0µ ¹SÄ ¼Ì¬ ´ ÄSª µ ¼½ª ² ¼½¹«c¯D¼½« µ ª ² ¼³¹ Ç
¬å c¬!¼ ² ¼³¹«cª ±½±½Å ¿ ²°Ã0´ Å ¶ª«Ïº ´ Àjª¬ ´ ¶-¹« ² ¼³« » ¹ » ¯ ±³Å ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±³´ÉÈ ¼ ²Mà ª)¯ ± ¼½¬!¼½«0¾Z¶-¹« ² ª¶ ²Ê² ¹ ² ª ¸²°Ã0´aÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾[ª ²
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«cªÀ ´ ²°Ã0´ ÔS1ì "6ÔÖÇ
The "Variac"
variable autotransformer
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Àjª ±½± ÄSª µ ¼½ª¶¯  ¹ µ º ´ «c¶ à ² ¹ [» ¯ ´ ª µ°´ ¹ 0»0± ª µ' ¼ ´ ¶ ´ ¯'¹ ÂG´SÄ » ¼ À ´ « ²d ¹ µd²MÃ0´H´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯ ´-×!´µ ¼³À ´ « ²M´µ ¿
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¶-¹« ²°µ ¹ ± º Å ª¯/¼½À 0±½´¤²È ¼½¯ ² ¹  ªÉË«0¹º Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ÈÍ µ ¼³«cªB«c¬0¯¼³«0 ¹ ¾ µ À ª´¼ µ µ*¯Ç ¶Í ªBà «¼Ì¯Êº ª ´Ï±½± ¹ S´ È Ä» ¯ ¼ Â0¹ µ ´ À¬ »0È ±³² ¼ ¼²°0à ±½´ À¯ ²M¹ ´µ°´ZÍ»0²Mà ªBªB«>«cכּ a¯ ¹ ² µ ª§¯ ²°´ ¯°¼½«0Í ¾¬0±½¹ ´¸È 0« µ ¼³µ Àjª ² ª ¼³¹µMÅ ¯d¼½ª« «c²°¬Ã0´ ¯°¼³¯M«0ªB¾ À ±³´ ´ ¯ ¬ ´ ´ ¶Ä ¹¼Ì«c¶ ¬c´ª Ç µMÅ
Ý Í¯/¼½µ«0ªB¾ «c±½´¤¯  ȹ µ ¼³À «¬!´¼³µ#«cȾa¼½¼½«c« ¬!² ¹b¼½«0¯¾´ ¯Ê¶ ²¶ ¼½ªB¹«¸«c¯ ª Ç ± ¯°¹jº ´ ² ª 0´ ¬9 ²Mà ª ² ¼½¯ ¿c¼½« ²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬Zª ² Àjª« Å[ ¹¼³« ² ¯ ² ¹)¯ ´ ¾À ´ « ² ª
Ý ¹  ª ªµ ¼½ªÈ º ¼½±³«c´4¬!²°¼½µ«0ªB¾c«c¿!¯ Àj ¹ ªBµ ËÀ ¼½«0´µ¾¯%¶-¶ ¹ªB« «)² ªº ¶ ´ ²#ÀjÈ ª¼ ²°¬ Ã[´ ²°º Ã0Åj´¤0È µ ¼½¹S«cĬ!¼Ì¼½¬!«0¼½¾j«0¾Éª ² ªÉªBÀ« ¹SÅjÄ ª¹º ¼½±½« ´ ² ª ª µ À± ¹«0²°¾Éà ª ¼ ² ² ¯ ¯ ±½È'´ «c´´¾ ²°Ã¯'Ç ªÍ¶ µ Ãc¹´H¯M¯ È ²M¼½Ã0«c´¤¬!¼½±³«0´ «0¾¾ ¿!²M¹ à Â
¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ à ª¯ ² ¹jº ´ ºcª µM´ ë«0¹j¼½«c¯ »c± ª ² ¼½¹« d¼½« ²MÃ0´ ª µM´ ª È·Ã0´ µ°´H²°Ãc´ ª µ À ¯ È'´´ ¯ Ç
Ý.åª «[²Mµ ªª»!«c²¯ ¹Â ¹ ²°µ µ À ªB«c´ ¯ µ  ¿ ¹ ´µ ×À ¶ ´´µ !²·¼½¯·È ªa¼ ²°¯/à ¼½«0¹ ¾ »!±³²Ê´ ¿ 0² µ ª ¹S0ļ½¬!´ ¼½¬)«0¾ ¼³«´¬ ±½»´ ¶ ¶ ²°² µ ¹ ¼½µ ¶ ª ¶-± ¹¼Ì¼ ¯/±v¹ » ± ª¯ ´ ² ¬¼½¹«² ¹Ç ¯ ²°´[»0 ¹ µ ¯ ²M´ ¬!¹ È «)Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´Ê± ¼³Ë ´
Ý.å ÔS1ì "6ÔÖ ¼½¯4ªÉÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
AC power
³
output
AC power
input
Resonant LC circuit
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¼ Æ ½ Ë
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+/$'!# Q&B)C#3)& Í "H;>3 c &?)UC &?)&B;>!*,/ ;>+.2!c 3)C102T#;F+/02&B&B"D;/&BC#A!5,>3 )bNÇ# ,>!#C#&B+ 0;>H"H7&("U3)U,>.&;/&(+ )!*) ,
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+/&?;>c 3A7&,/&(78.)3A73A!*)-63 ,/.c#&B;/MF"!#)C#&B;/ +6 ;/\T3)Cc # ,>!*C &B+BNYÉT $'&!#0037B!5,/3#)2+?a ,/.#C .baT$'!MF0;/3#;>3W,>3 ºB&
,/.& <=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(Æ +!#"c!#) ,>!*C &B+5c#&?;3 ,>+`"H3A+/! "Hc5!*) ,>!#C#&B+BNgÉT&?$'3A7 )"H7,/#;7?3 ;873 ,>+&?GT3A+,,>
µ#7?#)"3W,>3 )µEh]d0256_&?;`!#+!#)1!#W,>&?;>)!5,>3 c &,>E<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,"H&Bc 3A7&(+?a¨LH,)#)&'7B!*)7#$'0J&,>&K63 ,/.,>.3+
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ÊDË-ÌÍEÎÌÏÑÐ
I=4A
¦
250 V Rload 62.5 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
I=8A
ß
125 V Rload 15.625 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
ï
ï I=4A
I=8A ð Rload
125 V 250 V ¦
62.5 Ω
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)&B&B"1<=#;`,>.&F*,>.&?;>63+/&K$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&(": ! ",>4#0J&?;8!5,>& 0;>#0J&?;>M#)1,/.3A+g+/MH+X,>&?$NFOe!#\#&F!7 +/& T#\:!*,
,/.&0;/3$F!*;>MF73;>7?3W, É C ;>&B+B¸Å ¼#à c# W,8+_!*,Z½K!#$'0+?Nh+_<V!*;Z!#+_,>.&`0256_&?;+/00M-µ#\ )56Z+?a µg3 ,BÆ +0J56&B;/3)C
! Å à Në ¼ à Σ¶°éê^_È5´·Z ! "!5,'Å ¼ à c # ,>+BaJ)*,!Eë ¼ N à Îd ! "f»gOQ.&Kc# W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?) , É C#;>&B+<=#;,/.&
0;>3 $F!#;/M'63)"H3)CF!*;>&3)"H3A7?!5,>3 c &#< 5Å à N ë ¼#à ÎR !#"-3 $'0J&B"!#)7& aH)*,_,/.&! 7,/2!*fë ¼ N à Î*<¨,/.&` !#"-3W,8+&BW<XN
´§)*,/.&?;`6 ;>"+?af)#,#)M4.!#+` ;+X,>&?0 Í 01,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&B":c## ,>!#C#&K!*)"7;>;>&?) ,BafL,`3 ,g.! +
,/;8!*)2+X<= ;/$'&B" ê±Zò¬8ñ@ÔPçJÅ8¬ ! +Q6&B ÓN
ó
Nsecondary
Voltage transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó
Nprimary
Current transformation ratio = ó
Nsecondary
ó 2
Nsecondary
Impedance transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó 2
ï Nsecondary
Inductance ratio = ó
Nprimary
Where,
ó
N = number of turns in winding
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Thevenin/Norton Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
. . . equivalent to . . .
ZThevenin
500 Ω Speaker
EThevenin
Z=8Ω
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impedance
"matching"
transformer
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Thevenin/Norton Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
+/02&B&B"fN
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¼ ôBá ¾ ¥¿À ã ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿À
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
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,/.&!#7,/!#¨c# W,>$'&,/&B;Z3)+X,>;/$K&B) ,>+,>.&?$F+/&?c#&(+?aJ+3)7&g,/.&íOP63 ¨LJ& +/3 ºB&B"E,/E+X,>&?0,/.& +/MT+,/&B$ c # ,>!#C#&
"H56)E,/',>.3++,>!#)"!#;>"E3 )2+X,>;/$'&B) ,Z&?c &?ÓN
13.8 kV load
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
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600 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 600 A line current)
100 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 100 A line current)
1k : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 1000 A line current)
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A ÆC
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¼ ô(ë ¾('' ¿À ã À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿À(
power conductor current
CT
ground connection
(for safety) close switch BEFORE
disconnecting ammeter!
0-5 A meter movement range
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x
Gc4[5m/4-MT38>vtG![82Gc4[%9JVHE÷a`!=354]J!4*M4*C5C89[8v@:<7!4J}:i2[8wa=?J!d;:<=387_M`![8[54-Ja3i38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-j
z%J.2357.4[xw=J.Ht2mCFGc4-M=?9>35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*NaC544-Jb2m354J}=?J}[9H!=# 2 õm/[8B4 ÷a`!4-J.Mv6M=?[8M`!=38C-NS=?Ci387!4@ú ÃRÅXR5U 38[89J.Cõ
m/2[8u64[*j#AO[5`.4352@=38C%JV9u64Nc9J_9=?[(M2[54h38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[<7.9C<=38C(:<=JVHS=J.dC<:<[9G!Gc4-H9[52`!J.H96J!2J.u69dJ!435=DM
m/2[8uNS`.C5`.9>?>vt9q7.2>?>2:38`!pc4]2mC52u64u@9384[8=?9>jlAx7!4]HS4-d[8442mM2`.G!>=?J!4 d ¶/uq`S35`V9>=?J.HS`.M389JVM(4 ·ipc43g:i44-J
:<=?J.HS=?J!dCx=?J_CF`.M7}9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[x=?Cxu@9Jav638=u64*C<>4*C5Ci387.9Jt357V93%2m9J}B4 ÷a`!=?L9>?4Ja3<=[82H J õM2[54(35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N
p!`S3h357.4q`!JVHS4-C5=[9p.>4^M7V9[9MT384[8=?CF35=DMC%2m#9em/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM]M2[5 4 ¶/4-H.HSv_M`![8[54-Ja3'>?2C8CF4*CNc7vCF354-[54*CF=DC-NcC8938`![8* 9 õ
35=?2J{NV438Mj ·_9[54^M2u6G!>?4384>?vt4->=?u6=J.9354*H j ´I3h=?C'=J\7!=dH 7 õsm/[5(4 ÷`.4J.Mvt9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.C%357.93(387!4-C54^4c4*MT38C'2mf=?[82J
M2[54*Cx9[84hu62aCg3<G![82p!>?4u@935=DMj
â'J!4%J.2389p!>?4%4!9u6G!>?4%2m{9=? [ õM2[54i35[9JVCgm/2[5u64["=?C"357!4 ÿ.U W Ò ú}P 5 X ÃªÒ NSJV9u64-H@9m354[#357. 4 É4-[5p!=D9J@4->4*MT38[5=DM9>
d4-J!=?`.C%1%=?w2>?96AO4-C5>?9.N.:<7!2@:x9C<9>?C52;357!4^=JL4-Ja352[<2m357!4][823935=?J!d@u@9dJ!438=?MhV4>DH_z(ou62382[*N!Gc2>?vaG.7.9C54
z(oBGc2:#4-[;C5vSCg384u@C-N"9J.Hu@9JvK4>?4u64Ja38C;2m([89HS=?2E354*M7!J!2>2dvjAx7!4AO4-C5>?9Ko#2=?>i=DC69\[84-C52JV9Ja3-Nl7!=?d7õ
m/[8B4 ÷a`!4JVMvbCF354-H G õs`.Gb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[i`VCF4*He382;G.[52SHS`.M47!=d7tL2>389d4-C"357V93(9[84h[54->?935=?L4>?v@7.9[5u6>?4-C8C"38267a`.u69J
pc4=?J!d@ C ¶/357!E
4 µC5wa=?Jr44-MT83 µ2mx7!=?dH 7 õsm/[5(4 ÷a`!4J.Mv\9>354-[5JV935=?J!d_M`.[5[84Ja3G![84-M>`.H!=J!d4->4*MT35[8=DM@CF7!2SMwNO9>387!2`.d7
M9G.9p.>4E2m]G![52SHS`VM=?J!dC5wa=?Jp!`![8J.8C ·T j â'J.4E2mAO4-C5>? 9 Æ CtHS[54*9u@C@:x9Ce3524-u;G.>2vy7!=DCbM2=>(354*M7!J!2>?2dv382
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S384t4->4*MT38[5=DMbGc2:i4[;:<=387!2`S36387!4tJ.44-Hm/2[6:<=?[54*CN"C5=?u;G.>vp![829H!M9Cg38=J.dE=36=?J387!4bm/2[5u2m([9HS=?2
:x9L4-Cx:<7.=?M7EM2`!>DHpV4^[54*M4=?L4*H9J.H_M2J.HS`VMT354*H}352e>?29H!C<pv}u;4*9J.C(2mf9Ja384J!J.9CjxAx7!4pV9C5=?MC8M7!4-u6935=DM
m/2[%96AO4-C5>?9eo#2=>>?22wSCx>=?w4h387!=?BC ¸
discharge terminal
"Tesla Coil"
Ax7!4M-9G.9M=352[<=?J_G.9[89>>?4>:<=357387!4]35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[(Æ CxG![5=?u@9[8ve:<=?J.HS=?J!d@m/2[8u@Cx357.4]389J!wtM=[M`!=3(J!4-4-HS4*H
ãa ä ¿ ¾Yåg æ À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿uÀ' Áè '" Á'
æ å?¾%Yå Q ¼ ô
m/2[h[84-C52J.9J.M4jAx7.4qC54-M2J.H!9[5v:<=?J.HS=?J!dt=DC':#2`!J.HE=?JM>2aCF4qG![82=?u6=3gv}382b387!4qG.[5=?u@9[8vN`.C5`.9>?>v_9[52`!J.H
357.46C89u64qJ!2J!u@9dJ!435=DMm/2[5uj É4-L4-[89>O2GS35=?2J.C'4S=DCg3hm/2 [ µ4!M=35=?J!d µe357!46G![8=?u69[5v_M=[M`!=3-N387!4@CF=?u6G!>?4-CF3
pc4=?J!de9;7!=dH
7 õIL2>389d4N>?2Q
: õm/[8B4 ÷a`!4-J.Mvez(o~C52`![M49J.HC5G.9[8w@d9bG ¸
HIGH voltage!
HIGH frequency!
spark gap
high voltage
low frequency
=357b4*9M7bMvSM>?4(Gc4-9w@2m357!4h7!=?dH 7 õIL2>39d4(z(oyCF2`![M4N357.4hM`![5[84Ja3i:<=>?>ag`!u6G}9M[82C8C357!4C5G.9[8w6d9G{N
p [8=4?¹.ve4-J!4[8d=º=?J!d;357!439J!wtM=?[8M`!=3*jfAx7!4389J!wbM=[M`!=3-N!35`!J!4*Htm/2[(9;[84-C52J.9J3im/[84B÷a`!4JVMv@mZ9[<=J4!M4-C8Cx2m
!
357.4qz(o¡C52`![M4N.:<=?>>2C8M=?>>D9384]m/2['u@9Jv}MvSM>?4-C%pc4m/2[54357!4qJ!43hMvSM>?4^Gc4-9w}2ml387!4qC52`.[8M4N.:<7.4JE=3':<=?>>
[84-M4-=L4h9J!2387!4Z[ µw=?MH
w µ^3526w4-4G}357!42aC5M=>?>?935=?2J.Cxd2=?J!d.jAx7!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@2m{387!4A{4*CF>D9eo#2=?>n:<=?>>2`S35G!`!3(9
mZ9=?[8>v_M2J.CF389Ja3h7!=d7\L2>389d4q93'L4-[5v7!=?d7\m/[5(4 ÷a`!4J.M=4*CN`.C5`.9>>?v_G![82H!`.M=?J!dt9tCFGV9[8wH!=?C8M7.9[8d4^=Ja352t357.4
C5`![5[82`.J.HS=?J!d;9=[%93x357!4HS=DC8M7.9[8d4'354-[5u6=?J.9>sj
¼ ô(½ ¾('' ¿À ã À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿À(
AO4-C5>?96o#2=?>?C".J.Ht9G!G!>?=DM938=2JeG![8=u@9[5=?>v@9C"J!2L4>3gv;H!4L=?M4-C-NSCF7!2:<=?J!dq`!Gb=?Jb7!=?d7}C5M7.2a2>VC8M=?4J.M4(mZ9=[C-N
p.9CF4-u;4-Ja3x:i2[8wSCF7.2G.C-NS9J.Hb357!4]2SM-M9C5=?2J.9>c>?2:~p.`.HSd43(C5M=4-J.M4?õcMT35=?2Jtu62La=?4j
É2mZ9[-N(:#4 Æ L4\4SG!>?2[84-Hy387!4E38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[t9Cb9H!4L=?M4Em/2[tM2JL4[535=?J!dH!=4[84Ja3t>?4L4>DCb2mL2>39d4N
M`.[5[84Ja3-N9J.H;4L4J6=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4xm/[52u¢2J.4%M=?[8M`!=3l3829J!2357!4-[-j1%2:Q:#4 Æ >?>S39w4%9>?22w^93f=3i9Cl9]M2u6G!>4354->v
HS=c4-[54-Ja3xw=?J.H}2mHS4L=DM# 4 ¸l2J!4'357.93(9>?>2:%Cx96CFu@9>>4->4*MT35[8=DM9>C5=dJ.9>c382;4S4[53 ÅX . R55 X Ò 2L4-[i9;uq`.M7t>D9[8d4-[
÷a`.9Ja38=3gve2m4->4*MT38[5=DM9>cGc2:i4[*Y j ´J}387!=?C%u;2SHS4N.9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<9M38C<9C<9 J ú Y òJÒ Ã ÄiUR j
Ax7!4eHS4-L=?M@ 4 ´Æ u£[84m/4[8[8=J!d382_=?CqM9>>?4-HK9K?W ú üSR ú¤ ÒU¥ ÅXR5UtR5U ú Å XR N2[C5=?u;G.>vQ?W ú üSR ú¤ ÒUtR5U ú Å XR j_z(M õ
35`V9>?>vNc=3=?ChJ!23'[84-9>?>?v9e35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[h93h9>>sNp!`S3][9357.4['9tCFGc4-M=?9>Ow=?J.HE2m"=?J.HS`.M352[h:<7!2aCF4q=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
M9JpV4_L9[8=?4-Hypv357.4\9G!G.>=DM935=?2Jy2m]9+o¦M`.[5[84Ja36357![82`.d79CF4*M2J.H:<=?J.HS=?J!d:i2`.J.HQ9[52`!J.HQ357.4
C89u64^=?[52J\M2[54 j Ü{=w4357.4^m/4-[5[82[84-C52J.9Ja3<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N!357.4;C8938`![89p!>?4[54*9M352['[54->=?4-C'2JE357!4;G![8=J.M=G.>4q2m
u@9dJ!438=?M'C5935`![938=2JnjO7.4Jt9^u@9354-[5=D9>cCF`VM7b9C#=[82J@=DCxM2u;G.>4354>?v@C5935`![9384-4 H ¶/357.93i=DCNS9>>c=3Ciu69dJ!435=DM
HS2u69=JVCh9[54;>?=J!4*H\`.G:<=357357!4@9G!G!>?=4*H\u@9dJ!438= º-=J.dbm/2[8M(4 ·TNn9H!HS=35=?2J.9>l=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3h357![82`.d7
357.4]u69dJ!435= º=?J!d6:<=JVHS=J.d;:<=?>?>nJ!23%[84-C5`!>3<=J}m/`![5357!4-[%=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#2mOu@9dJ!438=? M ¹.`!j
1%2:]N=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4x=DCO357!4xu64-9CF`![84i2m.7!2::#4->>!9J^=?J.HS`.M352[2G!GV2aCF4*CM7.9J!d4-CO=J6M`.[5[84Ja3pavH!4L4->2G!=?J!d
9eL2>389d4=?J\9J\2G!Gc2C5=J.dbHS=?[54*MT35=?2J{jhAx7!4;9p!=?>?=3gv2m"9JE=?J.HS`.M352['352}d4-J!4[9384]357.=?C'2G!Gc2C5=?J!dbL2>389d4]=?C
HS=?[54*MT38>vEM2J!J!4*MT384-HE:<=357\357!4@M7.9J!d4q=Ju@9dJ.435=D M ¹.`SE=?J.CF=DHS4q357!46=?J.HS`.M352[h[84-C5`!>35=?J!dem/[82u§387!46M7.9J!d4
=?JbM`![8[84Ja3-Na9J.H6387!4(J`!uqpV4-["2mn:<=J.H!=J!d^35`![8J.C"=J@387!4(=?J.HS`VMT352[-¥ j ´Im{9Je=JVHS`.MT382[#7.9C#9C5935`![9384-H@M2[84NJ.2
m/`![5357!4-[u69dJ!435=Dg M ¹V`S\:<=?>>l[84-C5`!>3'm/[82u§m/`![5357.4[=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3*Nn9J.HCF2t357!4-[54;:<=?>>lpc46J!2tL2>389d4
=?J.HS`.M4-H=?J2G.GV2aCF=35=?2JK382_357!4}M7.9J.d4e=?JM`.[5[84Ja3-4 j ´J2357.4[^:i2[H!C-N9J=JVHS`.MT382[q>2aCF4*C=38Cq=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
ãa ä ¿ ¾Yåg æ À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿uÀ' Áè '" Á'
æ å?¾%Yå Q ¼ ô*¨
¶Z9p!=?>=3gve382;2G!Gc2C54M7V9J!d4-Ci=J_M`![5[84Ja3·":<7.4J=3C%M2[54hpc4-M2u64-Cxu@9dJ!438=?M-9>?>vbC8938`![9354*Hj
´Iml9J=JVHS`.MT382([ Æ C%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4M7.9J!d4-C-N357!4-J_=3C%[84-9MT389J.MF
4 ¶9J.H}=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M(4 ·i382ez(oM`![5[84Ja3%M7.9J!d4*C
9Cx:i4>?>sj´J}9@M=[M`!=3<:<=387_9;M2J.CF389Ja3xL2>389d4CF2`![8M4N387!=?Cx:<=?>?>n[54*CF`.>3%=?J}9@M7V9J!d4'=?J_M`![8[54-Ja3B¸
L
load
ï
I
If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
z©C8938`![89p!>?4e[54*9M352[qM9G.=39>?=ª-4-C]2J357!=DCq44-MT3;pv\m/2[8M=J!dE357!4bm/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM@M2[54@=?Ja3529\Cg39354b2m
C8935`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[-« C
¬ Gc2:i4[ ¬ :<=J.H!=J!dq=?C"357.4(2J.4'M9[5[8v=J.d357!4z(oQ>2a9H@M`![5[84Ja3*Na9J.H6357.4 ¬ M2Ja35[82> ¬ :<=?J.HS=?J!d^=DC"2J!4'M-9[8[5v=?J!d
96+o~M`.[5[84Ja3%Cg38[52J!d;4J!2`!d7t352eHS[8=?L4h357!4M2[84'=?Ja352@C8935`.[8935=?2Jn
saturable reactor
load
ï
I
A 7!4eCF35[9J!d4õI>22wa=?J!db35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[]CFvuqpV2>"CF7.2:<J=?Jr357!4e9pV2L46C8M7!4-u6935=DM;[54-G![54*CF4-Ja38C]9_C8935`.[89p!>4?õ
x
M2[54t[54*9M352[*N357!4`!G.GV4-[;:<=?J.HS=?J!drpV4-=J.d\387!4_+o®M2Ja35[82>i:<=?J.HS=?J!dr9J.H387!4}>2:i4[;pV4-=J.d\387!4 ¬ GV2:i4[ ¬
:<=?J.HS=?J!dK357![82`.d7:<7!=DM7Q387!4EM2Ja35[82>?>4*HQz(o¯M`![8[84Ja3ed24-C-j°J.M[54*9C54-Hy+o¦M2Ja35[82><M`![8[84Ja3eG![82H!`.M4*C
u62[84<u@9dJ.435=DMx±.`!6=?J6357.4([84-9M352[fM2[84NaHS[8=L=?J!d=3#M>?2C54[l382q9]M2J.HS=35=?2J@2m{C5935`![938=2JnN387a`VC#HS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d
357.4%GV2:i4[l:<=?J.HS=?J!dV« Cl=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4NHS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d=3Cl=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4N9J.H;=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3l352357.4%>2a9HjAx7`.CN
357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4S4[53² X . R5X³ 2L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
Ax7!4hM=?[8M`!=3xCF7.2:<J@:#2`!>?He:#2[5wNp.`S3i=3#:i2`.>?H@J.23#:i2[8w;L4[8v;:#4->>sjlAx7!4%.[CF3#G![82p!>?4uB=DCf387!4'JV935`.[89>
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[9M35=?2J2m.387!4iC8938`![9p!>?4#[84-9MT382[*z(oM`![8[84Ja3{387![52`!d7^357!4xGc2:#4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!dh:<=>?>35[8v352h=?J.HS`.M4
M`.[5[84Ja3=J\357!4@M2Ja35[82>:<=J.H!=J!dVNn:<7!=DM7\u@9vEM9`.C5435[82`.p!>4;=?J\387!4@+o´GV2:i4[CF2`![M4jz(>?C52.NnC8938`![9p!>?4
[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9354hz(oyGc2:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
.4->?Hm/2[M4*Chm/[52uµpc2357K:<=?J.HS=?J!dC]9H!H¶=Jr387!4@2387!4[]7.9>mgNO357.4v\C5`!pS38[89MT3-jeAx7`.C-Nn387!4eM2[54;:<=?>>l384J.H382
pc4@u;2[54@C8938`![89354*HE=?Jr2J!4@7.9>mi2mi357!4ez(o·MvSM>?46357.9J\387!4@2387!4[*N{GV9C8CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3u62[5464-9CF=?>?vE=Jr2J.4
¸¸ ¹ (''º#» ã »%'¼ S½i » ç º#»
HS=?[54*MT38=2Jb387.9J}357.4]2357.4[*j0.2[535`!JV9354->vNSpV2357G![82p!>?4u@C<M-9J}pV4]2L4[M2u64h:<=387_9q>?=3F35>?4]=?J!d4-Ja`.=3gv
load
ï
I
1 235=DM4x387!4%G!>D9M4u64Ja3"2mV387!4%G!7.9CF=?J!dHS238C"2J;357!4%3g:#2][84-9MT352[8C-387!4%Gc2:#4-[l:<=J.H!=J!daC"9[54 ¬ =J6G!7.9CF4 ¬
%
:<7!=?>46387!4bM2Ja35[82>:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[54 ¬ 2`S32miG!7V9C54j ¬ °Imxpc2357[84-9MT382[Ch9[546=DHS4Ja38=?M-9>sNO9JvEL2>389d46=JVHS`.M4*H
=?JE357.46M2Ja35[82>O:<=JVHS=J.dChpv_>2a9HEM`![5[84Ja3'357![82`!d7_357.4;Gc2:i4[h:<=J.H!=J!daC(:<=?>?>fM9JVM4>2`!3'382tª-4[82t93h357.4
p.93F354-[5v;384[8u;=?J.9>?C-N387`.Ci4>?=u6=?J.938=J!d^357!4'.[Cg3iG![82p!>?4u®u64Ja35=?2J.4-Hjl0!`.[F387!4[8u62[84NCF=?J.M4(357!4+]oyM2Ja38[52>
M`.[5[84Ja3h357![82`!d7pc2387K[54*9MT382[C(G.[52SHS`.M4-Chu@9dJ!438=?Mq.4->?H!C=?JHS=c4-[54-J3HS=?[84-MT38=2J.Ch357.[52`!d7\357!4@[84-9MT352[
M2[54*CN#2J!4_[84-9MT382[6:<=>?>(C8938`![89354u62[84=J2J.4MvSM>?4_2mh357!4Ez(o©GV2:i4[6:<7!=?>?4357!4E2357!4-[@[54*9M352[6:<=?>>
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120 V
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à °J.M[84-9CF4*Hm/[54(÷a`!4J.Mv][54*CF`.>3C{=?Jq=?J.M[54*9C54-H]Gc2:#4-[O>?2C8C54-CO:<=387!=J69'GV2:i4[O35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*j{Ax7!4xG![84-C54J.M4
2m7.9[8u62J!=DMC=?J9xGV2:i4[OCFvSCF354uö=?C{9%CF2`![M42mm/[8B4 ÷a`!4JVM=?4-CC5=dJ!=cM9Ja38>v'7!=d7!4[n357.9J]J!2[8u@9>sN:<7!=DM7
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à Þ#2357r35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C9J.Hr=?J.HS`.M352[8C]7V9[8pV2[M4[5389=Jr`!J.9L2=DH!9p.>4@9u62`!Ja38C2m%M-9G.9M=389JVM4@HS`!46382
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ý þ ÿ
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load
#1
load
#2
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.-
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35=D9>sNS:i4'u6=?d7a3xM-9>?>c357!=DCx9 ¬ GV2:i4[xM=?[8M`!=3 ¬ 2[ ¬ Gc2:#4-[iC5vSCg384u ¬ =?J.CF354-9He2mO[84d9[8H!=J!d^=3<9COg`.CF3%9^[84d`!>?9[
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M=?[M`!=3-j<Ax7!4^H!=?CF35=?J.MT38=2J_pV43g:#4-4JE9 ¬ GV2:i4[%M=[M`.=3 ¬ 9J.H9 ¬ [54-d`!>D9[%M=[M`.=3 ¬ u69v}CF4-4u§9[8p!=35[9[8vNSp!`S3
357.4]G![89MT38=?M-9>nM2J.M4-[5JVCi9[54]HS4 .J!=354->vtJ!23*j
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357.4>2a9Hjx1%2[5u@9>>?vN!:i4HS2eJ.23%d=?L4]uq`.M7357.2`!d73<382@357.=?C%3gvaGc42mM2J.M4[8J}=ml:#4« [84]u64[84>?vt9J.9>?vª=?J!d
9EM=[M`!=3^m/2[^387!4tC89w4e2m<>?4-9[5J!=?J!d\9pV2`S3^387!4b>D9:%C2m%4>?4-M35[8=?M=3gvj\,%2:i4L4[*NO=?J357.4b[84-9>#:#2[5>DHK=3;M9J
pc4q9eu@9g2['M2J.M4[8Jnj<°Im":i4d=?L4357!46CF2`![M4]=?J_357!469pc2L4M=[M`.=39eL2>39d4]L9>`.4q9JVH_9>DCF2ed=L4Gc2:#4-[
HS=DC5C5=?G.938=2JL9>?`!4*Ch352357.463g:#2>?29H[84-C5=?CF352[8C-N:#4@M-9JHS4384[8u6=J!46387!4@:<=?[5=?J!dJ!44*H!Chm/2[387!=DC]G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
M=?[M`!=3-
120 V
load
#1
, ,
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
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0P
I=
E
;I = 10 kW
;I = 83.33 A
120 V
Itotal = 166.67 A
2< <=<
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:i4h:i4[84]HS4-C5=?dJ!=?J!d@9;GV2:i4[<C5vCF354-u¯:<=357>?2J!d@M2J.HS`.M352[i>?4J.d357VCj
&>HB
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Ax7!4@9H!L9Ja389d4q:i2`.>?H\pV4@>?4-C8CM`![8[54-Ja3h[84 a`!=?[54*HNnGc4[8u6=3535=?J!d}357!4@`.C54;2miC5u@9>?>4-[-N{>=?d7a354-[-Nn9J.HrM7!4-9GV4-[
:<=?[54
K240 V ,
load
#1
,
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
365 3 ML ON QP
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;I = VP
E
10 kW
I=
240 V
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HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-C"4>?4-M3"35235[9J.C5u6=3i4>?4-MT38[5=DM<Gc2:#4-["`.C5=?J!dL4-[5v;7!=?d7eL2>389d4-C<ÁZu@9Jv;357!2`.C59J.H!C"2m
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M =?[M`!=38Cq=?C^357.4}H!9J!d4-[^2m(4>?4-M35[8=?MtCF7!2SMwm/[52uÊ7!=d7L2>39d4-C-jz%da9=?JnN357.=?Cq=?C;J!23q`.C5`.9>>?vr357!4CF2[F3q2m
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[84-9>?=?ª4-Hqpv^CF354G.G!=J.dh`.Gq387!4%M=?[M`!=3fL2>39d4iG![84-C54Ja38C`.Cf:<=387;=?J.M[54*9C54-H^H.9J!d4[2m4>?4-M35[8=?MxC57!2SMwcjê2:i4[
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-Cl389Mw>?4<357.=?C#G![82p!>?4uBpv;CF35[8=J.d=?J!d357!4-=[iGc2:#4-[f>=?J!4*C"9>?2J.d7!=?d7@Gc2>?4-Cf2[f382:#4-[8C-N
9JVHb=?J.C5`!>?935=?J!d6357.4]>=?J!4-Cim/[82u¯357!4C5`!G!Gc2[535=?J!d@CF35[8`.MT38`![54*Ci:<=387_>?9[5d4NGV2[8M4>D9=?Jb=?J.C5`!>?9352[8C-j
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83.33 A
,
load +120 V
K240 V + #1 10 kW
- K240+ V
-
,
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
83.33 A
kj hg i-
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&> B B ml B
9 [84(J.23%9H!H!=38=L4'pc4-M-9`.C54(387!4h>2a9H!Cx9[84(=?JtC54[8=?4-Ci[89357!4-["387.9JtG.9[9>?>?4>sjAx7.4'L2>389d4'9M[82C8Cf4-9M7b>?29H@=?C
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9}CF4-[5=?4-CM=?[M`!=3-N=m#4-=387!4[]>?29H_:#4-[54q352}2Gc4J{N{M`![8[84Ja3h:i2`.>?HCg382G\=?J357!462387!4[>?29H\9C':i4>?>j !2[h387!=?C
[84-9C52J{Na:i4J!44*Ht3526u62H!=m/vt357!4]HS4*CF=?dJ_9;p!=3-
83.33 A
,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
-
∠ 0o
"neutral"
#1
-
∠ 0o
K240+ V
0A
+
-
120 V
∠ 0o
,
load +120 V
#2 ∠ 0o
-
-
"hot"
83.33 A
365 3 ML ON QP
SR 7
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VE = (120 V ∠ 0 ) + (120 V ∠ 0 ) o o
VE = 240 V ∠ 0
total
o
total
120 V
;I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor)
BB M> B
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x+ +
-
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- -
120 V
v-
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load
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#2
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(wires 1 and 2 swapped)
2 1
phase rotation = 2-1-3
3 3
1 1
(wires 2 and 3 swapped)
2 3
phase rotation = 1-3-2
3 2
1 3 (wires 1 and 3 swapped)
2 2 phase rotation = 3-2-1
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I I
AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
N
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AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
S N S N
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+ -
I I
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Unidirectional motor
winding
2a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding
2b
çvà.íwûrãý.àíôÝ&ÜFçIé]ÜýÚ.çvÛÚ.ÛÜð.ÝUð.ã`æôÜö»òcÜã~ÜHâOÝ=ãoÜHèCÜÛÝêóMãvéà.Þ2ÜXíôæôã~çmâ"è2Þ?ÛvÜfçIÜã~óãç`ð.íÞ2éû*è2â`æëæôóMíôÝséìbÞ2íôÝ.Ý.Ýsß=çHÜHþéãÜHìpíôÝGçIÜHÛvíôÜHçºâ`íëãvàGèSéHèCðsè=é]íëãvÞ=Û^ãvÞíôÝUãvÛÞì.Úsé]ÜýèSðsàsè2çvÜ
winding 2’s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1’s voltage waveform
1a 2a
1b 2b
|
C
I I
these two branch currents are
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out of phase with each other
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all "1" bulbs lit 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
væôç Ü]Ü'ûr¯Uã"Ú.ú ãvÜÞDÝ»à.Ûé]ÜHíôÜ2ݯß2á.àUãvèCãoà.æô~æQÜHÚsÛvÞCçIÜXûfã"íãè=ç`à.çQÝ.ÜkÜFÞGè2÷ ìbçv®FíëÜ÷|æôócsö.Ý.è2Ú.íëçQãvæôÜösûyÛvçM÷CÞ=òcò4è2ÛvÞ2Ü?Ûãvíôíôæôß2Þ2íëàUãHÝsáãm÷Mãvãvãvà.ÞpÞcÜêæôãÜ]÷ à.ûrãä ÜS÷ ö.ösÚ.ÜHÚ.æôéoösæëà.ö»ç'ÝsçDsæíôôéHèCíëèCß=ÛæôàUÜGæëó=ã ì.á2è2ãKmà.Û Þ2ù Ü:Úsá*÷Ûýè2®HÝsÜ÷ó=ì è2ÜHç`Ýså ìGíôé]çÞ=è ÷ Ú. ä åæ÷SìkÜHÛö.ûyçÞ=Úsè æëæëkæôöêÞ6â«ú ö.æëè?íôíwÝãà×÷2ù òcíôÝ.ãvà.ÞCßMíãvçíôçvÞ2Ü'ösÝ»¯Uæë÷Ú.íôÝ ÜHûyùÝsÛíëÞ2é]ÝsÜFò ß ç
j
j
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "2" bulbs lit ´
Time
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "3" bulbs lit
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit
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2 3
3 2
2 3
3 2
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èÛ?Ü åé]íôÜHüÛoÛé]çvÞ6æôÜ:Ü:âíwíôûãvÝsàsãvçIà.ãvÜÜFÜSæôè2íëß=ðsì|à=àsÞCãoè2çQûºçvÜSè?è2ð.çIç~ð»Üpã¯=ÛÜFè2ÚsèCíëÛºÜß=ÝsãàUéÞãfÜ:ö$æôíôÞ2ÜÝ.û8Ü ÷Cãªòcà. ÜSÞã:å ö.çIíëÚ.à.ÝsæôÞ=ß=ösÚ.÷Xç`æì|íôíÝGç`éèÛÞ2Ü òcé]å æôÜHÞbÜSÛé çvè2ù ÜHç`â`ì ÝsíçvÞGÜýçIìbÚ.íëÛÛð.ÜHé]ÛãvíôçvíôÞ2ÜÝ?ãvàsö$èCÜHãýéHèCãvÚsà.çvÜÜ`è2ãvð.àsð$ÜÜHócèCèCÛoèCÛÜýÝ»é]èCÜXÛÛÞCè2û^Ý.òcß2ÜFÞCìMãvíôè2Þ2ÛvÝ Þ=Ú.â`Ýsíôæëì æ
3 2
ð.öóàsè=å çIÞ=ÜXà.æwãoçvÜ`èC'Ü ö.ß=¯UæôÜ:Ú.íôÝ ÜçvÝ»ùÞ2íëé]Ú.Ý.Ü ÛoßDé]ÜFðsç"è6à.ÞCãvíãvûçfÜãvíÛà.ç`Ý?ÛèCÜâ`ÝsÜSíôè2æëìbæ»æëÞ=í Ü$Üß2íëHãvÞ2à.ÛvÚ»ÜHÜHçºÝUÛOãvãýèCÞ?ð.ðsèDàsð»è2ÜFãvçvèCà.ÜSÛºÛÜãçIÜ àsÞhíwðsòcûrãoàsçÞ è2þ å çvÜ`Ü é]+ø æôÞb> é ù òcâ`ÞCíãvçvÞ=Ü`ÛOÞ2â`ÛQéíëãvÞ2à|Ú.ÝUãà.ãvÜHÛvÛ2ÜHZÜ:é]æôçvÞbÜ]éãoùçfâ`ÞCíôûçvâ`Ü`íëìbÝsÜì.ð$íëÜÝ.ÝsßUì.ç"íëÝ.ÜÝ.ßDÜHÞ2ÛvÝcß=í HãvàsÜHì Ü
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Three-phase AC motor
winding
winding
2a 3a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding N winding
3b 2b
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MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
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j
+
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∠ 0o
-
- +
120 V
120 V
- ∠ 240o
∠ 120o
+
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- "neutral"
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
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Tj
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- (no "neutral" wire)
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
ú à.â"ÜHÜݨÛvâOÜÜeòpÜFòpè2ÜFçvè2Ú.çvÛÚ.íëÝ.ÛßÜ å ÖÞ=$%æwгãoèC ß21Üè2× ÝsÔ'Øì¨ éÛÚ.Ü]ÛvûyÜHÛÛÜçQÝUãGãvÞDíôÝãvà.ãvÜXàsèCÛvòcÜHUÜ Þ2´ð.ÚsàsÝ=è2ã"çvÞCÜeû çvå óbÞ2ç~æëããÜèCò?ß=Üýçá`òcâ"ÜHè=ÜeçIÚ.ÝsÛÜÜHÜHìGìö»ãvÜÞ¯ã~âOö$ÜHÜÜÝkçvð»è2ÜFÝUé]ópí »ã~éeâ"ÞDè=ç?æôíëÝsãÞÜ
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For "Y" circuits:
Eline = 3 Ephase
Ü
vÛç ÜHÞ2çvÚ.ÜÛoÝ òDé]Þ6ÜSösâ"æôÞ=è2Ü ÛýÝså æëÜé]ÞUÛFÜMè2ámì|ãvãÞ|à.ÜÜeãvæôÜàsòc÷ܲKXÜHß:Ý=÷×ãoÛç`Üé]Ü Þ=ãù .ÝÞ2ß2sæôÜ]Üß2ãIãvÚsãà.ÛÜÜHèCÛSÛ ãv"Þ2íôÞ2ûQø ÝÇãvÝ.àsíôÞ2ç?ÜGãvà.ÝsçvÜHè2ÞCÛòpãGéÜpãÞ2à.Ý.ÝsÜsè2ß=òpÞ2Ú.ÝsÜ&Ûoæëè6ó î ãv½ íôå Þ2õè2Ý|=æëííì±ç è Þ2ù ù ÝsÝ.ÜcÜÞ6â`é]ûyæôÞ2Ý&Þ=Ûkçvè2ÜMéçfÝsÞ2ãÝ.ÞCà.ãvÝ.ÜMíÜFé]é÷uÜcãÞíëÞ2Ý.ÜHûOßaæwãoãè.à.ãáà.Üc÷pÛð»ÜûyÞ2UÜÞ=´Ûýæôð.è2íëàsÛvãíëçè=ã~óçIß2Ü ÜHûyÞ2Þ2å òcÛSÞ2æëÜ]ÜFããè2è2Ûvéoß2íà éÜ
Iline = Iphase
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"line"
120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
"line"
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o + - ∠ 120o
éè=çIÜ j
j
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120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o ∠ 120o
+ -
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j
120 V ∠ 0o 10 kW
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240 o
∠ 120o 10 kW 10 kW
+ -
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è
P
I=
E
Ü 10 kW
I=
120 V
Ü
I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor and source winding)
Iline = 3 Iphase
Ü
Iline = 3 (83.33 A)
Ü
Iline = 144.34 A
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120 V ∠ 0o
ì
+ - 120 V
+
winding
failed open! ì∠120 V
120o
120 V 120 V
-
êline
Even with the winding failure in the source,
voltage will still be 120 V and load phase
voltage will still be 120 V. The only difference
ëwill be extra current in the remaining functioning
ó source windings.
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120
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120o
- 104 V 104 V
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failed open!
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120
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120o
104 V 104 V
-
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failed open!
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60 Hz
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n # * [. 4- #x/ -l 4 !/ z"9 ,F ,('>2 ,F , D 44 , 1zR +3 "/%/, </ < x'>I"'3C,/1/ $S "')(
l /, $ ÕP &( +3+ ')# òt B? ë ð2ìï u ?{
b ÓÓ À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ B×DÀMcM
Impedance
phase angle
ô Kx/! D '3##"' 4 ED oA.SR+3/1 D '3#B *l0 ED "/1#Cë H òt B? ÕOn_"9 J4 /! O'3#6#". $ o@/1+>'3 ED oT. + "
Kf, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '3e 9<'VN/ l !"#R7:~=:Õ
ô Kx/! $I +>. o@#;/1"o &D D "9 ED '>m+3/1 D D 9 / '># ,(?"'32 U4 / 4- ""' #')# *l0 ED /Z1#
" ð, ë ñ ò<t B* Õ| 1('>2 4 /! 5')#%#;. $ o-/,+3'3 &D oA. + ; ^k D '3# $S 1#;9 &D '> 9'>%/ l
üP/,+>L ³ $S4 #L³a| ,(?"'32 7züxJ|J=0Õ
ô nz/, + 4 /! P'3S,U ² (*'>(?9'> F o@/, UD ')#"#"' 4 ! &D D ,o<#;/1"o &D- "9<" ED ')#P *l0 ED /R,#CðròòÇð " ìÇë
òt B? ÕP 4<4 A 4 /! P'3#O#". $ o-/,+3'> &D oT.R + ; 6I, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '>I < 9'>B/ l üP/,+>L³ $S4 #
z7 üx5:
=Õ
ô n # & [. 4- #8/ l4 /! % "'3C,/1/ $S "')(*,+>+3.e +3 &D "/e/, /, >Õ%qh'>C J"') C1+ 1F
Kp DL 1( AM+ C, QF kp/ 4<4 /A#;'> + C, QF , D ep . 4 / T9<# + <C ÕOn / 44 /1#"'V C1+ '3#
½A9< +/I (*'>(?9'>& # ' $I4-&D <( 7g`G= 4 ,# ,C,+ Õ
"') C1+ 1F # 4- ('>2 +3. F <4 /! l 1(/,8 "'3/')#8,+3#"/ ½A9< +\"/^ < (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# <C,+ Õ J#"'><C
2! +39 # l / $ +),#; y $S4 + (?'3(*9'> {
True power
Power factor = ª
Apparent power
119.365 W
Power factor =
169.256 VA
²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(120 V)2
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
µC =
±X = 120.002 Ω ´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(120.002
1
Ω)
µC = 22.105 µF
¹ Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA
¹ ¹
¸995.257
IC = Iload = 1.41 A
¹mA È 160 mH
Lload
120 V ·C XL = 60.319 Ω
¶
60 Hz º22 µF
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
ÁÁ1d §dÀxJ¨$ÀUÑ_¨_NcHÊMË©5DÂ B×DÀMcM b Ó¿
¸
Ztotal = ZC // (ZL -- ZR)
¸
Ztotal = (120.57 Ω ∠ -90o) // (60.319 Ω ∠ 90o -- 60 Ω ∠ 0o)
¸
Ztotal = 120.64 - j573.58m Ω or 120.64 Ω ∠ 0.2724o
ô Kx/A/1 4 /! l ,(?"/1U'>¾ ² (?'3(*9'V $ L.mo ¾¿ (*/, ( &DGF ¥/,U ³ #;,o+>')# &D !h2! +39 (?+3/1#
"/ ´,F oTY. D<D '>< C 4 ,,+>+ +\ ,(? @( / 4 4 /1#"'V S?® (?R/ l +>/A D #8 ,(? @( Õq l < +3/1 D #
b Þ@µ À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ B×DÀMcM
,( <( 3' #M'3 D 9@("'32 '>< "9 07 ')( ')#N + $ /1#;J +36L.#6M'>+3+zo = F@4 +3+ +BFðròÚð1 ë ð2ì ')#M
'3# &&DED "U / (?/1" (? 4 /T/, 4 /! l , (/,ÄÕ
PX [À ¢ª$¨£?mªRf*¡C¢Á£@ª$¨HX¢¤mP¢¢J$¨"£08¥
&&D ')# #6"/W(?/1" (? l /1 4 /A/1 4 /! l 1(/,M'3Y ²¾4 /! N#;.#; &$eF .,/,9 4 /,o<,o+3.W/1Q
L2 +39y9.W/ l ¬T/!M'3CI +3/1 D # y,(? '3 D 9@(,<( '> ".# /U9<# %l /,M.,/19N(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,@# ÕP»O/19
$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C / L2 '3<#["9 $I A(* +3+ &D 6ò<t B* ê0ð10ët î ë * /^ +3+O.,/19Z ! <
4 /! l 1(/,P')#M7:8T9 $ o Po [ * 8µ% D´ = F , D 44 A 4 /! M7: '3( (*,o â<C19 ED oT. ¬T'3C
Y21/,+> $S D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C oT. X $I$S D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0ÕZqm+ ## l L21/, o+
(?'3(?9 $ #; @( #.,/19 $ L. L2 "/¼9<# ,¾/1#(?'3+>+3/1#(?/ 4@ /¼(*/ $S4 21/,+> C D (?9 A L2 ?l /1 $ # F
$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,# # ' l J'3YÂÃaÄÅÃ[Ã;Æ5, D (* +)(?9<+3 "'3C 4 /! l ,(?"/1MoA.W (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# # ' l >Õ
º/A#[P+3'>¬ +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+ L2 1(*( #"#\/5 !" $S l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /! F /1# D '3C%.,/19(*,
(?/ $S4 CA '3<#;J(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,/ l 44 A 4 /! 7 l / $ $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CW"/,,+_21/,+> C D "/ +x(?9 A
$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= ÕHç<"/ $ 2!,+>9 #B/ l "9 , D 44 A 4 /! F .,/,9W(& D $ '3 1("'32 M4 /! B, D
4 /! l 1(/,Ä Õ"å E # D /S, y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s '3# 6/,¬# {
wattmeter ammeter
P A
240 V
Load
RMS
¶
60 Hz
Ç
Wattmeter reading = 1.5 kW
Ammeter reading = 9.615 A RMS
\ç '>#; F &&D "/ (*,+3(*9+)! 44 A 4 /! S'3f¬üxDÕO (*, D / ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C +>/A D
2,/1+V C oT.W+3/1 D (*9" A {
S = IE
S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R (& # &,F b Õ Ûµ1¯¬üxÈ'3# $ 9<( +) C Zâ@C,9 , ´ ÕÉe¬A F '3( +3+3#R9<# ! W4 /!
l ,(?"/15'3Y '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5 4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+ #"#J ´ =:ÕÊN/! F â@C,9 4 /! l 1(/,8/ l
'3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS "9 %4 /! MoT.U 44 , 1 4 /! {
ÁÁ1d ËdmBJDÀMcHÊ ÀxJ¨5D BÐ×DÀMcM ÀM JNÀMcHÊ*%Ë b Þ ´
P
Power factor =
S
1.5 kW
Power factor = º2.308 kVA
Apparent power
Í2.308 kVA (S)
Reactive power (Q)
???
kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l '3#+>/A D ')#, + (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;I T.h/ '> D 9<#["') + ² +3/1 DQF '>M'3+3+ L2 Y+) C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32 = 4 /! l ,(?"/, F ')( $S <#_ !x +3+ L2 "/%(?/1" (? l /,x'>PM'V SrðFòÇð, ëat / l 4<4 "/ 4 '3
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+ + Õ¼ÊN/!Î S ¬T/!È < $ /,9AU/ l ,('>2 4 /! 7 ´ Õ,Þ @» ¬üxJ|J= F (*,
(*,+3(*9+)! #;'3 / l (& 4 1(?'>"/, &&DED /W(?/19A ,(?6'># ?® (# {
bÞb À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ B×DÀMcM
²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(240)2
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
±X = 32.845 Ω µC =
´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(32.845
1
Ω)
µC = 80.761 µF
|M/19 D '3C8 ')#B,<#" \/ ® "/R¯µ ¶ ç F (& 4 +),( !B#"'3 / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3 (*'>(?9'>B D (& +)(?9+)!
< #;9+># {
wattmeter ammeter
ª
P A
º240 V
·C Load
RMS 80 µF
¶
60 Hz
Ne¯µ ¶ ç (* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+ L2 (* 4 ,(?'>"'32 ,(? @( / l ÛÛÇÕ ´ Þ3Ü F C,'32T'><CI(?9 A/ l Þ Õ b Û,¯R $S4 # F
D (?/1" # 4 /, D '3C^ ,('>2 4 /! %/ l´ Õ Þ@ÛÞW¬ü\5|Ï7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@ì<uwv*=0ÕWT'>@( (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<" AQ')# ´ ¯µá\/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $ < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32 (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9" A D L F (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
,(?"'32 84 /! MM'3+3+ D '> (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $ < +>/A D # ,(?"'32 84 /! F #;9<+V'>CS'3 {
1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)
n 4 4 A 4 /! 5(& Yo l /,9 DYl "/ $ "9 , D Ð ,(?"'32 R4 /! J2! +39 # F 9<#"'><CW <
1.5 kW
#; D DWl /1 $ / l KO.A 1C /, ^n /1 &$e{
ª
Apparent power = (Reactive power)2 + (True power)2
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
qR/1 D Q/59<# #;[.A+ B$S $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<( ,#z < J#"/,T2! + D #"'3C, F ,+V <!'><CJ(?9 A
$ @9 #[6o I" '>A"/ n ')#'3# $ /1#; 1#;'3+3.I1(*(?/ $S4 +>')# &D /,9C 9<# / lzD 2T'3( #(* +3+ &D t 1 ¦
#L D '3/ D # 9@# ED '3 y $S4 + (*'>(?9<'V D&$ /1<#;"!"'3C (* !"'3/,^/ l\ $ /,')( l 9 <(?' # l / $
D '3#;"/1; &D 7:/,% (' &D =5#;'3 6L2 ¾'> /19C,/,'3C^'>A"/ +) o-/,! D ,'>+x/!2 /!, D . D '3/ D #
6/,¬S1#O . D / FE 9<#; *$S&$ o . ,( 1(6+>'3¬ /1 L.2! +32 Jl /, + (?"/,<#B"/</! { ,(?"'3C
b
b ÖJJ8cxB×<dXRÖ!Y5cx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"*c+*
, # , (*/, D 9@("/- l /M- /1 %4 /1+ , "- '>[. , D , ^'3<#"9+ , "/- l /- , </ < - /.8D<D +>. /19C QF , -0-/! , D '> , (
D '3/ D #;. $ o@/1+ 4 /1'>A#1231 4 ¦57608:9<;=9-0>@?6A6A9B@B7?C-09D560?FEG@E l 9HF9ID560-AEGJKEMLN- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@L#?608?F6 ,O EG:9P>@?FQ836
9?y7;=9D 6 <-0- , G:Q9IB?CG , o:-0?RB7Q9S l ETK-UB7?CEVB:9 O L#?CHCH O 9-0W9(6AE O 6A99-J 608:-AET:Q8X608:9J>@9 609-<>@EMW9>@9G36<?CG ,
D EG O 6 , G36<B7?C-A9ID560?FEG608:-AET:Q8KET76 , HCHY;=E-A6A?CEG O E l 608:9R DZVDHF9 {
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
- +
will
Meter movement needle
always be driven in
the proper direction.
AC Bridge
source rectifier
<GKE6A8K9- O 60- , 6A9QZ l E- , ;:- , D560?CD , H\ >96A9->@EMW9>@9G36? O 60E-09B79 O ?CQG[6A8:9>EMW9>@9G36(L#?608:ET76(6A8K9
C? G:8:9-09G36(;\EH , -A?F6%Z O 9G O ?F6A?CW3?F6%Z]E l 6A8K9 6%ZV;\9 O nP8K? O >@9 , G OU, WE?CB:?FG:Q@608:9JT O 9E l ;\9-A> , G:9G36> , QG:96 O
^/-0E,o , o:HCZJ608:9 O ?C>@;:HF9 O 6PB79 O ?CQG? O 6AEJT O 9 , G:EG:> , QG:9 60?>9B_?C-AEG`W , G:9U6AE>@EMW9#608:9GK99B:HF9 , Q , ?CG O 6 O ;:-0?CG:Q
6A9G O ?FEGaSK608:9bW , GK9Ro\9?FGKQ , 6A6A- , D 6A9BX60EML , -0B ,`O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZXD E?CHcE l L#?F-09b9GK9-0Q?39BeoVZd6A8:9I e T , G36A?F6%Z60E
o=9f>9 ,O T:-09B
×Kg>×gmRÖih ¨ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* l
Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement
50
0 100
"needle"
wire coil
iron vane
O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,¬nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=9 6%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@9 6 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
oVZ , G , ?C-/Q , ;_D , GUo=9UT O 9IB6AEbQ9G:9- , 6A9 , G:99B7HC9 >@EMW3?CG:Q l E-0D9#;:-AE;\E-p60?FEG , H:6AEf608:9<WEH6 , Q9Mo\96%Lq99G@6A8K9
;:H , 609 O Pn 8:? O LmE-¬ O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N ,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-< S:E- O 8:ET:HRB^q OA, ZS T O 6 ,O ;=E3E-AHCZÕPnP8:9 l E-D 9 O
?CG3WEHCW9IB , -09PW9-AZ O > , HCHrS>TKD8 O > , HCHC9-6A8 , G6A8:9#> , QG:9 60?CD , 6p6A- , D 6A?CEGIo\96%Lq99G , G9G:9-AQ?>9BD E?FH , GKB , G
?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95¥ 9HC9D 6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*(¥ >@9 6A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
oVZs;:8VZ O ?RD , H)>@EMW9>@9G36 ft T76S l E- O E>98:?CQ8 WEH6 , Q9 , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D 6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ
nP8:9 , 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu |xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x >@9 609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E-
@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q WEHF6 , Q9 O S39 O ;\9ID ? , HCHFZ@? l 608:9y9HC9D560-AEGo=9 , >z? O#O Lq9;76 O ?RB79 6AE O ?RB79 , D -0E O0O 608:9 O D-A99G`E l 6A8K9
6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98 L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD 9
}<EMLm9W9-IS |xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-¬3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB
>@9 609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D 9f?CGd;:- , D 6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@9 6A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q
o=99G~B7? O D T OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l
>@9 609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z¬3GKEMLfS
>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l ;=EMLm9-@9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]u`EVE6 9 , G
T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA, ¬ 9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&D E>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[ , G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5 L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9 <Ê EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|U W , HFTK9
E l , Gf z T , G360?6%Z s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:¥-A9ID56A?FK9IB¥
U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID 9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<| Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 , ¬ 9G ,O O TKD8 < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU| @ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9-
,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l¯ ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
RMS = Peak
ª
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
V?CGKD 59 |< O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95¬V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:9-
6A8 , GW|< YSL#8 , 6 , -09N >96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV 8:9 , 6SE l D ETK- O 9,Õxn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bD E>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID ? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O v S , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@9 6A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D 6AE- E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9 T , H760ERÒ Ò 60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , ¬JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O Ò 3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , ¬nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-09oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9 6AE |U XD EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D 6AE-#E l Ñ ÑEÒ,Ó {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9 609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HF¾Z Ñ Ñ1Ñ60?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DD E>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O ¥D8:9 , 6 ¥EG:HCZbLqE"- ¬ O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9 609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O
Ê<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |< , GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8:9 |U , GK G >@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H Õ~Us
D, D T:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9 nP8:? O ?FG\D HCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
O T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV Z ¬V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9 ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9D E>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9- ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9 ;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U _>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9-
×Kg>×gmRÖih ¨ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* lÓ
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9 |xnÐ¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥ l -0E>608:9I|U UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 , |\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D 6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D 6A-0EGRo=9 , >¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , ¬uE-b^9 , ¬ 60E ^9 , ¬d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|< 36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:9 6A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6 EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D 6AE- O o=9 6%Lm99G_^9 , ¬ , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , ¬VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , ¬ |< <W9- , Q9XD EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D 6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 Õv
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9 609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79 KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z { 6A8:9_9 ® 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h G WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9 O ET:-0D9
6A^ E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O D EGKG:9D 6A9B , D -0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l ¬VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE-
? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? ¬9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9 nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z ]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(D ETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- ¬L#?F6Ah 8 JÊM»L , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {
sensitive
meter
movement
AC voltage to
be measured
thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD 9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D -0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T ® 9- l -0E>T:G:? TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JD EGKD 9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<D EGVW9-A6 O 608:9 WEH6 , Q9yE-
D TK-A-09G36 T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v T , G60?6%ZS)9 ® 9ID560?FW9HCZ O T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H 60?F>@9 nP8K9
O Z O 6A9 > O > ,O0O LmE-¬ O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD ?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9-
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEG^o ,O 9BEG_608:9 O T , -A9 -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6 s9 , G T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD 91ÕPqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A9-
8 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:? TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8 9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D 6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9 609- O l E-5¥M6A-0T:9
|< ¥_D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z
, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ WEH60>@9 6A9- O#, GKB , >@>@9 6A9- O l E-<B7? ® 9-A9G6 l T:HCH O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8 ?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O ¥>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- ¥d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
@
>
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH ¥ O 8VT:G36 ¥@-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:-
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9 }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:? TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
5 { o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h 8 Sn>@9 609-y- , G:Q9 O D , G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK9 6A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:9-
6A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe Z ¥ O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; ¥_E5- ¥ O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS ¥ O E>@9 60?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D 6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E- ^E609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u n% O v , -A9_;K-A9
D ? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD 9 O > , GVT l , D 6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D ? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh G o=9 6%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9ID EGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9 >@9 6A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DD T:- , DZ , GKB_D E>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O D ETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l ¯1Ò ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
fuse fuse
precision
step-down
PT
ratio
t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ97;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96 >@9 6A9- O
0-120 V AC movement range
E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6ÑIl,ÒbWEH6 O E-<¡ , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID ? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s
¢ £¤d¥ £¦¨§
¢ ^EH , -0>? 9Bu vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B ©ª« ¦b60E¬=9 , ¬:HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^
T , G36A?F6A?C9 O
¢ HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9 609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D 6A-0E> , QG:9 60?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE
W3?RB79s608:9N1 «® 12 « W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09 B T , G36A?F6%Z °¯ 8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z¬=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y±< `W , HCT:9SV¬:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9 L , W9 E-A>²? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ ¬VG:EML#G`¬=9 E-098 , GKGB Õ
¢ VE D , HFHC9B ®5³K« (]>@9 609- O T O 9sB7? ® 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
, D560T , Ha±U xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O ¬9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , ¬:vmE , G L , W9 E-A>
ïy´Uð´ µùP÷<¶·÷Jü]¸P¹ ûRüý»ºs¼ûú\÷ ö ÷Nûú·ùP÷Jöø÷JüIõ
½ G_?C>@;\E-p6 , G36/9HC9D 6A-0?CD , H T , G36A?F6%ZJL#?F6A8_G:Ef9 TK?FW , HC9G36/?CG` D?F-D T:?F6 O ? O)¾ ®A«¿ ³K«4=ÀÁM& -A9 T:9GKDZJ>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36P? O W9-AZ?C>;=E-A6 , G36m?CG> , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E , HF6A9-0G , 6A?CG:QDT:-A-09G36IS9 O ;=9D? , HFHCZ@?FG ½ ;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O
B79 O ?CQG:9IB@6AE-ATKG`9 D ?C9G360HFZ , 6mEG:9U-A9 T:9GKDZ , GKB_EG:9<-09 T:9GKD Z@EG:HFZ )Â c6A8:9 ½ ? O ¬=9?CG:QJQ9G:9- , 6A9B@¬VZ
, G_9HF9ID560-AE>9ID8 , GK?CD , H , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S6A8:9#-09 T:9GKD ZL#?FHCH=¬\9UB:?F-09D 6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H76AEy608:9 O 8 , 6 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9
> , D8:?CG:9S , GKB-A9 T:9GKDZDET:HRB_¬=9<>@9 ,O T:-09B O ?F>@;:HCZ¬3Z>@9 ,O T:-0?CG:Qy6A8:9 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9 O 8 , 6 &Â Y-09 T:9GKD Z
G:99B O 6AE]¬=9@>9 ,O T:-09B , 6 O E>@9@B7? O 6 , GKD9-0E>{608:9 , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S=6A8KET:Q8aSYE608:9-y>@9 , G O Eq>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
L#?CHFHa¬=9fG:9ID 9 O0O0, -0Z
. G:9 O ?F>@;:HC9y¬:T76UD -0TKB79f>@96A8:E7BXE)-A9 TK9GKDZ`>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36#?CGd;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O T:6A?CHF?CÃ9 O 6A8:9f;:-0?CGKD ?C;:HC9
EP>@9D8 , G:?RD , H -A9 O EG , GKD9 W9-AZs;:8VZ O ?CD , H/E¬7Ä%9D 6b;\E OAO 9 O0O ?CG:QX6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-A6%Z[E#9H ,O 6A?RD ?F6%Z!u O ;K-A?CG:Q?CG:9 OAO v
×Kg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $IÖ<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ<Ñ
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09 T:9G\D Z , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-09 9-U6AEdW3?C¬:- , 609 <¯ 8:9f60T:G:?CG:Q`E-AÎX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? OÏ&O 6A-0?CÎ9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C¬:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8 Ð EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0Î O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9 T:9GKD?F9 OÏ 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY¬\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0Î O
 > , Q?FG:9 , -AEML°Eq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ O ?CÃ9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Î O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79 ¬VZ O ?CB:9 ¯ 8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , D E>>@EG!¬ ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6`¬ ,O 9d? O WV?F¬K- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9 TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB ½ WEHF6 , Q9uE-
D TK-A-09G36vU¬VZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D 6A-0E> , QG:9 6 (Ñ 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Îs? O D HCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09 T:9GKD Z]60E
6A8K9-09 T:9GKD Z_Ec608 , 6#WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , Î9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v +Â c6A8K9E-AÎ OÒ 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~¬VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9¬KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B WV?C9LÓ;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 qÑ 9HFHSK> , Î9 , D EHFHC9D 6A?CEG]E+ÔM60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0Î O ÔET:6
E ,`O 6A-0?C;sE O 8K99 6>96 , H)D T:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , Î3?CG]6AE , - , Î9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9` ©Õ® 1M ©4 2 ®A«« -09 T:9GKD Z
>@9 609- Ï
to AC voltage
sheet metal reeds
shaken by magnetic
field from the coil
¯ 8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@9 6A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9 T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , Î9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9 TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB ½ WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9D E?FH ¯ 8:9UEG:9UD HCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09 T:9GKD Z
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B ½ L#?FHCHYWV?F¬:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEÎV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?FÎ9y6A8:? OÏ
Frequency Meter
52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
120 Volts AC
ÖU?C¬:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE¬3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&¬:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09 E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@¬\9y-0T:QQ9B ¯ 8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9 B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AE-
O 9 6 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9 TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bD HCE O 9@6AE Òu¡ Ò]?CG
lÍ3l ÖUÊUË(jÇ Æ×KgÊRÖ![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×Ö&"%Æ%Ö(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6AÃ
Ñ 8:?CHF9_-099IB 6%Z3;=9@>@9 6A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID ? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D ?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 `Â GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD 9S\Lm9> , Z O T:¬ O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD 9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9 TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD 6AE-
, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>ØE , 6 , G:ÎyD ?C-D T:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD 6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c¬=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BMÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD ?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O ¯ 8:9 , BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G36`ÎVG:E¬)u O v , -09XD , HC?F¬:- , 609B6AE O 8:EMLÙ-09 O EG , G36-09 T:9GKD Z
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9 T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O ¬=99G , BoÄ%T O 6A9B~E-
> , 7?C>JT:>Ú?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@9 6A9- O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , ¬:HF9y\H609-UD?F-D T:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, BoÄ%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , ¬:-0?RB7Q9_D ?C-D T:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b¬=9_¬ , H , GKD9BE- , ÔG3TKHFHRÔ]D EG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC
meter movement
HC9D 6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6 T , -A6AÃ(D8:?F;d? O 9 TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O Ð -A9 O EG , G36qD?F-D TK?6 ¯ 8K9(B7?C9HC9D 6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9-
6A?C9 O E T , -A6AÃJDEG36A-0?F¬KT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D ?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99 T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-D TK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVEÎ O#O E>@9 608:?CG:Q@HF?CÎ9(6A8K? OÏ
Crystal equivalent circuit
âC
capacitance C
â characteristics
caused by wire of the quartz
connections
across quartz
ãL
¯ 8:9ÔD , ; , D?6 , GKD9Ô , GKBeÔ?CGKB7TKD 6 , G\D 9Ô O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9 T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
T , -A6AÃ Ò O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 OÏ 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m9 7? O 6 ,O B7? O D -09 609UD E>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O
6 , H /¯ 8K9(D , ; , D ?F6 , G\D 9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D 6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
T , -A6AÃU¬\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9 än9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9> ½ TKHFHYB7? O DT O
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID 9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn¬:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E¬=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , ¬=ET76yD -0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D ?C-0DT:?F6U9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EMLÓ?F6D , GX¬=9b9V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D ?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-D TK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , ¬:HC9S7ÎVG:EML#Gd-A9 TK9GKDZ
-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-Ôak(Ôu ¿³ 1Mß © Á v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:ÎfD?F-D T:?F6 O
¬:T:?CHF6d-0E>å?CGKB7TKD 6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D ?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D ?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , ¬ O 9G\D 9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD 9S
> , ÎV?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79 KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9 TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E T , -A6AÃbu , W9-AZ O 6 , ¬:HC9 O TK¬ O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
lÍæ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
-09 T:9G\D ZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 , T , -p60ÃbD -0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML ¯ 8:? O ? O 8:EML ¿³ 1 ® ÞJé ª « é «4
L , 60D8K9 O E¬76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DD T:- , DZ Ï ¬VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , ¬:?CHC?FÃ9B]¬VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D 6A?CEGXE , T , -A6AÃfD -0Z O 6 , H
E- H , ¬=E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09 T:9G\D Z O 6 , ¬:?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z¬=9B79 O ?C-09B +¯ E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD -0Z O 6 , HP?FG T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z¬\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , ¬:?FHC?CÃ9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9 TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY9 7; , G O ?CEG , GKBXD EG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9 T , -A6AÃ
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9 TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O D EMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DD T:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> +¯ 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D ?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E D , HCHF9IB~1 ª é ©ÀÀ ß ªÀê S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-D T:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , D T:TK>XSY9:D ?F6A9B~¬VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:? T:9<-09 T:9GKD Z +¯ 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09 T:9GKD Z@? O B:9 6A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b¬ ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DD TK- , 6A9fD HCE7DÎ O Î3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z Pë , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , ¬=E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9L°E)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9- , DD T:- , 609yDHFE7DÎ O S , G\Bd¬K-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9 TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ¬ ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> OÒ WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD ? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09 T:9GKD ZD , HC?F¬K- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O
ë EMLLm9sQ9 6_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 Ï EGKD 9sLm9[8 , W9 , Ûª³7®AÀ« E , DD TK- , 6A9X-A9 T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
D E>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:ÎVG:EML#G@-09 T:9G\D Z6AEJE¬76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 , ± ¯ ,O
, -A9 T:9GKDZ DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD 9 q , 6A8KEVB:9y± , Z ¯ TK¬\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9 K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D 6A-0EG
¬=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FÃEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O )Â =>@9 6 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D 6
6A8K9`9HC9D 6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq¬\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`¬=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, ¬=EMW9 , GKB¬=9HCEML608:9f¬=9 , >
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates
horizontal
deflection
electron "gun" plates view-
(vacuum) screen
electrons
electrons
vertical
deflection light
plates
 Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9 ½ O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D 6<6A8:9f¬=9 , >ÚTK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6 ½ WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D 9(60E
6A8K9yÔW9-p60?CD , HRÔbB79 \9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9- ½ O ?CQG , H\60EB:9 K9ID56P6A8:9(¬=9 , >ìHF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79 \9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\¬=9(;:-AE7B7T\D 9B@EG_6A8K9 O D -099G_En6A8:9 ± ¯ ?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
® 1 ©ª Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE ½ -09 T:9GKD ?C9 O ¯ 8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9Bí ©RÛÛ 1î ª³VÛU 2 ³7®A« Û , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+D E>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9 T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O
 P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09 T:9GKD ?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE¬76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D -099GEm6A8:9 ± ¯ S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9¬=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b¬=9 6%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE ½ O ?CQG , H O }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E Ð ? O0O0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9 L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9 T , Hn-A9 T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -`EG!608:9s , D 9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O D E;=9u , G ½ WEH6 , Q9 >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q , ± ¯ ,O ?F6 O
Ô>@EMW9>@9G360Ô3v _¯ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD 6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IB¬VZ6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D 6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9- Ï
èKg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $ç<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ3¡
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
 U608:9X6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_¬\9XE-0>@9B
± , 6A8:9-SY608:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , Î9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY¬\9ID E>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-D TKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZðñòU¬\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9 T , H Ï
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
?FG , HCHFZS?FY6A8:9#6%LmE ½Uô O ?CQG , H O/, -09#B7?F-09D 6AHCZE;:;=E O ?FG:QfEG:9 , GKE6A8K9-/?CG`;:8 ,O 9bupõÍñò O 8:?65v5S3Lq9UL#?FHCHK9GKB
T:;]L#?F6A8 , HF?CG:9 , Q , ?CGaSVEG:HCZ`608:? O 6A?C>@9f?6<L#?CHFHc¬\9fE-A?C9G36A9IB`?CGX6A8:9fE;:;\E O ?F6A9fB7?C-09D560?FEG Ï
lÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Ñ 8:9GLm9 , -A9J , D 9IBsL#?F6A8 O ?CQG , Hc-09 T:9GKD ?C9 O 6A8 , 6 , -09JG:E6608:9 OA, >9S Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O Q96 T:?F6A9 ,
¬:?F6>@E-09`D E>@;:HF9 ô EG O ?RB79-f6A8:9EHCHFEML#?CG:Qs9 , >@;:HF9 Ob, G\Bx6A8:9?F-Q?CW9GW9-A6A?RD , HÝo8KE-0?FÃEG36 , H)-09 T:9GKD Z
- , 6A?CE OÏ
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
 GdD ,O 9 O L#8:9-096A8:9-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O Ea608:9(6%LqE ½Uô O ?FQG , H Oq, -A9G:E6P9 , D56AHCZ ,JO ?C>;KHF9y- , 6A?CEJEc9 , D8E6A8:9-
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
u¬KT76@DHFE O 9ov5S&6A8K9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O KQT:-09`L#?CHFH , ;:;\9 , -J6AE~Ô>@EMW9S Ô O HFEML#HCZxD8 , G:Q?FG:QsE-A?C9G36 , 6A?CEG ,O 608:9d;K8 ,O 9
, GKQHC9¬=9 6%Lm99G`6A8K96%LmEL , W9 E-0> O -0EHCH O ¬=9 6%Lm99GXñ3ò , GKB[õIÍñò &Â )6A8:9(6%LmEJ-09 T:9GKD ?C9 OP, -A9(HFE7DÎ9B_?CG , G
9 , D56U?CG36A9Q9-- , 6A?CE`¬\96%Lq99Gs9 , D8sE608:9-IS\6A8:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9JL#?FHCH)¬=9 O 6 , ¬:HC9JEG]608:9JWV?C9L O D -099GsE+6A8K9
ô ± ¯y
¯ 8:9;:8VZ O ?RD O E Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09 O HC?F>@?F6 O 608:9?C-fT O 9 T:HCG:9 O0Of,Oy, -A9 T:9GKDZ3øDE>@; , -0? O EG]6A9D8KG:? T:960E
D ,O 9 O L#8:9-09y6A8K9y-A9 TK9GKDZ- , 6A?CE O#, -A9 O ?F>@;:HC9f?CG609Q9-#W , HCT:9 O u%õ Ï õScõ Ï l7Saõ Ï SKl Ï S Ï æ\S79 60D v qù 9 O ;:?F6A9f608:? O
HC?F>@?F6 , 60?FEGaS Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9 Ob, -09 , ;=E;:TKH , -b>@9 , G O EP-09 T:9GKD ZD E>; , -0? O EGxL#8:9-09W9- , G , DD9 O0O ?C¬:HC9
-09 T:9G\D Z O 6 , GKB , -Bxu O ?FQG , HYQ9G:9- , 6AE-5v+97? O 6 O
¢ £¤d¥ £¦¨§
¢ Ü E>@9P-09 T:9G\D Zb>@9 609- O LmE-0ÎbEG6A8K9<;:-0?FGKD?F;KHF9#En>@9ID8 , G:?RD , H7-A9 O EG , G\D 9SM?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CG:Qf-09 T:9GKD Zb¬VZ
-A9H , 6A?CW9(E O D ?CHFH , 60?FEG , >@EG:Q ,O 9 6<E)T:GK? T:9HFZ6AT:G:9IB]Ô-099B O Ô O 8 , Î9G , 6P6A8:9f>@9 ,O TK-A9IB`-09 T:9GKD Z
¢ . 6A8:9-y-A9 TK9GKDZ>@9 609- O T O 9_9HC9D560-A?RD@-09 O EG , G6bD?F-D T:?F6 O u Ð ô 6 , G:ÎxD ?C-0DT:?6 O S&T O T , HCHCZ7v60Es?FG\B7?CD , 609
-A9 TK9GKDZ . G:9E-(¬\E6A8D E>;=EGK9G36 O ? O > , B79J60Ed¬=9 , BoÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9SYL#?F6A8 , G , DDT:- , 6A9HFZsD , HF?C¬:- , 609B
lÍÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
, BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G6(ÎVG:E¬aS , GKB ,O 9G O ?F6A?CW9J>@96A9-(? O -09 , BXE-(> , 7?F>T:>ÚWEHF6 , Q9bE-D TK-A-09G36 , 6U6A8K9;=E?CG36
E)-09 O EG , GKD9
¢ -09 T:9G\D ZD , G¬\9X>@9 ,O T:-09B?FG , DE>@; , - , 60?FW9@ ,O 8:?CEGaS ,O ? O 6A8:9]D ,O 9dL#8:9GT O ?CG:Q , ô ± ¯ 60E
Q9GK9- , 6A9]í ©RÛÛ 1î ªM³VÛf 2 ³7®A« Û5 ±#9 9-A9GKD 9d-A9 T:9GKDZ O ?CQG , H O D , G¬=9]> , B79XL#?608 , 8:?FQ8!B79Q-099dE
, DDT:- , D ZX¬VZ[E O D ?CHCH , 6AE-yD ?C-D T:?F6 O T O ?FGKQ T , -p60ÃD-AZ O 6 , H Oy,O -09 O EG , G6yB79WV?RD 9 O E-yT:HF6A- , ;:-A9ID ? O ?CEGcS
, 6AE>@?CDfDHFE7DÎ O ?CQG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O u¬ ,O 9IB]EGX6A8K9b-A9 O EG , G36P-09 T:9G\D ?C9 O E?CGKB7?CWV?CB:T , H , 6AE> O vPD , Gs¬=9
T O 9IB
yú ´_û0ü ýwþÿ &·
^EMLm9-#>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6?FG ½Uô D?F-D TK?6 O D , G[¬=9 T:?F6A9 , ¬:?6(>@E-09JD E>;KHF9X608 , GL#?608 ù ô D?F-D TK?6 O E-6A8K9
O ?F>@;:HC9-09 ,O EG@6A8 , 6#;:8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6m> , Î9 O D E>@;:HF?RD , 6A9 O 608:9y> , 6p609-m¬\9ZEG\B`>JTKH60?F;:HCZV?FGKQWEHF6 , Q9<¬VZ`D T:-0-09G36
KQT:-A9 O E¬76 , ?FG:9IBL#?F6A8>@9 609- O |Ñ 8 , 6]? O G:99B79IB? Od, G?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 , ¬:HC9[60E!B796A9-A>@?CG:9[608:9;:-0E7B7TKD 6
u>T:HF6A?C;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG\vcE ©4KÛ 1 4 1 4=«ªM³VÛ WEHF6 , Q9 , GKBJD T:-0-A9G36 c E-A6AT:G , 6A9HFZS608:9qDE>@>@EGb9HF9ID560-AE7B7ZVG , >E>@9 6A9-
>@EMW9>9G36PL#?F6A8]?F6 O<O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZ , GKBd>EMWV?CG:Q_D E?FHaB7EV9 O#, \G:9PÄ%E¬]E)6A8:? O
¯ 8:-099(;:8 ,O 9y;=EMLq9-m>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36PD , GX¬\9 , DD E>@;:HF? O 8:9BT O ?CG:Q6%LmEB7ZVG , >@E>@9 609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O L#?608
, >@>EG O 8 , 6JHF?CG:ÎV?CG:Q]6A8:9@6%LmE]>@EMW3?CG:QsD E?FH O 60EQ96A8:9- O E]608 , 6 ,sO ?CG:QHC9@;\E?FG36A9-b-09Q? O 6A9- O ;\EMLm9-fEG
D
E
, >@9 6A9-_>@EMW9>@9G6 O D , HC9 N¯ 8:? O SmE¬VWV?FET O HFZS/> , Î9 O E- , - , 6A8:9-97;\9G O ?CW9 , G\B!DE>@;:HC9 >@EMW9>@9G36
>@9D8 , G:? O >]S7¬:T76<?F6<? O<, LqE-AÎ , ¬KHF9 O EHFT:6A?CEG
½ G_?CG:Q9G:?CET O >96A8:E7B_EaB79-0?FWV?CG:Q , G_9HF9ID560-AEG:?CD<;\EMLm9-/>@96A9-uEGK9#6A8 , 6qQ9G:9- , 6A9 O+, G_9HC9D 6A-0?CD O ?CQG , H
-09;:-09 O 9G36A?CG:Q(;\EMLm9-?CGJ608:9 O Z O 6A9>i- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@>9-A9HFZf>@EMW9 , ;=E?CG609-5v&? O ¬ ,O 9BEGb608:9<} , HFH79ä=9ID56 ¯ 8K9
} , HFH+9ä=9ID56f? O(, GT:GVT O T , H&9ä=9ID56fK- O 6(G:E6A?RD 9IB[¬VZ } } , HCH?FGNõÍ ðKS=L#8K9-09¬VZ , WEHF6 , Q9J? O Q9G:9- , 609B
, HCEGKQJ608:9fL#?CB76A8sE , D T:-0-A9G36pøD , -0-0Z3?CG:QD EG\B7TKD560E-P9 7;=E O 9B6AE , ;=9-0;\9GKB7?RD T:H , -#> , QG:9 60?CD(\9HRB Ï
voltage
The "Hall Effect"
current N
current
¯ 8:9#WEHF6 , Q9PQ9GK9- , 6A9IB , D -0E O0O 6A8:9<L#?RBV608_E=6A8:9# , 6S3-09D56 , G:QT:H , -+D EGKB7TKD 6AE-+? O B:?F-09D 6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H
6AE¬\E6A86A8:9> , QG:?F6AT\B79UEY6A8:9yD T:-0-09G36/6A8K-AET:Q8_?F6 , GKB@608:9 O 6A-09G:Q6A8`EY6A8:9> , QGK9 6A?RD#\9HRB , 608:9> , 60?ø
èKg :gËÇ ÆÓ[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍð
D , HFHCZS?6q? O/, ;K-AE7B7TKD 6Uu>T:H60?F;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG\vEn6A8:9 O 9P6%LmEfW , -0? , ¬:HF9 O &¯ 8:9 , >@ET:G36/EYÔ} , HFHKÖ+EHF6 , Q9Ô(;:-0E7B7TKD 9IB
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 9 6fE#D EGKB7?F6A?CEG Oy, H O E]B:9;=9GKB O EGx6A8:96%ZV;\9_Eq> , 609-0? , H+T O 9BE-y6A8K9 , 6S)-A9ID56 , G:QT:H , -
D EGKB7TKD 6AE- m 6U8 ,O ¬\99G]ET:GKBX6A8 , 6 O ;=9D ? , HCHCZ;:-09; , -A9IB]Ô O 9>@?CDEGKB:TKD560E-ÔJ> , 609-0? , H O ;:-AE7B7T\D 9 , Q-A9 , 6A9-
} , HFHcWEHF6 , Q96A8 , GXB:E_>96 , H O S , GKB O E>@E7B79-AGs} , HFH ä=9ID56UB79WV?CD9 O#, -09y> , B79yE&6A8K9 O 9
 6q> , Î9 OqO 9G O 9#6A8:9G`608 , 6m?aLm9ULm9-09#6AE¬:T:?CHCB , B79W3?RD 9UT O ?CG:Q , } , HFHFø9 än9D56 O 9G O E-/L#8:9-A9U6A8:9(D T:-0-09G36
6A8K-AET:Q86A8:9_D EGKB7TKD 6AE-(L ,O ;:T O 8:9IB¬VZ ½Uô WEHF6 , Q9J-AE> , G~9 V6A9-AG , H+D ?C-0DT:?6 , GKBs608:9@> , QG:96A?RDK9HRB
L ,OmO 96mT:;d¬VZ , ; , ?F-mE-mL#?C-A9yD E?FH O 9G:9-0Q?CÃ9IB_¬VZ@6A8:9yD TK-A-09G36PEa608:9 ½Uô ;\EMLm9-PD ?C-0DT:?F6S36A8:9f} , HCH=WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB¬\9X?CGB7?C-A9ID56;K-AE;\E-p60?FEG~60E[608:9>T:H60?F;KHF9XEUD?F-D T:?F6DT:-0-A9G6 , GKBWEHF6 , Q9 } , W3?CG:Q[GKE> ,O0O 60E
>@EMW9suTKG:HF?CÎ9 , G9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H+>@EMW9>@9G36v Sa6A8K? O B:9WV?CD9_? O, ¬:HC96AE[;K-AEMWV?RB79 ©4:Û 1 4 1 4n«0ª³VÛ ;=EMLq9-
>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6 Ï
A Hall effect power sensor
voltage
Rmultiplier
AC Load
power
source
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Ü T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l qvhq7u:¬"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f o k h/q f 0 Ü u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _à ª'\ « ®_k ¿³"f ß ©*(Á
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!
é «V(« ® 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q¬ f T^T f `Îvh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i øR f ?Bu f v!xVr Û à «À%(r®5³ é ; ß Á Þ « ® 0
Ñ l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU ô ± ¯ h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n fÒ qR f ?Bu f v"xVrÔ/q o f xVT7u s 0 ÔW[/u"qKT@/q+ o k q s q o m k Tq+x¬ f s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g ¬m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rVÃ q o m Tq øR ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v g gZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k fs]g Ï f f k k k
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %
/xl2vBu ¬ 3h6v+Tl l"h6 Ãh6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv vBT6m=R ø
B? u f v!xVr60 "h6 s ½ s2f f k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f ÔKõÔ k s2f o f f f q f v/fTqf ñf <Ã Tl f õ<qKs T3l"'k s h6v k x'f zBh6 ¾ g ³ ; s2/ f é « ; (w ß f z
T7l f Ô6¡Ô(Rh6õÍñ UÃ T7l f ¡' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f Ô¡Ô(Rh63¡ññ UÃ T7l f ¡}T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 ¯ l f ¬m&6xÎ
f xT'vn/m f q f o f q f v/TT7l f f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
ðB çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJײçLI%ÆyçNMOI% P
½Uô |6h/m]T'n f 0 ¢½ o u" f z@ñ <Ãq k v fji }| f i h6u"m g q7lh i h6vm.r 2T6m1m&¬m&6xÎX¬"'hY| f T7l f Ô:õÔ i8k T7l-vh¬m&6xÎ
¬"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r s ' 0Î f q3h/vTl f qx%'m f z7¬ f x'u"q f o u f q k v f i }| f l"6q v"h
l"6 s h6v k xxVh/vBT f vBT<0
£Eh 8?Bu"'m TKr T qq7u"xla6qT7l q n6lBTU¬ ¬ T7T T7hA/q ªYM«®(ª « T qz\¬ x'u"q Tl r
' f8gZf qi3k n6f v f<g Th k gZk q s2o m.f }rf h/vm.rT7l"h/q f R fk ?Bu s2f kv"x k1f qÎf vh fi vf T7hf¬ f f f n f f<v g f YT fg ¬rT7l f ; o h i3sf f yf q7rZqKT f%s f 0 Â v2f T7l f%f f ø
o l"/q ½UôWo h Lq7rZqKT q o h v"6vBTcRh6Em&'n o h E oo m x%YT h/v"qz | v7øwvu ¬ l"' h6v x%q5T v
T7h@¬ f f x%6v"x f m f<itg f h/uZTz6f%v s g q^h2h/fvg m1rs2l"k' s h6v k x%q f k qKf T k v"n i3k f vXq k n6v k k,!x'vBk T s2f 6f q7uf f ' fs Tl f f fh g gg øwvBsu s ¬ k f fg f 0 g
T qm Î Tl q 6 | rAu!q Rum vXTl l!'v qh Apq Î m1m T xlv x 'v5=z ¬ x'u"q ä vBTTKr o qh
vh/vm k v f f 'f 8m.h/k g f q3T f f v g f T7h+f n f vf f YT fNf gk ä f k f vBTf q o f xTg7u s Ô6q k n/v"k YTfug f 0q f Ô i l k k xk lXx%'vXf x%m1u f fjTl gZf k Tf 7h/f :u ¬m f q7lhf h'T f
T7hT7l f q^h/ux f hT7l f o h ¬m f%s 0 ¯ l f q f-sf T f q i h/A Î!¬Br| f 7r?Bu k x Îm.rq s o m k vnT7l f ½Uô |6h6m1T6n f 'T
s 'x%v7r h o gZk hä x f qf q^vBh/T o qh k vB6Tm1q m'xVm.h h6v"no uT7Tl fNOi T7}h | fo Rh6A Rs h6 q^l"v ou f z gZ k n x%k6T mk à k h6v"u"nQ Tlh/6q f v"'o m.h rZk q vBTq q3Th l k 7v Rh6o Û s( YªT k³7h6®5v5©« z®6v :¥ g ®7 u!q Û k vªMn2® é
s2h6qk Ô ¥ Ôjf 'm.n6h6 T7l s Lh6vsTlh/q f 'T o h f v/Tq s Thj's2 | f k 'Tl"' h6k.f v mx R ?Bu k v! xVr fN¤ 6n6v T7¤ u q0 ¯ l o ; 7hZ¾ x qq
¤E¤ k s fg k k f s k f f s k gf f f
k'qQv!'v"m.h'rT q sqth/u"vXxlHuq vm k ÎufAm&YTi l!YxT2T7x%l u f TÜ |/£ h6Â m1ôT6 n o h68h6n/xVu s vBT T f m.m&q}| WRxVh6h s o 0 uZT f T7h g h i l f v o f p Rh/ s2k vnWWh/u k1f
k k.s fg k k f f i f s
úy´_û¦ § ¨ ª ydV«X¬j ¸dV+¸<·XdL
©
½ q q Tl ù ô 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vÎvh vA6q3 Õ®5©:%3« x%'v¬ | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:Îvf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k ¯ l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l ½Ui ô /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:Îvh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
¯ h | z'T7l ¬ n x xVu T h60ÎZqy6qt o h{T høwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk i ; ³ ßß® «%(«À%(ª® ks2f T f i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f¬ gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6v h Ô¬"6m.6v"x f ÔQ'PT Ã f h2|6h6m1Tq Ï
R1 R3
null
R2 R4
½ vr h6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l ¬hY| ¬" n x%'v¬ T7l q q^T7h6hyuv:Îvh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v]¬ f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f ¬rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f Ô6f x%6k m k ¬YT fg z Ôjh/ ii lhBq f f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f Îvh i vT7hj o f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 Ñ l f v+T7l f ¬ k&g n f8k q k v@y¬"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v à f h |6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
¬r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60ÎZq3h6uZT8Th¬ f T7l k q Ï
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I% P ð/¡
In a condition of balance:
²R ²R
1
²R = ²R 3
S v h T7l |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn¬ n x xVu TTh 6q7u q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n h T7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k f m f |Y'vBf T0U£y6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f Î kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f T7f l f f q^uk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f f k T k qThf
2 4
gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@¬ h0 k1½s ¬"n/' m&'Yv"T x f @¬ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f ¬ vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul fNs h6vB fT
o f f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k hi8i3k f | f fzTl f fi8f k m1m)f ¬ f vh@Ruv g s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f
o h itf q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k Î f h'T7l f TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
 o 'v!x ¬" n q h60 ÎjTl q z/h/vm1rTl ¬"6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l À0ª é<ànß « á?/u!'vBT T qzB/q ¬h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_¬ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f ÔÃ f h"0 Ô ¯ l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T ¬ f gZf | k x f x% o ¬m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m ½Uô |/h6m1T'n f q0 ½ vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f v³u"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l v s 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f Î f ql!}| f ¬ f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
General impedance bridge
Z1 Z3
null
Z2 Z4
s 'n/v k Tu gZf q 'm.h6v f ¬ f ¬!'m&'v"x fgCµLi8k Tlh6uT o l"6q f 'vn/m f q k vx¬"'m&'v!x f 6q i3f m.m9z=T7l f f+i8k m1myq^T k m.m/¬ f |/h6m1T6n f
ðæ çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJײçLI%ÆyçNMOI% P
6x%7hBq7qtTl f T f s2k v"'m&q hOT7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/'v g T7l f ¬" k&g n fi8k m1m5vh'T<¬ f ¬"'m&'v!x fg 0
¶3 n x xVu Tq8x'v]¬ xVh6v!qKT7u"xVT Th 6q7u ÄKu"q^T¬h6uT86vr | x |Y'm.u q z7¬ Tx o /x ø
T6v"x f z k&gk v g f u"xk T'v"xk f zZ f q k q^T6f v"x f zh6 f | f f<vdg Ô·Q0 s2Ô f ½ q86m fi }rZq k vX¬ k&g n fs2fgZ/f q^u"k ffsf vBT f x gZk f xVu k k Tf<qg zT7l f f k uv:Îvh i kv
?Bu"'vBT k TKr k q'm i }rZq(Ô¬"6m.6v"x f<g ÔU'n/ k v!qKT Îvh i vq^T'v g ' g zCh¬T k v f<g Rh s Ul k n6l7ø~?Bu"'m k TKr6z=x%6m k ¬YT fg
xVh s o h/v f vBT+T7l!YTAx'Nv ¬ f g ÄKu"q^T f<g³k v³|Y'm.u f uvBT k mTl f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x fXk v gZk x%'T f q`xVh6v gZk T k h/v³h
¬"6m.6v"x f 0 ù f o f v gZk v"nah6v`lh i Tl f ¬ k.g n f@k qjq f Tju o zLT7l f u"v:Îvh i vxVh s o h6v f vBT Ò q|Y'm.u f@s }r~¬ fUgZf T f Aø
s2kYv Tfl ggkY T f xVxT7'm.nm @r Rh/R7 h s um.T"l 0 f q f T^T k vnh CTl f x'm k ¬"'T fg qKT'v g 6 g z/h/ gZf k | f<g Rh s T7l"'T q^T6v g 6 g Tlh6un/l@
s ½ f%xVs h/u o k m hEq s o m ¬ n x x%u Tq8' q^l"h v¬ m.h zh6v Rh/ v u!xT6v"x 6v h6v Rh6x o /x T6v"x
f k.s f k.g f k k f i f i f k g f g f k fÏ
unknown
inductance
standard
Lx inductance
Ls
null
²R ²R
unknown
capacitance
âC âC standard
capacitance
s
x
null
²R ²R
Ü o m Ô6q7r T7 x'Rm Ô#¬ n qOq^u"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" ¬ x%'u!q Tl r l ¬ TEq^r T7r 7h6Aø
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2y¹Rf h s k m f ¹*T8T7h2k.g k f n/lBT0 ¯ l f T i f hf¬ k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf ¬hYf | f f%'¸ f k ¬"6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f ¬r@ g Rs2ÄKu"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k ¬'T f<g f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT ÐLº h/ ô º 0 ¯ l f r-' f d¬ k Tjq k1s o m k , fg ¹Rh s Tl f%k f 'mFø$m k ¹ f x%h6uv:ø
T f o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m)¬ k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'¹*T f val"}| f @x%6m k ¬YT fg z!|}6 k ¬"m f f q k qKTh6 k v-q f k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th¬!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKÎBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I% P ðB»
¶3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h'¹ o f ^¹ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+¼ k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@ÄKu"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f ¼ 6q k xNx%h6v"x f o T<0
½ v fV¸ s o m f h'¹OQm k T^Tm ff%¸ TQxVh s o m f%¸k TKr@ g"gZfg T7h2xVh s o f v"qYT f ¹Rh/ f 'mFø i h6m g2f ä f xTq3x'v ¼!f ¹Rh6u"v g
kh6v+uT8T7l 6f v q7uhø~v:x%Î'vm.mh fg³v ½Uq ¾:¿ ; q Õ%À x%¾ %o 6¿ xz i Th6l Ak ø$x lq u!qKq Tf h6qt x%ho ''m.v!m f Ym!T x%h6 v5o 0 6x½ k Tm1mOh6Ax%ø$ o f q6k x qKTT7h6h/ qtqKTl"'}v | g 'q7g+h k1s o fg h66u"v"v/x T8f h6T7h ¹ ¼ vB'T m&'v"v"x 6f m
f q k q^T6v"x f z ¼f@i k TQm k f T f k.f 6m h6 f ?/k u k |Y'm f f vBkT :k vTl sQf ¼¹Rh6k s k h6¹ gZk1f m f xT k x2l k f 'T k vnXm.h/f qq f qs2 f i l s k xlT f v g kT7haf q o h k m
T7l f%k h'T7l f i8k q f o f 7¹ f xVT7m.r- f /xT k | f v"'T7u f q0Á l k q k vBT f v"6mL f q k qKT'v"x fQs }r ¼f h'¹ k vBT f f qKTT7h s2f /q^u" f z
'v g q^h Tl f Ñ k.f v ¼ k&g n f 'T^T fs o TqT7h g hq^h ¼ r o 7hY| k&gZk vnX ¼ 'm&'v!x k vn k1s o fg 6v"x f T7l"'T k q7v Ò T Ô o u f Ô
f%k T7l f Ï
The Wien bridge
âC
²R
x
²R x
s
âC
s
null
²R R
¶ vn@Tl"YTNT7l 6 T hUqKT'v 6 xVh o h6v vBTqT7h ÄKu"qKT A q qKTh6N'v x% o 6x Th6 Tl q
¼ k.g n f%fk i8k m.m"TÎ f f m k fT7T7m ff s h6i f T k1s2f g T7h ¼g 'm&'v"s x f T7l!f 'v+Tl f h6¼!T7f l f g q itfÒf| gHf q f%f vAf q^khj¹:'<0LÁ g l f xVh sj¼k v k f<g+f ä f xVk T
h'¹Â º 'v g ô º k qTh'm1T f jTl fUs 6n6v k T7u gZf 6v g o l"/q f 'vn/m f uvBT k m3T7l fA¼ k&g n f 6xl k1f | f qQ-x%h6v gZk T k h6v_h'¹
¼Îv6m.h 6v"q%x z/f T70 l S v!o x6f 6Tm1l"m Ym T ¼ 6o m.6v"6x fNv"x k q3/h'x¹=l Tk.l f | f<T g z/h T7l f T q f T^T k v"v n/q3h'¹OY T7º l 'v g YT ô xº 'm.xm1'r/vz6¼!v f Tf l g u"¹R7v:h Îs vh T7l vfk 8x% x%o 66m k.x ¼ T'Yv"T fx g
'v g ¼ f q k q^Tf 6v"x f gZf f T f k1s s2k v ffg gUs fYTl f%s Yf T k xi 'm.m1r@gZf ¹R7f h s sk T7l f<f g+¼ s 'm&'v"x f%fNs f ?Bu"k YT k h/v wÃ=g Ä Ý Ã{Å f ÷ Ã{Æ Ý Ãi Ç 0 k f
 T q26qq7u vTl h o YT h/vh'¹Tl Ñ v n T7l"'TTl qKT'v 6 x% o 6x Th6jl!6qv n/m n m
vk /T f v"'k mL f q k q^Ts26fv"gx f k zh/N'f TNm f /f qKTNT7k l!YT f q k qKTf 'v"x fjk1f k q¼'m. k&fg g f r]Îvh i v-f q7hTl"Yg T k gTx'v ¼f k ¹:6xVT7h6 fgaf k vBT7khAk.T7¼ l ff
¼m Î6m.6v"m x fxTf 7?Bh/u"m1rB'T T k x%h6qv=z 0 Ñ l k. f v T7¼ l k&g vBn Tf q 7v"' 6f m u" q q f ¹Rq^uTmE'v!¹Rh6x gqf T f m&s2YT k v | k vm.rUnUlT7l n/f l=|Y0+'m.Á u l f qr-h'¹m6 Ô6m1hB'q7m&q7q7r7hAÔu"xq o /x6k qNT7h6¹R gZ?Bfu q k v"n6xVv!r q
k ff f k i f f fk f f k fk f k f k f f fg f f
s2x% f o T 6f x q%Tz h6¼qf x'' u"q f Tl f¼, 'm&'v"x f'v h6¹yT7u!l q^fu"6¼ m1m. rUk&g h'n ¹ fk ?Bqu"¹R6 fm5?B|Yu 'f m.uv"xV3r ø 'gZv f o f Tv l gZf TvBh To 0 TÑ lh@f vq u"q^q T7f<h/g-q8k va6 Tl k qN ¹:6q7l |Yk h/'v= z{ T7l m f
'v g 6k f g ÄKu"qKf T fs gU¼ gZr f s2¸Zf f6g`v"q h'¹Lg T7l f q s2f Îvfh ¼ 0 f g f i f k fjs gZf k ¼ f
½ v k vBT f f qKT k vn`|Y6 k YT k h/vh/v³T7l k q+Tl f%s2fk q@¹Rh6uv g³k v³T7l f v f%¸ T ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T<z8u"q fg T7h o f x k q f m1r
s2f q^u fk v g u"xT'v"x f q0
/
ð/ çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJײçLI%ÆyçNMOI% P
The Maxwell-Wien bridge
ãL
x
²R x ²R
null
âC
s
²R ²R s
Á l k q k vn f v k h6u"q ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T k q Îvh i vU6qT7l fQÈ á \ ¿ ßß]® ½A¾:¿ ; Õ%À ¾ % ¿ q7h s2f T k1s2f qqÎvh i v o m. k v"m1r@/q
T7l f2È á \ ¿ ßß ÕVÀ ¾ ¿ z{'v gUk q u"q fg T7h s2f /q^u" f uv:Îvh i v k v g u"xVT'v!x f q k vUT f s q8h6¹Lx%6m k.¼ YT fg f q k qKT'v"x f
'v g x% o 6x k T'v"x f 0 ô 'm k.¼ 'T k h6v7øwn6 gf k v g u"xTh6q6 fQs h/ fgZk1 x%um1TNTh s 6vBu¹:6xTu f T7l!'vx o /x k T7h/qh'¹
q k1s2k m.6 o f x k q k h6v5z6'v g q7hTl f u"q f h'¹CNq k.s o m f Ô/q^r s2s2f T7 k x%'mRÔ k v g u"xT'v"x f3¼ k&g n f k q vh6T 6m i }rZq o /xT k x'm$0
¶ f x'u"q f Tl f o l"/q f q7l k ¹*Tq h'¹ k v g u"xTh6q'v g x% o 6x k Th6q6 ffV¸ 6xVT7m.rah o"o hBq k T f2f /xl-h6T7l f z5Ux% o 6x k T k | f
k.6s q3o Tl fg rU'v"'x f x%l 'v ¼ 0 6m.6v"x f h/uZT'v k v g u"xVT k | f k.s o fg 'v"x fk ¹LT7l f r ' f m.hZx%'T fgAk vXh oo h/q k T f m f n/q h6¹E ¼ k&g n f z
f f ff
½ v"h'T7l f g |}6vBT'n f h6¹Ou"q k v"n22a ¸Zitf m1m ¼ k.g n f T7h s2f /q^u fNk v g u"xT'v"x f 'T7l f tTl"'v 2q^r s2s2f T k x%6m
k vv g u"u"xVxVTT7h6'v!qx 0f2a¼ 'k.n/g v n fjT k xqNT7, l f2m f qNm k.x%s26vk v"'T k h6vh'x%¹ us2m]TNf 6T7hUq7uq^ l fs2m f vBz{T 'f v 7h6 | g vau f T7q h s 'm.umOT7 u"6m h/kuv vBg Tu"h6x¹T'xVv"h6x u fQo m¼vf T n i3f%f Tv-T i vh
kxVh g m&q va n xf 'k v vBf T7g h u"x q^¼!u fgZqKTk]'vBT 'm 7h6q k1f vXg x 7TgX fvXxVf h/v T s h6v"q0 Ñ s TlXvh@q xVh/v k v ¼u"fxTi3h68f%f Th
f 6k xVT k i8k Tl ¼ k vUk&g T7l f f - ¸Zk itf m1m g ¼ k&f g n f zB¼ T7l k q o k h ¼ f m f%sÉk q k f m k.s2f k v!Yk T f<g 0 gZk k k f gAk g
h/ 6q q^Th o 'T h6v=z{Tl qKT'v ' x o /x T7h6 ô º 'v T7l q q^T7h/ v o ''m.m m Tl T Â º N'
s gZf |Y'f k k.¼ f m f z6v f g¼ h'k Tl s u"fq^T ¼!f g g ÄKu"g q^T fg T7h@k /xl k.f | fN¼ 6m.6g v"x f 0Ef hf itk f | f z/k T7l f ¼ k&g f n f i8x%k6v ¼k f s gZf Th f
i h6q 0 q^Î T7h/k ¹E Tvl f o 'x%'o m.6m x m k Th6 T7lQk q8T7, l ¸Zfxg o v/h6x 7v T7øwh/|Y'zY 'k v ¼ m f h/ v 'v h6gA¹"Ts l h/ h'f T7l T7l!L'vXT h6hv f 0Lh f q k qKTh6| s z vjgTf l |}6m.'k T^ T ¼ myf+xVh/'vZT,"m n/f u6q^'T8T T7h6l v f
fk k f i8k f k g f f f i i3f f k f f k
k TLv T 'Î m&f 'q v"s x h/v n f T7 'k 6n/m v ø~'Tv u g ø f 76v h6O o g l"ÄK6u"q q^T s20 f v/TLT7h6xl k1f | f¼ 'm&'v"x f zY6qOT7l f3gZk ä f f vBTL|Y6 k ¼ m f f q k qKTh6q k vBT f 6xVT
k ¼ Êv"m Î k Tl s o m& vk Ñ gZf v g n zf T7l 'm&'v!x h'¹LT7l a m.mø Ñ v n q v o v v/Th'¹ q^h/ux
¹R f ?Bu f v!k xVr6f z/'v f gk v2q7k h s2f k1x%f /q f ¼ qLk&T7g l k qf ¼ k&g fn ¼ f x%6v ¼f f8s gZf f Th ¼ ¸Z'i3m&'f v"x f k k.vf T7l ¼ f ok&g f fq f k v"x kf h6gZ¹ f s2f k1¸gZf<gf ¹R f ?/u f v"x k1f fq
¹Rh s Tl f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n f q7h6ux f zBT7l f m k1s2k T k vn2¹:6xVT7h6 ¼f%k vnT7l f k v g u!xT7h/ Ò q qKT ¼k m k TKr@hY| f 8 i8k.gZf ¹R f ?Bu f v"xVr
'vn f 0
Á l ' h/ |Y' YT h6v!q r/h6v T7l q q n/v"qz uZTU-¹Ru"m1m qxVu"qq h/v q2vh'T ''vBT l 0
Ë f v f 'f mFø f o u" o fUh/sq f8k1s f o fg 6k v"x k fN¼ k.¼g nf f x k g xVu k Tfq3'fa fgZf s k 'vuZ¹:/¼xTu f<g+i l k xglk x%6v ¼k f q i8k k Txl fg@i k vBT7h s h6f<g f T7l"f 6f v
h6v f x%h6vZ,!n6uYT k h/v@¹Rh6 s ¸k.s u s > f%¸k.¼k m k TKr@h6¹Lu"q f 0
Ì_ÍÎÏAÐVÎÑÓÒ
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=ÆMOGÇJQ\ÊLI% J Æ<ÊJPZ±AMmçÇqÆP
Õ ðÖ
Ì ½U'ô T hN¼ h6 k.¹ g n f o x k x%6u v"k x Tq q i h6Y0TÎXl h6yvWT7T7l"l 6f v+q7 sq qKf2T'¼ v"/x q k x q o k v"m.m"x k o q7m fum1/T q v@ù bô Ô ¼ 6 k.m.g 6nv"f x x k Ôx%xVu h/k Tv q Ï T Tl"h6v@YTj6q ¼ v 'm&'xv"YxT fg
k k1s fg f f f k f i8k f k ¼ f<g gZk k k gk f<g
¼ r@T7l f vum.mø gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x f 0
Ì ëq7x%uh m.o m gZq f T ô f xVÂET7Á h/qq¹Rz6h/l ½Uô o l¼ h/ v k&g qn f q s o }m r , ¼f h6q Lf v"uq v"k T k | f+o m f ,m f xT7hz's2h/Lf 6xvl"rN6v h6k T7xl 'm s2f T | f x s x%hY |o f s2m f vBh6T¹"qz= h/n qx qKk T m.m1hAøø
f Ò f g f s k fg s k f<g f gZf k f ¼ f f k f
k6vx%nQx%u| f 67xVr2r q s q6Ym1#T m ýUô h"|60 h/m]T'n f m f | f m&q0 Ð k Î f ù ô vum1m gZf T f xT7h/qz k Tqth/vm.r f ?Bu k fg o h k v/T h'¹5x'm k1¼ 'T k h6v
k f
Ì ½UrAô +¼ qK Tk.g 'nv f 6x k xVu k Tqo x''v v"¼!x f h6h'¹"¹ Tq l f Ô6m&q7'r s2TKr so f T7 h6k vUx'TRm Ôl TKr q7o f8i l q f f 'v2Th uo :v h6Î vh i h6T^v T7h k.s o 3fh'g ¹L'T7v"l x f8k q ¼ 'n m&'0 v"xS f<g z
T7¼ l f r_x%6v g ¼f gAÔ'vk.s h/v"q^fr g s2s2f f T k x%6k.m9s2z Ôak u"q k vn o f ''m.m f m f k1s o s2ffg 6v"k&gZx f@f q T7h ¼ 'm&'¼ v!x f q s f k.f q k.s fo f¼ g 'k&g v"x f f qzth/
f | f vUx o /x k T6v"x f q ¼ 'm&'v"x k vnh6uT k v g u"xT'v"x f q0
Ì ½U½ ôëUù ¼ o k&gl"n6fq x 'k vx%n/u m k TqQh'u"¹*qKT T f vl"}o | f@h o s h6m1r f T7l!'T'xvl h/v f Th g ÄK'u"m&'q^Tv"s2x f 0 vBTzyq k v"x fA¼ h6T7l k.s o f<g 'v!x fs 6n6v k T7u gf
f fs ¼f f s f<g ¼ f
Ì qÜ h v"s2q fjT k.| s o TKf<r g o 'v!q x fj¼}r k&g n f u"x qk x%u k /TqQq6¹R f ?/u¹R f v"?/x%u r f v"x%r ø~6q q7f uv" q k T k | fvBT i l k m| f x h'Tq l f ¹Nq6m16m8 fxVh vh'oT<0Nh/v Á l vBf T2¹R|} 6f m1?Bu u f q2v"'x%3r ø
6f x%x%uk Yk T ff m1_r Îvf h i s v50 ¼f fg f f sf f%s2f gZf k f k s f f f
ú×_ûØ §©¨ d% 5LyÙXLN d þQÚL L«aÙ Û8
[/u"qKT/q gZf | k x f ql"}| fN¼!ff v s gZf Th sf 6q7u f x f 7T k v o lrq k x%'m=?Bu"6vBT k T k.f q8'v g f o f 'T T7l"'T k vZ¹Rh/ s 'T k h6v
kl"vA}| Tl f ¹Rh6 v s h6 ¹ ù ô T7l"f 'm T f xTh k T7x%l 6m=q qk n6v"6m.q T7T7llXf Ý s ô hZ0 xVh/u o m f qz"qKT k vUn/6un f q%z o o 7h ¼!f q%z f Tx'0Üz!q o f x k 6m gZf | k x f q
ÞwfT ¼k qf%f h'¹*T s f v gZv f f x f qq767g r2Th ¼f f s2¼ m ff i8Th k gf T f xT6v g T7'v"q s2k T T7l f o lrq k x%'m o h/q k T k h6v h'¹ sf xl"'v k x'm o 6^Tq
| k f m f xT k x%6mtq k n/v"'m&q0aÁ l k q k q f q o f x k 'm.m.rT7u f@k vT7l f , f m g qQh'¹'uT7h s 'T fgs /xl k v f T7hh6m xVh/vBT7h6m6v g
h ¼ h'T k x%q0 Ýßq k.s o m f 'v gAf /q^r i }r2T7h g hQTl k q k q i8k T7lX o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f Ï
potentiometer shaft moved
by physical motion of an object
+ voltmeter indicates
V position of that object
h | <z o h6T v/T h T qyl"}| Tl h v2uv ?Bu o h m q0Eh6h6v z'T7l r m1rQh6v o lrZq x%6m"xVh/vBT6xVT
-
T¼f i3f%f i3vaf T7l f f Ô i8k o f f 0ÔAk s2'v f g f T7l f f q f k q^T'f%v!k x f i q^T7 k o z k i l fk xl s¼ f 'fv"s qT7l f rXq^u:ä f f Tfl ff f ä f xTqh6¹ o lk rZq k x%6m i3f 6
hY| f T k1s2f 0`Ýq o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f q itf '<zOTl f%k o h o h67T k h6v"6mh6uT o uZT2| f q7u"qQq^l"'¹*T o h/q k T k h6v ¼f x%h s2f qm f qq
'v m qq x 7T v50Oàyh/u n6lBT8l"}| 'm. r o v"x T7l q ä xVT l v u!qKT vnTl |6h6m.u xVh6vBT7h/m
h6vg 6vf h6m g f gZk k h Ïi l f vs2k T i8k q^T k vnXf Tl f f Îvg h ¼ f%zO¸ r/h6f u k.fs2k n/fl/g TQl f k 6Jf Ô6f qxVYi Txl f k v"nÔUg}á q^h/uvk g qQxVh f s2k vnXs2h6uf Tjh'¹ T7l f
q o f Î f q0EÁ lh/q f vh k q f q8' f T7l f f q7um]Th6¹ o hh6 i8k o f xVh/v/T6xVT k vUT7l f |/h6m.u s2f xVh6vBT7h/m o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f <0
Ým&q7h"z{T7l q o lrZq x'm xVh/v/T6xVT T v o 'v qKT o xV YT qT7l o h/qq m TKrah6¹3'x vn q o '0Î vn
T¼f i3f%f vTl f k T i h-/k qT7l fAi8k o f ¼k q f s i3hYf%|f fg i80 k Ñ f k Tl s g h/q^T k o h6T f f v/T k hf s2f T ff Qx k xVk.u ¼k k Tqk zLT7l f xVuk f vBT k qQq^h-k m1h i
ðÍ çEDUÊUËNEâã²èF"ÊbçHGaâEâtã8IKJJײçLIKãyçNMOI% P
T7l!YT i8k o f j'x k vn k q v f n/m k n k.¼ m f z ¼ uZT k T k q o h/qq k.¼k m k TKraTh ¼!f x%h6v"q k&gZf fg 0Þw¹3Tl f o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f k qTh
h o 'T v 'v v| h6v vBT l xVh u"q^T m |Y o h/th/ g u!qKT k q o f q f v/T<zBT7l k q o h6T f v/T k 6m¹Rh6 'x k vn
T7¼f 'v!q^m&f YT f q f<kg+vBTk h@ o fh'T f vBk T k 'm{s¹Rh/f 'vi fVf¸ o f m.h/q k sjh6v=¼ # k.¼ f
Êq vnQÝ ô v"q^T h'¹ ù ô z ' m T7hxVh o m T m.r+}|6h q7m vnQx%h6vBT/xT T v o 6^Tq ¹ u"q
YYÀ ¾ k Õ ß ¿ ($À7 ; k ÛRäVåYÀ f é g ¿ À k v"q^T f g ith'f ¹C f o h6T¼ f fvBT k h sf s T f 0 f ù f f | k x f q k&s g gZk&f gZk¹Rh6 Tl k q o u o ¼h/f q f i36f%f f x'm.m f<g kÐ Ö itù f Á Ò q%f z
i l k xlq^T'v g q ¹Rh/tæ k v f ' Ï ' k ¼ m fçk ä f f vBT k 'm{è 'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f q%0LÁ l fgZf q k n6v@h6¹='v Ð Ö ù Á³m1hhÎqym k Î f T7l k q Ï
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
éAC output
éACê "excitation" êvoltage
voltage
S ¼ | k h/u"q^m.r6zBTl k q gZf | k x movable q (9À ; core ÛRäVå'À é À Tl"6q8+q vn6m o 'r v vn o h rA6v T v"6m
q7h6ux f h6¹CÝ ô |/h6m1T6n f z/'v g T i hjq f xVh/v g 67r ¿ i8Ïyk v k gZk vnBqtx%h6vk v f xf T fg2k1k s v@q f k.fi8qpk ø ¼ gZu"k xÎ k vn¹:it/f q^l f<k g@h/v=¼ 0OÞwT k q f%}¸ 'À f ¾ Õ ß ¿
f k
¼q f xVx%h/6v u"q 6f 7Tr l f xVv h/ fNvkn/q q¹R6 f f T7xVh h/vs v hY|xT f¼!f0 T ¶ itff vvAn+T7'l f 6i8vk n v gZk vT7nBh2q%h0Eo"ÞwTo hBk q q ¾ ë/¿xlÀ ¿ ;h6T7( ¾l ß ¼f õx%Í6ñu"òq f h6uZh'T8¹5Th6l ¹ f o l!i 6}q r2 T7l f T 'i v!h q
T7l!f YTyTg l f h/uZi8T o k ugZTk h'¹{T7l k q f gZf | k x ff i8k f<m1gm ¼!f T7f%l k f ¾ ë¿ À ¿ ;f<ì ¿g ¼f T i3f%f v2T7fl ff |6h6m1T6n f f h6u T o uZTth'¹{T7l f T i hq ff x%h6s2v g f 'r
i8 k q7v ugZm]Tjk v'n/T q0 T7l Ñ l h/f uZv-T o TuZl Tf T xVh/ fkv"q 'm&x q f vBT f m1 m f<g 6v gahX¼ h'|6Th6l m1Tqi80+k v ÞwTgZk vqnBx%qN66m1m f h6ß uT o 'uZÀ T7T k vnUx%'T7u!l q f qT l s2f xVh/|6 h6m1Tq6n ¹R f z{T7l h f v fh'T ¹
f f f s2k i8k ¼!f+íf k fg ¾ ; ¿ ¼!f f f f Ò f%f<g s
s h'T Á k h/l v k Ý qô q^T7|6 h6k m1n6TlB6pTn øwm k h6v uZf T 0 o uZT rj6v Ð Ö ù Á v xYT qLT7l o h/q T h6v2h'¹!T7l hY|Y m xVh/ 0 7h|6h/m]Tq 'v!q
T7l!YT8T7l f f xVh6 fk q8x f fvBT f f<g 0yÁ ¼ l f ¹Ru7T7l f i k }grQk Tl f f xVh/ ff k q ¹Rk h sk x f vBT f f8o s hBq k T k h6¼ v=f zTl f f n6 Ãf 'f T f o f x f s2vBfT'n f
h'¹ v o uZT Ô x TYT h6v\Ô/t|6h/m]T'n m1m q v YT8Tl h6uT o uZT<0yÁ l o l"/q h6¹OTl h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f f m&YT k | f
T7hkTl f fV¸ x k TfV'¸ T k k h6v |6k h/m]T'n fk v gZk x%fN'Ti8f k q i ¼l f k xl f%f gZk f xT k h6f vU¹Rh s x f vBT f f T7l f x%h6f fk q8h f ä{q f T<0
Á l o 'r` |Y'vBT'n h'¹6v Ð Ö ù ÁÕhY| o h'T vBT h T Q¹Rh6 o h/q T h/vHq v"q v"n qjTl q v"x
h'¹ o lrZfq k x%6mLk.s x%h6vBT/xT g ¼!f T itff f vT7l f2s hY| k vn 'v g f q^TYT k h/v"'f r k o s2'7f Tqf 0jÁ l f x%h6 k fk g h f qf v"h'kTxVh/kv/T6xVTf Tl ¼ f2fi8k ff
i8 k o v h6gZT k vv/n/T qzh ¼ uZT8T q^m k.z"gvf h6q k vUq 'T7v l g h6uZTT l i8k o Tl hBk q7vUq jv"m TKh6r@v"x%h'h6¹ v xVg u!'xTT k vvnjn+T7'u v ¼'f 0yx'Á 0 lu"qz6Tl f Ð Ö ù Á g h f q3vh'TPÔ i3f 'Ôm k Î f
î ¸ f x k Tk YT s2k h6f v+f h6¹CT7l f Ð k Ö ù Á f f k qTKr f o k x'm.m1r]k.¼õIk ñ k |6h/m]TqtÂf Ü k h6tm f q7qzZYT¹R f ?Bu f v"x k.f q6vn k vn ¹Rh s o h itf m k v f
T7h Tl f l k n6l6u gZk h ñ]Î í 'v"n f 0 S v f o h'T f vBT k 'm gZk q g |Y'vBT'n f h6¹3Tl f Ð Ö ù Á k q k Tqj f q o h6v!q f T k1s2f z
i' l k xl q k q s h/z!q^T7T7l m.r gZ¹R f o ?Bf u v gZv!f xVv/r Th6vAu"q^T7T l f ¹R l f ?Bn/u l f v"xVT7r@hAh66¹Om1Tm.h l f Ý ô l"Y|6T h6| m1T6n |/f h6q^m1h/T6un x fø~q 0EÞwv"¹Eq | v"f n27r@x ?Bu xVuk xÎ@Tq f vq o h6h/uv"n/ql-f xVT rZk1s2x%m f qq
h'¹fjÝ gZô f Tk h fg gZf T f f s2k v f f |6f h/m]T'n s f m f | f ¼mtf 6qk T7l f f xVh/ f+k q siïhYi | fg 0f Á5f h k m.m1u"q^T7Yf T f f Tl fk o h'T k f vBT k k 'm o f h ¼ m f%s l f f f z
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ\ÊLI% JÕEã<ÊJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ðð
k.s hY6| n k v f vaT7l 'k vq f%¸ h/'uZn6Tn fluYv T fg qx q8f v"h''¹E T k h Ï 6q v o Ð Ö ù q Á xVh/o v h i30 f Á fl g¼ h/rjuZT o uñ Th'¹Eí T7|6l h/m]q T'Ð n Ö f ù q7h6Á ux h6f uz mi8kv T7lT T7l | f v xVh6m1hf hμ!fm k v"Î n
s2q v f<gAk }| g x%6u"q Tl g f<xVgh/ h6k1us2m f f hYf| Tg l7h/un6f l"h6uZT Tq8'vn k h6¹ h6T h6iv ¹Rg h6 Ò T7f l f Ý ô q^h/uk x f
|6h/m]kT'f n f i xVh6u"fNm ¼!g f x%h s o f m f T f f aq k fvn/i m f x%rZgxV¼m f f # s ÞwT i f<h6g um g¼f 'm s h/q^k T k1s o h/qf q k.¼ m f s Th k gZf T f ¼! f s2k v f fk v"f q^T6vBT'v f h6u!fq
xVh/ f o h/q k T k h/v k ¹ k T s hY| f qt¹:6q^T f Tl"'vUTl f k v!qKT'vBT6v f h/u"q q^h/ux f |6h6m1T6n fg h f q0
Ý|Y6 k YT k h/v h6vT7l f Ð Ö ù Á k q5T7l f aÂ Ö ù Áz}h/ Í h6T67r Ï ' k ¼ m fçAk ä f f vBT k 'mè 'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f <0=Á l k q gZf | k x f
iq^T7h60În6qtlBh6T3v m 'v m s 0h/Âcq^Ö T ù T7l Á f qq x%s2'v f o k v"xVxh6k v!o qKm Tf 7z u"f%xV¸ T x f o ¹RT3h/T8l"m YT8TT l f xVh/ h'f T h6f v |6h/h6m1¹L| f ¡6qt ñh6òv ¹Ruq7m.l"Fm øw'x ¹*T xVk mv"q^ T f h'g T h'h/¹ v=s 0 hY| k vn k v
k kf Ò ¼f f<g k.s2k fgUs k k f s k
ô h6vBT k vu k vn i8k T7lUTl k q o k v"x k o m f z i3f l!}| fi l!YT k mq Îvh i vU6q @ðñ ;ì )À7å h/ð ¿ ß Û ñ ; z i l k xl k q gZf | k x f
xVh/v"q^T7u"xT fg 2m1h6T m k Î f i h/uv g øwh'T7h/ o h6m.r o l"/q f Ý ô s h6T7h/8h68n f v f YTh6<0LÁ l f 7h6T7h6 k q ¹R f%f T7h+ f |/h6m.| f
Q¹Rum.m=¡6 ñ3ò}z á u"q^T8m k Î f s h'T7h/0 S vAT7l f h'Th6 k q8q k vn/m fi8k v gZk vn+xVh6v"v f xVT fg T7h22q^h/ux f h'¹LÝ ô |6h/m]T'n f z
sT7l"u! xlpø o m kl"Î 6f q T7l àQf z"o6m] Tk1ls h6'un/r lUi8q7rk v v"gxklvnHh/q h'¹j6T7lv Ð Ö h6 ù ÁTl"0 'Á vUl Tf l qKTYT7o h/l" 6i8q k q v gZl!k }v| n/qU' f v u"q7u u"6m1T m1m.r k vTl f ¹Rh6 s h6¹j
ff f i8k s f ff f f¼!ff ¼ k Ï
AC voltage
source
rotor three-phase
winding stator winding
stator rotor
connections connections
Ü u"x~ l ÔYT7'v!q T^T 5ÝY x | Ô o ql"}| v-u"q h6v-q7l o qTh m&}rAu o hBq T h6v=z{h/T7hU m&}r
v"}| k n/YT k h/v"'m!n6rs2h k o hBf q k T k h6f vAfkhY| f f y¹: k k m1r2m.h6vn fgZ¼k q^f%Tf 6v"x f q%f0 g Á l f h6v"k m1r gZk ä f f f v"x f¼gf gT i3f f%f vT7kl f k Ô'T7'v"q s2k T7Tf f Ô
'v g T7l f Ô6 f x fk | f Ô k q i l k xl-h/v f n f TqTu7v fg¼ ra6vah6uTq k.gZf ¹Rh6x f 0Á l f Ô' f x fk | f Ô@x%6v á u"q^T 6q f /q k m1r
¼o fh/q u"T q fh/g v=0 /q8T7l f ÔYT6v"q sk T^T f Ô ¼ r¹Rh/x k vn k TqNq7l"Y¹*TT7h+Tu7va6v g m f T7T k vn+T7l f q7rBv!xl7h+h/v T7l f m f ¹*T s YTxl
kk
Þw¹CT7l x | qEh'Th6 qm ¹*Ttuv o h z T m.m{6xT36q o hBq T h6:v ø 7h6 T xT7h/z/n v YT vnQ'v@Ý ô
|6h/m]T'n f f YTf T7l ff k 7f h6T7Ò h/ k ¹T7l kf q7l"f Y¹*T k q6i3vBrBf Tlfgk v"nk h'i8Tl k f T7l!'v~ðñ ò h/kk BÖMñ òf q^l k ¹*T gZff g f ¹Rh s Tl f f f q^l"'¹*k T o h/q k T k h/v
h'¹ Tl f T6v"q sk T^T f <0Á l f f x f%k | f h'T7h/ i8k m1mLvh@m.h6v"n f n f v f YT f 'vrUT7h6?Bu f 6v g xVh/v"q f ?Bu f vBT7m.r i8k m.mOv"h
m.h6vn f 8'uZTh s YT k x'm.m1r s 'Txl o hBq k T k h6v i8k T7lUT7l f T7'v"q s2k T7T f Ò q Ï
AC voltmeter
Á l qyx%6v Tlh6un/lBTyh'¹='m h/q^T /qy q7h67TEh6¹ n x xVu TyTl"YT/xl | q 'm&'v!x h6vm.r ¹{T7l x |
q7l"Y¹*T k qk ¼ h6un/¼!l/f T Thh/v f h'¹LT i s h :s 'Txl k vn o h/q ¼ k T k k&h6g v"q f i8k k T7lUkTl f T7'v"q s2k.fk T7T f f ¼ q^l"'¹*T0 f k f f f%k f
S v 'T7l vn v h6u!q+ oo m x%YT h/v_h6¹T7l q^rv"xlh q vHTl xV 'T h6v_h6¹N o l"/q f øwq7l k ¹*T k vn gZf | k x f z
o hY| k.gZf<f g Tl"YTf Tl k f qKf TYk Th6 k q f v f k 7n k1ík fgA¼ r@T7l f f%f ø o l!6q f Ý k ô Ï k f f k
èF"]ÔBòbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ!òLI% JÕEãòJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ¡ñKõ
ï
three-phase AC voltage
source (can be Y or Delta)
Synchro
ö voltage signal
output
ÝqyT7l q^rv"xl"7h!ó qEh'Th6 q Tu7v z/T7l 7h6T7h/xVh m m.m o h6n/ q7q | m.r'm n6v T7l 6xl+qKTYTh6x%h m9z/T7l
f q o f xT k | ffs 'n/v f T k xQ, f m g q k ¼f%k vnfõ<g ñò of l"6q f ø~q7l k ¹*k T fi8g k ¹R7h s h6v f f 6k vf h'Tl f <k 0jÞ~v i8¼!k f T itf ff vT7lhBq f o h/k q k T k h/v"fkq%z
T7l f q f o l"/q f øwq7l k ¹*T fg , f m g q i8k m.m s2k]¸ Th o h g u"x f @7h6T7h68|/h6m1T6n f q7h s2f%i l f f ¼f T i3f%f v[ñò'z)õ}ñò<zh6Mæ3ñò
q7l k ¹*T<0jÁ l f o 6xVT k x%'mL f q7um]T k qN gZf | k x f x% o ¼ m f h'¹ o hY| k.gk vnU'v k vZ,!v k T f m.rX|Y' k ¼ m f ø o l"6q f Ý ô |/h6m1T6n f
i8k T7lUT7l f T i8k q^Th'¹L2ôvh ¼W YT7T6xl fg T7h2T7l f 7h6T7h68q7l"Y¹*T0
Ü hj¹:'3T7l T7'v!q u!x q qxVu"qq l!}| 6m1m vAh'¹=Tl v u"xT | |Y6 TKr/0Lh | <z T q o h/qq m Th
s 'ô f T7'v!q g fu!x f q i g l k xflAh o gf k YT f h6fvg |Y6 k f ¼ m f ¼x f%of /x k T'v!x ff k /q g i3f m.k m$zf Ý ô ¼k.f f%k vnu"q fitg f ThQf q f k v"q k f Tl f xk.l"¼ 'f vn f
k v x o /x k T6v"x f 'v g n f v f 'T f Q|Y6 k ¼ m f h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f 0
 ETl"YT Tl x% o 6x T'v"x T vQT h xVh/v u"xVT | q^u"^¹:/x qL|Y' q T7lT7l h6L¹:6xVT7h6qõ
T7l f hY| ffs7m&f sjo¼o fk vn 6 f h6f ¹{T7lhBq f k T i hq^ftu"¼^¹:f /x i3f f%qfzYTl fi gZk q^T'v!g x f8¼k f T f i3f%f v2Tl f f%s z'k.v f g i8Tl k fgZk.f m f f%xVf8T7 s k x8x%á h6v"q^T6vBTyh'¹
T7l f s 'T f k 'm k v ¼!f T itff vAT7l f q^u7¹:6x f q0EÞw¹LT i h2h6uZTh6¹OTl f%f h'¹LT7l f q f |Y6 k ¼ m f q8x'v ¼!f , ¸Zfg q^T ¼k m k.í%fg
'v g Tl f T7l k g 'm.m1h i3fg T7hX|Y'r6zCTl f v`6vBr sf 6q7u f%s2f vBT h'¹8x% o 6x k T'v"x fQ¼f T i3f%f vTl f q7u^¹:/x f q i8k m.m ¼f
q7h6m f m.r k v gZk xYT k | f h6¹Exl!'vn f q k vUTl"YT T7l k g |}6 k ¼ m f 0
x'm= q 6xl qtl!}| m.h6vn u"q h'¹yx o /x T | q v"q vn@T7h T xT o lrZq h/m1h/n x%'m=xl!'vn q v
m k | k vn f<¼ gZh k gZk.f q0yf Ýf q f 'f m.r6yq õIfðñBÖZzZ sË f gZs f 6vAf f q f 6xl f 3k v"k f s2ff g j0k ô fs2gZff f o m&6x fg T k i h s2k f T'm o m.'T f f q h/k v
f%'km1T7T l 7f v! Yq T k&gZm1f r,"h'¹tm.m vn¼f6Yv T k v"n¹Ro TKh6r nAvl n f 6T^q Tm1'¹v h'g-¹ sm.hBf h 6q7u0 Ü fg Tm&l 'f x% o 66q7x uk T 6v"x f vBTxqCl"l!'v}|n f q f q^v u"o m]T k ^v¹Rnh/ ¹R7h s h/T7v l f lBu l f '67v T
f f k gf%s k k f ¼ g k.sk s2f fs2f f ¼f%f f s2fg s
¼f%k 6vv"n/qq i8h'¹tk T7xl o s2/f x TT'6m v"o x m.'T xf l"q 'o v"m.n /x qf<0Qg "h/h6v Tl f h6 xl f o qK Tx6v q gAx%¼ 6o xô{6x zT f | x%h6 gZk v"/nQq^u" f q o k 'vBT7Th6qNh'r+¹3'h6v g n/'xv' 6gZxk T /x| 6TKr6xTz k h/v T¼ 'r m
s2o f h qOl"}| kv v"q f 7T v/Tf hh/7nB'v"q s q fo x f'm.m.k rf Tl l 6k ^Tk =fjh/v s2T7f l T o fqLsh'f ¹"xYTl T LT7u qz'x%k k o 6x s2T'f v"x
¼f f¼!ff k f f<gk Rf f k f f f k f f ¼f k f
¼f%xk vTn YT s2h6f v6q7¹Ru ?BfugA¼!v"f xVT rit'fv f vAqT7l v"fjq sT f | T6m vo h/7uh ¼!n6l2f |/6h6v m1g T'T7n l f ¼ h T g xrTh6h6<¹Oz'Tvl h6f T q^u u"¼Zq^TyáKf T7xVl T0yo ö u k T7lXo +vnq7u 6xVT x h6k.f v vBT7m.uZr@Ttl 6k m.n6q7lXhÝT7l ô
fVÛ%¸åY÷ k o Û k h6¹5Tl f 6xVf T | l 6g ^Tf x'v k k f8 f m.r vBT o f8T gZf 0 f á f s k k ¼ f
; f kf f ¼!f f gZk k f f fg
ø ô v u"xT | T6v"q u"x qzCx% o 6x T | T7'v!q u!x qNx%'v'm&q^h T7h q m1¹ øwx%h6vBT v u"v Tq%z
uvm k ô kf fQT7l k fg gk f xVk T f o lrq k h6m.g h6n k x%f 6m f%¸ s o km f k q fgZf q7x% k.¼!gf<g f ¼ hY| f 0 Ü h sf ¼!Tf26s v"q g gZu"f x f q ¼i f h6ôf ¼ r s 6ô k k vfn2g h/v f k h'¹
T7l f x o /x k T7h6 o m&YT f q s hY|Y ¼ m f z f%k T7l f k vq7u"xlW i }r /qThA|Y67rUT7l f hY| f m. oo k vn' f @h6T7l f2gZk qKT'v"x f
T v@T7l o m.'T q%0 S T7l tT7'v"q u"x q h/7ô r hY| vnj m xT7 x YT 6m v'v h6uZT T v+T h
,¼¸Zf fi3g f%o f m&YT f qf õ f f g f i ¼ s k gk1f f k s f k k g ¼!f itff i
¡ñB çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI% P
Pictoral diagram
capacitive
sensor
Schematic diagram
Á l fN¼ k.g n f x k xVu k T k q v"h'T3T7l f h6v"m1r i }rT7h f ä f xVT k | f m.r k v/T f o f T3T7l f gZk ä f f vBT k 'mCx% o 6x k T'v"x f h/uZT o uT
h'¹=q7u"xl@NT7'v!q g u!x f <z ¼ uZT k T k qyh6v f h'¹{T7l f q k.s o m f q^TyT7h k.s o m f%s2f vBTt6v g uv gZf q^T6v g 0 Ýq i8k Tl2T7l f ø6û ù Áz
T7l f |6h6m1T6n f h6uZT o uZTh6¹"Tl f¼ k.g n f k q o 7h o h/^T k h/v"'mBT7hTl fgZk q o m./x f%s2f v/Tyh6¹"Tl f T7'v!q g u!x f /xT k h6vQ¹Rh sÿk Tq
x f vBT f o h/q k T k h/v=z''v g T7l f gk f xVT k h6vjh6¹"häCq f T i8k m.m ¼!f k v gZk x%YT fgQ¼ r o l"6q f q7l k ¹*T0 Á l k qLô k v g h'¹ ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T
kxVqh/v q k1s2T k m.h66v k'vXm.m¹RT7ul v"xVT T k h6vXTz h@uZT7lT8f 'ô T7k l v g 3u"T7l q fg i8n6k T7 lq^h'T7¹ k vXn/'6m&'uv"n fx q%õ k T o k qq vh'vBT Tqk vBTTl f v gZf<'g n6v T7h Tu ¼!fQk vh'¹O T7l þ'¼ 6?Bm.u"66v"v/x T f<gTKrþ
gZk k f k1s2f ¼ f f gZf f%f k.sj¼ f f f f fs k gZf f k
¼f%k vn s2f 6q7u fg 0
¡ñæ çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI% P
Ù!#"%$'&)(
Á l f rq+*}r-,7l.*/,jv f x f qq k ,Kr k q0,l f@s h/,l f1 h6¹ k v| f v2, k h/v43Ý5,jm f */q6, k v7,7l f x8*6q f h'¹5,7l k q ¼ hh6ô{z4,l.*9,'* g *'n f
k q:rB, 1 A u f q633,Ýr q;* *'v h'k ¹Cv g, u"*6q<x, l 1k *'vm nDf 3Um f Xx=, r1 h6q<v ,7k u xq k vEv!,q6q, 1 u"x>,7h 1 zÞ* im.r-*6q¹ ¹Ru"h q<1 , x f*9g , ,7hu"q ,f l7*+,7lq7u ¼@? q<,+*'*'vv r g ,K* r 1og h6, n fV¸ * , o ¼ l hh6x8ô*'m g u 1kh vn q
s'* v h 1 qxVu f 1 o mG'* f v.*/, h6k v"q v!, l q gZhh/f ôz!l.i3*}| f1v"f@n@g q o k vE, 1 u"x1 l!, fgWi8k*9,l"h fAs q6, u"n6n6m vnH,71 hx%h k o f8l1F1 v 1
,7o l fNh g s m ¼ */, fq81 3 k 1 '* Ý fm fVi8¸ k , vl n k vI3v"q7ök umJh ,:1 ,q hfk r v f , u k itr f8¼ 17f */,7q5l f,7l s *'k vr k v!xVf h o 1+1f x s x=,C3 *'v"q i3k.s2f1 f q k v,l fs2¼ f *6xô21 h'¹I,7l k fN¼ hh/ôH,7s h2q f1mf f x=f , f<gg
1 ¼ R h6f%svE,S6* x=, v"gnLgZk , l k o u m q7l k o á hY1 | i 7, h fL6* K@v M8NONQP x 1q k f v ¹Ru@, m ,Kr23îy| vT,7lh/un6l!,l o * , x%umG* , ,Þ
k f ¼ k f1 1 fg ¼!f fV¸Zf1 k fNk k k f f 1 k 1 fV¸
i 6**6qNqX,7u"l q k vAn l.q<,X* g-,l ¼f%r{f ó v k v | o 1 l k vE,U* '* v 3jgXk v r o h o uu"mV* q61,u",7h q f ¹Rh| 1 * x%,7h6l u o m f *'h'¹[¹3,Nr ¹Rhf * 1 ,7ql zW,7l v f r, x%mV* k1s2, fh/gv-s h6¹\r,7xVl h s o mG* hk h6vEô ,
i 6* q f , 1 7, l f q vEg-, f q6f8, 1 h6v]f 7, 1 l g o * ,1 f8zZY 6* v f Þ q71h6f m.| k1fi 7, h^"A f2v gZ1 6* v-'* m_, 1 v.*/f , | f%¸ , f<gZ,`3 k k f%kVN1 ¼
i s2v f v"i8nLk j* q7gZu k ,+k * f8m 71 f '* m_, v.*/, f%| kV1 6* 1q h g 1 f xVum_,af<, g l.'* vÞ l.g * '* n f1v 3ck b f u fV¸zE7, l
, f%hB¸ h/,ôZq kq8k v h gZok 71 k,<vE, ,z ¼ 2*u@k ,)m1hO,7¼ ,l f\fh'¹1 f *'vZf8m.¹Rm.h1 rn/hB*9kh , g fh6¼ iv hÞth6ôZ¹ s q5m_,q f%1ffs26* gZq fk1g * o ¼h k ,d,S,7'* hvEh,83Cl fb *}h |rgh/k1h'ves ¹f,7, l l ftk s fg *9,q<l', *'v1hf g h/ô,7ql f f1m ffq7i3q fkh6v21uZ,f , k1s2o h'm ¹k&f g vEo *9K, , r2k vEv"h', n ¹ z
¼'* v , lh/s2q k 7, l.f<*/g , q<, m1k m 1 s vn o k v2, f i k.u s , 1 o v!q | s23 f f¼f ¼ itf871 f 1 k
g Þg, /* fqth/u@, h'it¹5¹ f871 u"f q<, k*9, h/¼vhf%k 7, l.*/8, 1 Þk xVh fgAo itm f871 feY k f å9k f%¸ kTf 3l ký f À À ÷ ¹ h v"h/,F<n qC'* v.oqpVo@n`6* q3Þ#r.*2o
i 1 1 k s k fg-5i ¿>jSj Nj ¾ ¿ ìm ¾ ì ¾ ì ¾ m j 1 s
¼r.6*n%nv.vo qfx>'ss2¹t_tVn x>rQ,F.p vq6, n@u.o@¹us %n 1 vE, rOq%n8z * 1 u@q83,\*Xq<r <n x>o /s 1 v.p soZ* * 1 rr nOnOsEsE*/*/t@tdvCv56* /*qdq;,Fs ,+s o '* u@ô2,na,+1 rZn8*2n oZ* sE¼ /s t_/nô'zW6* r.qc1p n2*/rwW?gs Y u.o.*O* t_p_K, tVr!n5/* 1p vq ¹uo s Bs1 s q7qF*/p ,Ft_pVn26s 3cvBx 1p vE|2,Fn s],F,Fr.r.nn
rOn`* 1 q%z"Þ:r.s *Oo!n ¸ o n 1 pVn%v"xn8¼ oT,Fr.n ¼ n%vZnAZ,1 s6¹ 1 n<x>np.|Qp1v"n2¹ 1 s n8n'p.v"q6, 1 u!x=¼ ,FpVs6v *6v.o!n%v!1 x>s6u ¼ 1 *6nOn s nv2,yp.¼v s r o u 11 q7uZp_,
's ¹dt_n`* 1 vZ1p v"nLn8t_<n x=, 1 6s v..p xqy¹ 1 s s s '* vr o ns o t_/n z@1p v!x>.t u.o@.p vnqF%n |2n 1 */tD,Fn`6* xSrZn 1 qa's ¹ s .p vZn01p vTntVn s n v2,S* 1 rh'* v.oqrZ1p n2r
qxSrZsQsOtzL3 ÁCrZn8p 1 q<n8tJ{Dn qqa/* q7qF.p q<,+6* v"x>n o tV}* r2n8oh* ô2%n r 1 s2t_ny.p v s r^s98v v@q<7, uDo@p_<n q%z o }* |Q.p vne,+rZn;vC}* r¹us 1 * 1 nvC* 1 o@.p vn
v:x* r.1 */n8,:n 1 ,FrZ*'nvDr@on2¹|*/}* q7|2xn;p1vD,+s*9,Fsp.vnHnH3:rZs 3:¼3 ¼ rO3yÞw¹fs6vZt.rÞ x>s/uZtGo]n ¸ ,Fn%vDoq,+rZn nOp1¹[,;s6¹d,+rZnp 1 rZn8t o ¼ rn2p1|Qp.vn^,Fshs/,+rZn 1 o ns o tVn
bQ!s zÞXo@n xpVo@n`o-,+s '* ô2nU,+rZn sQ6s ô ¹ nn81t r-}* |9*/pVtV* tVnO3 -s nU,+r.'* v},Fr.*/, zCÞ;oZn x>pGo@n`o-,Fs '* ô2n'p_, s o %n v=z
¹usOtVtVs9v:p1vn,+rZnqF* s nyo@n%s |2ntVs o s n%vE¼ , s s@o@n1 tu!q<n`oLp.v^,FrZ¼ n s *6ôEp.v1nes6¹!¹ 1 nn8qFs'¹[,6vC* 1 n :s s/q<,yvZs/,Ss * ¼ t.re,Fr.n8þ |~* 1 pVs6u!þ q
Ê; ÞÕ u@,+p_tVpJ,+p_n` ntVn8*OFn8o r ,+rZ@n nnqbQ6s ¹[,6v5* 2n Z/s uv.oZ*/,FpV6s v=z)'* v.oB,+rZ@n ø4.p vu s2Dn */,F.p vZ-<@<,Fn zdv:rZs2Fn
¹|* s n:pGf 1 s9v:1p v.;1 %n |2%n vH*OE Þ)¼ v 1 p_,F}n =E3 ÁC1 rZn:OsE*/tQvC1 *Od,Fs xsOQ 1 pVOrE,),FrZn5,Fn ¸ ,fUFse*O¸ ),+s 1 1 sO,Fn x>, s '*6u@s ,Fr.s 1 <rZpV
p_¼ .u@p ,Un ¸ 1 's n`¹DFt_Fn8t_2B**//tEtVnt_Ds9v> *6vQOs6*Ov..n'>n2,+O3 s ÁCo@rZpV<pGf, 1 v:p ¼ pVt_u@1t ¹u,FZnhtZ*6*/v.DoDo ~¹us s 10 */s@t o@p1n8¹uO/s ,+ôErZpVnHZy,Fn6s ¸ ¹W,e<,+,F*Os .oZFZ* pJ,eoU,+o@rZpGn<p, 1 p s9v:Z,F%pVsOZ'ntVn`p oZ0p_,+v:*/,FpJ,+pVsOr.*
Q ¼Z1 1+ 1 1 1¼
¡N»
¡N fòùEâã²è`_ò°0^ f;<A°eeC
ZT*.oZOn Z1 W>ns2.Eo@pVZ1 p_q2rE*H,X.pG0s/,Fv:pG>rZnUp ,FshFpV,+8r.*/*9tVt_,;!,n+wWn n`1+= ,n8sOo !ì ,FåSr. nñ p ý ¿ ä v5m 3+s Ý;ôWE2sO@Z,XnHFn2*On */þ t5>øIsOQpVQtnV.Vn ¹[F, n8þ y,F*OrZt n8n8p 1*2o@ qn1 n`*9,+pVp_<2,8n'Wv5>s9s O1 n ô!pVFZp ^ ,F.r.t_ n
A.¼ ZneÁCtVnrZEnq*/tA W<sO,hpVE<,+.CSrpVTø4 pG1 >n`n8*9.,:<nAo@n>Þ',S*/*/pV.t3 Zt_pVn8o,Fs 7v15s ô%1 vC*O¼ ',Fr.n Ë 1 £tø Ë nZn *O3t 1 £\ tVpVU ¸ ø4pG>n8.<n71 6s ¹y,Fr.n
1 nnTbQs'¹[,6vC1 * 1 n@Zs2Z.oZ*/,FpVsO Ë ÊX>3LÁCr.n Ë £ø\I1rZs9v5n2n 1 IpG'pVE,Fn8.o@n8o,Fs}1 sOQQt_n%¹[¼ ,'vas 1 ô@es6¹y>s ZZ,Fn 1
pGF*/:s'.¹[ZD,6vCs/n`,;* * 1*2p_nOZ:Oh>*OtVv:.n8*ohp_,F1 r.*/*Ot_p_,F!CrZp_,+s2,;rZZ>n OsOrH¹ .tVp_no,+n'\¼ Fp_Es'n,¹[,6¹u1 svCs@1 o@* .,+r.ne>*9,F>s,;s 1 *O'tZGZ*/ZtV.pVZ8O*9p_.,6,F*OOpVsOO"In:ÞC3 pGS rZö¼ZsE1rZ<s2nen*2-s2o'ZsOn8ne,FZrZs'sOn ¹fZ1 ,F@2r.rHtVn8n +,Fys'F[D,Fs9r.n`OnL>n p_1 AD¡Xvaen8sF>p_1s22ô@E}fQt'sVb@Vn ¹ >¹[,pV,+nn .ø4¸ pG,8>nEn8pJ.ø4,S#FpG>n8v5n8 .s ¼ <1 nn2o@E.pVZ*/s
¡0bZødÞ C1 *25>sO,FQrZQtneVnVs ¹[,FpVZpV *Ot,FZrZs/pG1,+#pV,+nn ¹us,81:Þc 2.1 * 1 */s EHá ,Fn8n8>n8,8o^3 ,+r.*9,5ZsUpV.6, D=,Fs v5sO. tVo nXtVp p_,Fn`o h*0,Fn ,CpV.< p_n8E,1
¹us 1 ,FrZn8þ p 1 Znn`oZQ*OyÞ)þ rD*Oo ¼ n¸nhv:p_,Frhn 1 1F1 s 1F?g1 pGoZo@n8',+n ¸ , ¼ sQs61 ô@E¹ 1 s 1 * á s 1¼ . ¼ tVpVFrZn 1 8¼ 3OÞó F¸ 1 nC,FrZpG ¼ sQs6ô
pVn>Tw s p_,+y,+;p_Z,Fp_s!,FpG*/FZ{t pJ¹u,0s 1F9 * pVv:*OEp_tV,tZ*/sOD,;o FpV*/.,Fo@pGKpVE¹unpGo@8.O*On t 1 2snOZ.n2p ¼ n @,;nE*/,SQOs3 2ZZns r.*O,+rZ5n ,+rZn n8O¹ 1pVZn8n8Zo@pVZs T <,F,FsDo@SnrDE*/,0Z2's nX¹\n8p_,8t_n`Z=tV,n2sOn .1 */pV82p_ZtV n8*
v:pVZ r.¹us */1 ,02s*9O,F7pVsOI*OL3 aÁC¹ rZ1 n8s 1 4 Q]p ,+¹4rZ2spVOh¼ sQ.s6*2ôF\4pJn`,Co@sOp_,FHpVZ,+!sL1 pJF,'Y s *2X1 ns22s ZOnyn8¹utVnFn8nOtcEZOs2n81 hn8v:+Fp_* tVt1 ¼ -pn;1¹a22sp_QOpV7Ze>s ,+rZn nH*OF s1 sEFn>0,+*]rZp_..<1n%¹uZn>t#,<,+Zn pVn8,FnHr.*O1 s' ¹
v:r.*/*/Q1+,;. *OOst2E *OoZ1 n8o@pVZnpVeOn8s o4t3 n8o@Zp_s ,F1 pVZ,Fer.nU,+sep_DOs62, 1 .>rZ,Fn`s * 1 ,s ó 1 # n8>t_s2n`2=,+, n1 Es2,8Z3EpV8ÁCCrZ ny1 's s2¹uZn8tV+Fp_s28.¼ *9*/,StzSZ r ¹unn8pV=t #¹ ,F1 rZnpGn0%õ),+ shp1¹4.Os<O nUH,FZrZtGpG*/;^*2y,+s'¼ * o@1 pG%n 6¹u, n1 1p n.@,+nn
Os2 1^ s@o@p_A.n`oOn 11 FpVsO6s ¹:,FrZpG^,Fn ¸1 ,`#Os21 D6,hOpVOnT 1 n8o@p_,Lv:þr.n 1 nT 1 þ n`o@pJ,HpG^oZZn%u,Fs nOc,+rZn!s 1 1 p_2¼ p_.*Ot
,FZ*/rDZn *9,F,arZ,;s v:S1 rDr.4*/sE*O@n8.,+OoBn n 1 *O>OsQs92Os2hOn .O#n'pVO,+nn:rZtGFpG,+:n^rZnyv:,+r.sQn s2¸ n8F,#n+5,FsLp_ s@pVao@*~p_ADv5s * */ne1 ,Fn:o@pVsOn>s6.,S¹ */e,FpVrZt* 3 n81 nHp 1 >¹ s21 n82n8,So@*/spVZ n8o},+s'p_%Fp Os 2pV tV* 1 1 tVO^n 1 FFr.p_s2* 1Dny=4*O*O..oho n8oZ2spJO,a ,FrZ n;.,F<n ,e¸ ,`n3E.FÁC r.1 nn
¸ Þg, D6, 1 n nE1 ,FpVsO.n8o],F1 r.*/,X*/t_,Fr.sO Z21Ar ÞC6, pVOn0,+s */pV2,S*/pVq,+n8SrZ.pV8*/tI*2> *2>pV-*/tVt4's ¹),FrZpG sQ6s ô{ó
ôQ>s2p_tVEtG0,Fnv:E ,`pJ,+4rZ,FsOr.@n¼,U< ¼s9á 2n8sQ=8, *9 ,+p_s2*/4,<,Fn */1 .pGo% ¼Zo@1n8s2Fn*OoBOn`*/y.o%,+rZr.nh*1 @71 ,¼ s 1 sE 6, */n8QF}Dn`W=,`s/Q3 ,+nÞ0E,F6pG, */t#s2ZoZO*OtVZ!nOn 1 .81 3@sO î#tV*/n82>,nL1 pVn pJ,6Dn p *Onp E¼ ,+e*/,F*OpV.sOo
sOntVn8>,F, rZnXpV'.<* rZ1 s@,a6s ô ¹Z,F1A rZn n2.1 n`n *Oo@Zn tV1s2FpV¼ sO@4,CDsOn>Z,+OtVHv3:yp1 pJV,+Orqr >Wp 1s9>vaZn p_,+a nDtVn8s9=v5, n 1 pG1 Un8op ¼ >hZp_,+ X*O<t_r.t 1 sO¼ Z*/tG,<o ,Fn 1 nLpVn8t_\n%¹[v:,yrZ,F1 n sq1 ny,FrZ,+nLrZ¸n 1 * n;1nepGa s'Z¹fs , 1 *OpV7 p_ô^Zn`'s o ¹
1sE's /s ¹uô n`1 FFp_n8s2* .*/*OtG8Q3¢ tÁC_pGrZ1 * n^p_¡;tVpJ¸,6n`¹<pVOus }bZv:>r.pVn*/.,:pVjn yø4oZpGsO>Zn8n0.? <v:nLp_,F>r!tVn8*1pJ,S1 ytVT>s2<,+E1 */,F,Fnn8Ey,S,F1 3 r.*/,;Zn8pJ,+rZn 1 ÞC¼ Zs 1 */QTsOE, 1 p ¼ 1@,Fs 1 5,+1 s,+rZpV
¼ ¼ 1 ¼ 1
× £¤!( Ù!&d($L¥§¦qL¨ ¨©
F+xXD>ZpVn`nn->.p_AD6s nq¹;n8,FpVr.oZ..n<,+*/¼ */Dn`,F>pV6sOn8,4]vCf's *~tG¹e* @^,+varZ,FpVs s7Z2ôBtV]n8pV* 'va1 ªs ,Fr.1 ôQrZnqpVs9Z,v«*2,+o@*/rZDpJ,+pVo¬Zp_s22.o@h*/n v5tV1 tVpV%*sO1n 2ô2>pGnHn8Z@n,F,Fs1 n`*OotX¹us2O>t_tVs2n8s9Q.v«Z>tVn+.,+rZF¹usp_n-s2.p_D,F+ r.o@¹pV.1's=,6,+ Qp_2Dn ,+nTrZ*/s2s'Z¹yF n tV1 n8sEs * *O¼ SZ<=rn pVZ1 õT9D*9,Ff,+s*Op_s2tJs ,+.¼rZ8FsO¢3 n .1 OOÞr n
pVtVn8=,+ *OnQs ,F*2n <n`, HtVsQ* /s ¼ ô * n8¼ 1 *On oZp_o@1Zn`D< pVO*/.,Fn8rZo n ¼ 1®n,Fr.8*OoZq.,+s*/,F*/s tV1t_s9Hv,+s ,+rZ1 nUn8p_<Z ,F¹u.s o@1 n8En!,: ,F1 shpV.tVn81 p_* ZtVqn8qs2T 1 ,FnrZQn8p_ps2.s9Fv:t_t]V1n8,Fr* 1 .sO.n8oOr!,Fr *'1 ,sO..Ot_r
n ¸ Z;*tVs 1 ~1 *9Q,+pVZs 1 h1 H,S¸*/Z1 ¼s@2r2n8, +3 1 @Fn1t ¹ s21 <,X6s ¹#1 ,FrZn^ntVn8>, sOZpG;,FrD*9, ÞôQZs9ve{ Þ;*/Z 1 n`>pG*9,Fn',FrZ1 nHFn.Fn'6s1 ¹y¹ D6, */1,FpVsO
pV<Z,F.n o@Wn8En.,+ Fp_ 2nO*~@erZ.sO*~,:2nnaOpVn ^2s,FOn8Z*2SnXrZ r.pVZ*O5,+,FrZrZnn Fn8n*OtVO.n`5L s ¹ 1 1 s sO¢ .D¼ s sE/s ,+ô@ZZL3 p_,6Ýyh,t_,FFrZshs2FZn>O,:rHZ!ntVn8*L>, tG1 *1 sOZs pG5*9>,+ss HpW_sOTZ,Fn8r.En,+pc* s91 v:n51 q,6QrZZ1 s pV8*/n`tVt_
*'s/¹cDoHn`¸ o@v:.rZ*/nH,FpVsO,+rZp_.¹ 2s #2sU*v1 o@1n`sOo@Z.0=,+,+p_rZ2nn'1 6nWó n cZ< WsUn8s2>Z,FpVn:O/n,+s'õ\1 ,+*On7 tVôtI¹u,+s rZ1 1 n'rZ<n8,Ft_.4o@3cn8¯-E,XsErZ6,\s9v°,Fn ¸ ,Fr., ¼ p_ZsQE6s ¼;ô@a* 1 <n'n8n F Z1 Z,FWs's2*OFn8ZoT 1 ,+1s2s*OSv5rLs ,Fr.ôWny.,F,+rZ*2n8^ ô
*,F/r..n Zt_T,<n8+t_rZ2s2n8F8nU3 ÁC 11 rZp_Dne >p_pVDZo@t_n`.y=,+,+p_sq2nUFD*/n`Z> p_ADsEU*O1 pVS.r4<Q,+*/*ODC>.n8F;Vn ¹u,F.rDtI*9,;*OC,+rZp_,ynLpV<8,FZDpGCo@nr.E* , oq ,F*~sHTsA..1XoT pVT*~T,F1 rZZnesO, .*O¼ OnLn`*a¼ 6s t_¹fn'* ,FsqsQn ¸6s ôZ1 t_3 s 1 n ¼
ys9v5n2n 1 5,Fn ¸ , ¼ sQ6s ô@To@sO5 ó ,T1 r.*~On-,+s ¼ n},+rZpGqvC*~O3 Þo@pV+>1 s92n 1 n8o,Fr.pVTv:rZn8p Þ6,S* 1 ,Fn`oª¼ ,Fst_n`* 1 ¬*
è`Z± Z±òUfe²LU³}´5ât±Qú8âaµaâ\²^¶c ¡NÖ
>n8s 1 */s9taQZpV>o@@p nL,Fn Z*/1 .pJ,S *Oe1 t_s2@,+ Fs n81 *:2 *Os6p_¹#`O*OôQsOt_tVZt_n8,+s9oq*Ov:Ob n2tVn8£yDo@Þ>2R nh1Fîy1 p_nB3EÞg,:,8n8"t_pVn`C¹ =1 *U,n Y ,Fs2Zn Zn¸ pV.,8$?¼ Of*2><n>s n`,So/3NZZ@pVÝyn8,Ft_n ,FnXrZ6ss2F¹dpZOF'sZr ¹[tG,6*9.vC,Fs/pV* ,FsO1 r.7nyp_Zp_pGELq,+*OnpV .o@Y n n`ZohpJ,+>nLn8,+st_tV*2nyE,'Os@sQo@*Os@ntJ,+ot4n *2p .1 *9>¼.,+p_ZpJ2,SpVnOatGo@3 *Op_..Þo
1tVn8* 1 ZpVZ1 'r.s9v,Fs^.FnX,+rZpGCDs9v5n 1 ¹uZtD,FsQsOtzZÞ 1 *Oo@ne*^o@ pGFs9On 11 {õ) bZ£Þ R î®sOZtGo ¼ n0¸ .Fn8ov:p_,Fr.p_!1 *U,+n ¸ , ¼ sQs6ô
,FvCs!*~O 1 n8,Fr.Fnn E,Un`>*Op o@1 >n Zp_,U><s2p Z tVoBZtGtV*9n8,+* p_s2B.X,FrZ,Fs-nh*/>tVs2tV.s9v>n8@6,+,+0.o@pV.n82o@,SD=,F,FpVs On8þ t_s ¼ Fn }p1 OVn Eþ ,Fn ,FrZ nhn>.,+rZp_Zn-Zs bZ £nÞ .R *î¹uó sX1 s2,+@rZ,Fn. @,SF0ntV*2O0n88va32n8ÁCt_t#rZ*2pV
o@*/En`o@*/pV.4=2,+,Fp_2rZnn81 tV®<rZ¼ s2Bp1 ZtG_oE,Fn 1n0 * 1 n,Ft_n;pVZ1 ,F s^ Z.o@n n ¸ .<,+tV*O*O..oh*9,+rZp_s2s9.vª+>,+3 s'.. FnX1 ,Fp_rZ,5n ,F1F¼ rZ n s 1 nOFnItVp_O1 n`1 FEn npVZs9QpVo@Zb pV£ZÞ 'R *LîW.n Fn8¹un8o%=,+s9t_2hn +1 Y* */¹un .oBn8s9*/ODn 1
s'¹fn Ýy¸ W.n s/1 ,Fp r. n n82*O,S*9o@,+9p_*/s2E],S¼ */s2Oqn,+¼ ,FrZs%np 1p_.s9v:t_DTo@p_.s 1 % Zs @,+n Z1 @C,+v:n pJ,+*/r-.>*Op t_1 @FZn8pJU,;pVFp * ZtG,F*9n ,+p_s2, .sQC/s 1s'ô¹d,FpVrZ'n8,Fp rZ1 nTs9v:n !Zo@1 p n`<pV8pVO*/4t53 On p_AD*/,FpVsO
p_<,0,+*9*2,+oZn oZ;nE,Fs],SL,F1 rZs2n^>¹|sO*ODpJ,+>r4n\Z,+, D 61,+n8p_ZFnBE,F,Fn`rDo*9,h3 öv:r.p_,F*9 r.,HsOr.@*2,e o@1 n nn8s2.6v , 1 */p_,<,F,FpVn8sO.8pGD^,Fp_rZD¸ n o@¼n1 n`n`*Ooo@*2n 1>pG t_*/%n ,F¹[nO,X3,+sÁC,+r.16* nTôOn' ,FsrZnHt_1 n */@,+rZv:s pJ1 ,+ór
¹|*/p_,FrII 's ¹:>s2 1 <n24pV,+r.*91,Up_,UpGesOZtV}*20OsQs@oB*2¼,FrZn*O@,F1rZs 1 p_,6-pV%v:r.pVSr7p_,UpV01 ZtG*On8o%*/.oB,+1 rZn¼ *O8 > 1 *O
's ¹ap_E,Fn 1 1 n,+*9,+p_s2-,Fr 1 s2ZOrBv:rZpVSrBpJ,epGZ.o@n 1 <,FsQs@o3 ÝyZ,FrZs 1 8t_.p ôOnH*/tVtfrQ */ ¼ npVZE4* 1 nLt_pG* ¼ tVnL,FsTn 1+1
,F*/r.Dn8n oD*O ~Zs <p_.n81 t_^2>n8s 6s yH¹d,F,+ r.rZ*/Zn0,XZ,FpGv:n */r.,y,F*/nTv:,;DpJ,F,+r.sQr!nLs 1 */tVsOO3Z.`,F rZösn1,Fp_n,Fo@rªn n8+o@* 1n p ¼ Zn`s2tVyn8.86pG3 ;, 1 pV*/.,Fo@pVsOn8.n8o!8c, rZ1 s9Zv5n23;n2¡Xn n1 d,+sOrZ.n <, 1 1 n`*9*O,+o@p_s2n .1 y8*O*/tV®Fsqp HFn 1 On8n0o@pG,F*9sT,+n>tVtG* 1 <]p ¹un8],nF¹ur.s n1
bZ£Þ R î®pG:pV2, 1 s@¸ o@D>n8o]pV],+rZn 1 ¼ sEs/ôq¸ n`* 1 t_hs24.*/DoqrZs2Dn%¹uZtVt_]p_-*^On82,+t_n0n8ZsOZ2r!v5*~H,+r.*9,yp_,;o@sQn8F=ó ,
>1s2n8E*/,+,F*/nHpV.>0s2Z*/%¹u.Fs9p_Os2n 4j3 QpVZnvs 1 6s ,+¹CrZs2Zb F£n^Þ Rv:î·pVFrZv:pVZp_,FTr ,FsT*/t_n`Q* 1 n * s 1 ZnOt_nh*TSp r.>*/Z@p_,+,+8n 231 pVÁC}rZ,+n rZnn ÂyVn *~¹un 1 nDn >nHs Os2n't_ {W *OnTFrEuOs2ut_ */.n rZûpV`
Z>p rZ1 pV>tVZs2p_F,XsOZFp rQ sZ6tV*/¹I,F,FpVr.sO1 pV! 1 sQsO6s ô1 * 2 n CpV-ZpGn>¸n8t_pG236,+n. nO ¼ @,¸ bZ£ Þ R îªpV1 ¹ 1 n8nOW*hQp 1 ,F1ZnU s Z¼ tVn nE,+1 p_Z,FrZn'SrD* 1 1 pJ,S* ¼ tVn
¼ 1
+ §Û#¸]¹!$;º¼»>( «X¬L(;½¾(;¹H¿)&
)p <,8' Þ)v:pVFrL,Fs,Fr.*O ô Uv:]p ¹un2Ov:rZsE<nC.*/,FpVn.n:o@ 1 p_Z,+rZs2Fn *OQU*/.o^tVsOZn2nZpVZ2C*/.o^v5n%n ô2n.o.¢À
's ¹)1 ,6QZpVZHr.*O ¼ nn8Tn ¸ , 1 */s 1 o@pV.* 1 O3
o@F's n`¹[*~,6OÞ;vCs *O* 1 tVFnX*/s]tV.tCv:F,Fn8pGr.Foqr}n ,Fs,+ s]s ,+1 6*r.n-ôO*/n*9"w ô-,FsrZ,F1 pGrZoZ sE* <¼ sQn^t_6sn!v:ô */ZrZD*/sEo®.<nHoqZsOtV,Fn8Wr.*2nn < ? n`1 F*<sOW¼ n8t_1 n2>>H3,Fn^pVO<ÁCn0s6rZ¹[ ,6Un v5sO¹u* s21 t_n^tV* s9o@v:np_2.nnBtVsO pG hõ *%n82t_pG,06,hn>w 6s s¹1 9,+*01 rDpVsO*~.OQ n ¹ 1 n*2n!o@n^>s ,F rZpGZ0Zn,Fn 1?
1 ¼ 1 1 1 H 1
ÌEÁc Â-Ã.n Ä s2Ei .¾ "k a÷O,FÅ s xXWnnE1 ,+*9p_s2,FpV4Z3 ]b@Q<,Fn U ø4pVQ. Áds 1 9*/tGoZ{ Â:pGSr.* 1 o bE,S*/tVt */IW*O.o *hrZsE6,'s ¹cs/,+rZn 1 :,+sQs
1
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ÌjÇ ì ¾ À ì ÷ ¾ m o 1 '* ¹[,FpVZH 1 s2 1 * ÁCp î\oZv5* 1 oZ83
Ì ð@ÈcÉ/Ê l p 1 >Zp_,y<p .tV*/,FpVsO! 1 sO 1 * h,FsQs */QqsOE, 1 p ¼ @,Fs 1 a,+s n82,+p_s243
Ì Á î §,Fn ¸ ,y 1 s@n8+<pVZH<@<,Fn ¡XsOD*/tGoTË0Q@,+rT*O.oTs/,+rZn 1 3
ÌÌ ¿ Å ¾ k äVå o@s@> n8E8, ¹us 1+ */,<,+p_ZhF@6,+n qÍ 1 nn'b@'s ¹[,6vC* 1 nÍ.sOZ.o.*9,FpVsOI3
Ì øÏÎ Á î o@s@> nE8, ¹us 1F *9,F,FpVZh<@<,Fn ø4n`<tVp_n ød* Ds 1 ,y*O.oqsO,FrZn 1 83
ÌÁ ¾ é p *OOn */ZpVZZtG*9,+p_s2] 1 s2 1 * h,FsQs */Qq>s2E, 1 p ¼ Z,Fs 1 5,Fs nE,+p_s243
Ð N2Ñ f òùX¶Eâã²è`Z±_òXÒ0^C¶¶f;<]ÒeeC
Ô kW}nÕ'Ýyý ñtV.n8j =¾Gj,1 n`,+s2>*OZpG*9ZpG,+Op_0rEs2,h6,+pV.Co@n */pVn8tG FesUs pV.n1 nT¸ t_,F.*n8oZ.¼ nLo@s2@n`,+oh,HrZn ,FnstVn8Â:=, Ð s 1 ¼pGqn n81 o@,3p p_1 ,Fø\>pVsO.3Z7pJ¶a,S's9s'Qt¹ ,+Vr.n8*/<,+Ö*2o*/OQv:7sÕOrZÓ/sE,+åW<rZn;Û'n 21A ÜL1 ¼ 6Õ9,5sEk s/n8ÓOô o@Ý 3p_å,FåIpVêsOx;)],FÞ5rZs'n n¹d1 É .kp * m ÀDo å8sÓ'Ë ÷1 ,Sì>*/ms EåY,LÀ ó ñTe,+n ÊF¸ n8¾ ,+>À ^s2ì ÷.pV¾o m
n8oZpJ,+p_s2Ts61 ¹fÉ k m À7å8Ó'÷ ì>m ¾ å9k m åLl3ý ¿ ì>m À7å/k ¾ ì M8j × É=×Z*/DoTÍ.s 1+1 n`6,:Ì ¯-Ø ¿p ÙG% Ú ó lCkE¾ ß ¾ k ¿¿ ÀZà j  å m ¿ Ý å<åê 1 3 1 1 ¼
ÁCr.*Oô@#,+sU,Fr.n<,+*/w!s6¹4,Fr.nÞ5ntVtVp_Z2r.* Ý;2,+p ZnÂy*2o@p_s^¯-.Fn @v:rZsLvan nXOn8Zn sO.\nZs2ZOr,Fs^t_n,
n0Þ4,Fn v:1F1pG<s rL1 p ,Fí sen;F,+DrZn`n>p 1p_ADn8<*O,+t_* tV0,¼ tVFpVrDFr */ ôUnEá2,yn>w v:1 p_n8,Fîr # t.ôQqZ8n * 1 */nDY 1 oL*^*O*/t_.tE,Fo]r.{Ds2F*2n5<rT*/L, Zà#Zp_s ,81 3 ôE,+s9v:'âypVO1 rhb@SrZsQsO1 Bt ¹us L1 ¼ npVZ0v:pVt_tVp_.
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C
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