On. we Wale b. Sir Muhammed 73-193 “[qbal bara updeshak hai, man baaton men moh leta hai, Guftar ka ghazi ban to gaya, kirdar ka ghazi ban na saka," (Iqbal is a greater preacher and wins the heart by teaching: Yet though he became a crusader of words, he could not become a crusader of character.) Early Life Dr, Muhammed Iqbal-a notable poet, religious philosopher and a political ideologist was born at Sialkot (in the Punjab) on February 22, 1873 and breathed his last on April 21, 1938 at Lahore, He belonged to a middle class family. He received his early education at Sialkot and took the Master's degree in Philosophy from Government College Lahore. He was originally appointed as a lecturer in Philosophy at the Oriental College. Soon after, he was offered a lecturer's job at Government College Lahore. After six years of service in Government College Lahore, he went to Europe for higher studies in 1905. He stayed there for three years and studied Philosophy in Germany and Cambridge and law at London. He obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Munich ‘Metaphysics in Persia was his doctoral dissertation Jalal-ud-din-Rumi, Dr. McTaggart and James Ward considerably influenced his views. After his retum from Europe, he resumed his post at Government College Lahore. Besides, he started practising at the bar. While lecturer in Philosophy, he established himself as a rising Urdu poet whose early poems breathed strong national fervour. Since he could not devote himself to teaching, practising as a lawyer and indulging in flights of imagination as a poet simultaneously, he decided to give up teaching in 1911. Henceforth he was concentrating more on poetry, though for eamning his livelihood, he continued practising law. He soon came in the limelight as the ‘outstanding thinker and literateur of the Indian Muslims.’ The Government of India honoured him with a Knighthood in 1922. He was drawn to politics in the last phase of his life. He was elected by the Muslims to be a member of the Punjab Legislative Council in 1927; In 1930, he was elected President of the annual session of the Muslim League at Allahabad. His address as President is considered as a landmark in the then Indian politics. It reflects a complete transformation of thinking from nationalist Iqbal to Iqbal the communalist. He was invited to attend the 2nd and 3rd Round Table Conferences held at London, to present his views on India's constitutional problems. On 21st. April, 1938 the light which enlightened the dormant souls was extinguished. According to Jinnah, "Iqbal’s services to the Muslims were ee that his own records can be compared with that of the greatest Indian that ever Before we discuss political ideas of Iqbal and refer to a change in his attitude from a nationalist to a communalist, itis apt to point out that he was deeply influenced by the ideals of Jala-ud-Din Rumi. He became religious philosopher and attempted a reconstruction of Muslim religious thought. He strove to harmonize the dominant trends of Islamic theology and jurisprudence and the phenomenal advances of human thought during the last centuries. He was basically a literary giant and not a political figure or a thinker, His views are, however, expressed in his poems or articles or his six Lectures on the Reconstruction of Religious ‘Thought in Islam which exist in a booklet form. Iqbal's Political Ideas Igbal's political ideas which may be extracted out of his articles and poems can be portrayed in two phases-prior to his going to Europe and after his return from Europe. pom(A) As a Nationalist Prior to his visit to Europe, i.e. before 1905, the young Iqbal was an ardent nationalist. He adored his country and composed poems of mutnal love and national unity. His famous poern Taranah-i Hind’ became almost Indian Anthem. In this poem, he eulogised India-the land of his dream, in the words: ‘The best in the world is our Hindustan, We are her nightingales : She is our rose garden. The lofty mountain that almost touches the sky, Is our guard and is our sentry, religion doesn't teach ‘us mutual hatred All are Indians-our home is Hindustan.'1 Till now, this national song of Iqbal touches the cords of our hearts and speaks volumes of his patriotic fervour. In another song, "Hindustani bachhon Ka qaumi geet" he as a true nationalist described India as a land where prophets preached national unity. The English version of an extract of the poem is revealing, He said: The country where Chishti delivered the message of truth, Where Nanak sang the song of unity ‘The country which Tatars made their home, Which allured the Arabs from Arabia, And made them leave their land. That country is my home-that is my home"2 In another poem ‘Naya Shivala’ (New Temple) Iqbal describes ‘each particle of the dust of his motherland as a god.’ Thus poems composed by Iqbal in earlier yeas reflect that he imbibed nationalistic spirit, (B) Iqbal the Communalist A visit to Europe brought a tremendous change in his views. He was no longer a nationalist. He was altogether a changed man, His earlier assertion, "Wwe are Indians and India is our home” ibstituted by altogether contrary version. He began to write, "China, Arabia and India are fe are Muslims and the whole world is ours." Thus progressive Iqbal was changed to Igbal-the reactionary. His earlier nationalism vanished. Instead he became an ardent 'Khilafatist’ and Pan-Islamist-In his famous poem 'Shikwah' and Jawabe-i-Shikwah (complaint and answer) he clearly stated: ‘Nation (qawm) is created and sustained by religion; If religion expired, there 3 He condemned patriotism as a 'subtle form of idolatory'4 which Islam could not tolerate in any form. Hence he suggested its replacement by Islam. To him Islam was no longer just a religion. Tt was a race making force and the Muslims had become a race.5 He started describing nationalism incompatible with the spirit of Muslim brothethood. He apprehended that the sentiment of nationalism might result in loosening the bonds of Islamic fraternity and induce each Muslim country to develop the feelings of separate nationalism. His vehement support to the Khilafat cause conflicts clearly with his conception of universalism .and confirms the contention that to him Pan-Islamism meant union of Muslim states, Moreover he felt that the slogan of an all-India nationalism woulA, if realized, mean the political ascendancy of the Hindus. As a staunch Muslim, he could not tolerate the domination of ‘Muslims by Hindus. He remarks: "When I realized that the conception of nationalism based on the differences of race and country was beginning to overshadow the world of Islam also and that the Muslims were in danger of giving up universality of their ideal in favour of a narrow patriotism and false nationalism, I felt it my duty as a Muslim and as a well- wisher of humanityto recall them back to their true role in the drama of human evolution." Hence he gave the slogan "Back to eatly Islam’. He emphasised that Islam is neither nationalism nor imperialism Duta league of nations which accepts the racial divergencies for political references and Delieves in ultimate union. In his words : "My real purpose is look for a better social order to present a universally acceptable ideal before the world but itis impossible for me in this effort, to outline this ideal, to ignore the social system and values of Islam whose most important objective is to demolish all the artificial and pernicious distinctions of caste, creed, colour and economic status. . ..No doubt I am intensely devoted to Islam but I have selected the Islamic community as my starling point not because of any national or religious prejudice but because it is the most practicable line of approach to the problem. Hence Iqbal chose the slogan ‘Back to early Islam.’ He stressed the concept of the ‘Millat-the crystallization of Muslim fratemity. ‘Kaba’ was to be its geographical centre. Love for God and allegiance to Mohammcd,-the last prophet of God, was to fasten the bonds of Pan-Islamic union, The Divine law was to serve the guiding norm of the ‘Millat;. His firm belief in the Pan-Islamic fraternity induced Iqbal to ridicule the League of Nations as a ‘lean structure of European diplomacy’ which is apt to meet its doom, at no distant future. He vehemently denounced Congress as an organisation of Hindus, He challenged its representative character and identified it with the native princes of India. Hence he claimed that Muslim League alone possessed the sole right to represent the Muslims of India, He exhorted the Muslim brethrens to remain away from the Congress and join the League. He started casting aspersions on the secular character of the National Congress. He stressed that communalism was indispensable to the formation of a humonious whole in a country like India, He justified Muslims demand for the creation of Muslim India within India. He remarked 'Self government within the British empire or without it the formation of a consolidated North West Indian Muslim State appears to be the final destiny of Muslims at least of North West India."6 In fact he was of the view that North West Indian Muslim state would prove as the best defence of India against foreign invasions both of ideas and bayonets, He said "I therefore demand the formation of a consolidated muslim state in the best interests for an India and Islam. In India, it means security and peace, resulting of internal balance of power; for Islam an opportunity to rid itself of stamp that Arbian imperialism was forced to give it....."7 Evidently this advocacy of a Muslim state resulted in emergence of Pakistan at a later stage in fact culmination of two Nation Theory. Why Iqbal opposed nationalism ? The question arises as to why Iqbal, once an arch-nationalist failed to remain in national main stream and embraced communalism. Firslty, his visit to Europe brought a radical change in his views, Possibly the Europeans’ influence weaned him from nationalism. It needs a thorough probe. Secondly, he realized that the slogan of All India Nationalism, if realized, might lead to perpetual political ascendancy of the Hindus who were in majority in India, Such a Hindu dominated policy may impede the cultural and religious development of the Muslim community. Hence he had suggested a federal form of government with a weak Centre, thus enabling the component units to enjoy autonomy. In a Presidential speech at the 1930 session ofthe League he remarked, "I would never advise the Muslims of India to a system whether of British or of Indian origin which virtually negatives principle of true federation or fails to recognise them as a distinct political entity." Thirdly, he considered Indian nationalism as bourgeoise nationalism and the Indian National Congress as the bourgeoise association. He went to the extent of ‘identifying Congress with the native princes of India’ in his Presidential address of 1930. Hence he denounced both, Indian nationalism and the Congress which preached it, Fourthly, Iqbal apprehended that the concept of Nationalism might develop separatist feelings in the Islamic brotherhood. Thus the bonds of Islamic unity may be loosened. He described the ‘Wester concept of Nationalsim as a deadly poison for the Muslim brotherhood and its active propagation a subtle design of imperialist powers to weaken Islam.8 He substituted the Islamic concept of ‘the whole world as the family of God! for ‘accursed nationalism’ and ‘degraded imperialism.'9 (©) Ideology of a new Muslim State As already said, Iqbal ceased to be a nationalist. He was conscious of revival of Islam in the nineteenth century. The re-awakening of the Muslim community could be discerned from the activities of Sir Syed in India, Mufti Alam Tam in Russia and Syed Jamal-ud-Din in ‘Afghanistan. He strongly felt that destiny of Indian Muslims was linked with the formation of a state for themselves. He did not tolerate annihilation of Muslims’ nay a nation in itself. It is said that his conviction that in a politically free and self-governing India, the Muslim minority is apt to be tyrannised by the irremovable Hindu majority, led him to think in terms of a separate State for the Muslims within India. In his Presidential speech at the League Session held in 1930, he remarked, "India is Asia in miniature, Part of her people have cultural affinities with nations in the East and part with the nation in the middle and West of Asia. If an effective principle of cooperation is discovered in India, it will bring peace and mutual goodwill to this ancient land which has suffered long".....He suggested solution for ushering in era of peace and goodwill and that solution was the creation of a separate Muslim State, In the concluding words of his address, he was very clear about his intentions, he said, "I would like to see the Punjab, the North West Frontier province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State, appears to me to be the final destiny of the ‘Muslims at least of the North-West India," It is thus clear that in the early thirties, Iqbal championed the ‘consolidated North West Indian Muslim States. Iqbal found future of his community bleak in United India. Thus henceforth he became one of the most prominent spokesmen of the civilization of the Moslems of North West India in a specified territory. In a Presidential Speech on December 29, 1930 he remarked "To base a constitution on the conception of a homogeneous India or to apply to India the principles dictated by British democratic sentiments is unwillingly to prepare her for a Civil War".10 ‘Thus as per Igbal's suggestions, the North-West Indian Muslims were to have a separate state within India. Such a State was to possess the full opportunities of development within the body politic of India. Iqbal reiterated this idea on December 6, 1933 by hinting at the redistribution of the country on the basis of religious, historical and cultural affinities. Ina letter to M.A. Jinnah on May 28, 1937, he again repeated that it would be ‘necessary to redistribute the country andto provide one or more Muslim States with absolute majorities."11 All these facts make it crystal clear that Iqbal was the ideological protagonist of the Pakistanist separatism. It is irony of India's fate that once an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity, became a champion of separatism and a separate state for muslims of North-West India. Hence the ‘Muslims in Pakistan regard him one of the early founders of Pakistan and hold his-poetry books, portraying the separatist tendencies next to Quran, their holy book. (D) Iqbal as a Socialist Iqbal did not propound any scientific theory of socialism. However some of his poems reflect his socialistic leanings and expose the evils of capitalism. In one of his famous poems-God's Command to the Angels," he writes : “Go and awaken the poor and dispossessed of my Universe And shake the walls of the rich men's palaces to their foundations! ... The Day of the sovereignty of the masses approaches fast. Demolish the old relics wherever you find them. Is there a field which yields no livelihood to the Peasant? Go and burn to the grounds every grain of wheat in it! ... I am disgusted with all these places of worship built in marble Go and build a lowly hut of clay for my worship !" Evidently, Iqbal preaches revolution and hopes the dawn of day when the masses will be the rulers. In another poem, he unmasks the evils of Capitalism. He writes: "Man is still a miserable prey to exploitation and imperialism; is it not a grievous calamity that man should prey on man? . No magic of political policy can strengthen a civilization which rests on the quick sands of capitalism !" He made, fact, a religious approach to the concept of capitalism. According to the tenets of Quran "God made the Earth for his creatures." Hence any monopolistic claim to it either by the capitalist or the landlord amounts to unjust interference with divine law. He believes in the majesty of God and describes him as the owner of all wealth and considers human beings as mere trustees. The Quran condemns exploitation and class domination. Hence Iqbal protested against exploitation in all its forms and suggested violent revolution against the evils of capitalistic exploitation and pleaded for its eradication. Iqbal emphasised that Islam advocates moderation in the economic life by inposing checks on the sources of income and avenues of expenditure. ‘Thus it checkmates the growth of capitalistic-tendencies expropriates capitalism and landlordism and establishes a society based on equality and liberty, a society from which class conflicts vanish and which realises the trust and sincerest human solidarity. This theological philosophical discourse should not prompt us to conclude that Iqbal was a socialist in the sense Karl Marx was. He could not build any logical theory of socialism by denouncing capitalism as he did not have any grounding of economies and philosophy of socialism. He envisaged the problem from the Quranic standpoint. We agree with Smith who said, "Iqbal was not intellectually a socialist. He did not know analytically and logically what is wrong with capitalism. But he was emotionally a socialist because he loved mankind."12 Iqbal, condemned not only capitalism but denounced imperialism also. He infact indicated and detested exploitation in all its forms. He was convinced that imperialism leads to the exploitation of the6 poor all the world over. According to him the hunger of the poor beggar consumes his soul ‘whereas the hunger of the Sultan or Emperor destroys state and religion. Iqbal was opposed to the Western civilization on account of its love for materialism and lust for aggrandisement. However, as a visionary, he prophesied the extinction of civilization based on capitalism. In the words of Smith: ‘Iqbal saw the economic faithfulness of capitalism. He saw through the liberal sham of democracy to its exploitation and he was sensitive to the wholesale oppression of the capitalist world,"13 In his poem javid-Namah Iqbal states that the East has been concentrating on the spiritual and neglecting the neglecting while the West has been concentrating on the material and neglecting the spiritual. Hence he suggested that mankind must synthesise Eastern and Wester cultures. (E) His Opposition to Securlurism (His Belief in Theoratic State) Iqbal was an Islamic revivalist though not an absolute one. In his lectures he stated. "The | ultimate spiritual basis of all life as conceived by Islam is eternal....Only we should not forget that life is not change, pure and simple. It has within its elements of conservation also.....life moves with the weight of its own past on its back and that in any view of social change, the value and function of the forces of conservatism cannot be lost sight of. No people can afford to reject their past entirely." He adhered to the tenets of Quran and condemned the Godliness as preached by Nietzsche. He was opposed to atheistic materialism embodied in modern nationalistic creeds and formulae. He stood for the ideal of spirtirtual emancipation of man and the social evolution of huminaty on spiritual lines, He abhorred Western civilization for its love for nationalism at the cost of spiritualism and denounced thinker like Machiavelli as a | ‘messenger of Satan' because he divorced ethics from politics. He advocated the Islamic concept | of 'Fagr’ and upheld religion as the force of progress. In his words, ". .... . religion. . . .which is neither dogma nor priesthood nor ritual can alone ethically prepare the modem men for the burden of the great responsibilty which the advancement of modem science necessarily involves and restores to him that attitude of faith which makes him capable of winning a personality here and retaining it hereafter."15 Though Iqbal accepts the significance of the forces of social stability and conservatism by adhering to the principles of Quran yet he does not ignore the validity of the views of liberal schools of muslim jurisprudence. As such, he does not efface from his mind the changed situations of the day. Its, therefore, not correct to describe him an absolute revivalist. His ethical approach to politics induced Iqbal to think of a theorocratic state governed by the laws of the 'Shariat’. He suggested the organisation of politics and administration on spiritual basis. He did not likt the various aspects of a man's life-social, economic, political and religious to be compartmentalized and treated in isolation. He felt that religions shapes all phases of life. Hence Iqbal reverted to sovereignty of God which is expressed through laws of 'shariat’ and did not agree with the modern concepts of sovereignty of people or General Will. He emphasised that the ‘Quran united religion and state ethics and politics in a single revelation much in the same way as Plato does in the Repubulic."16 He stressed that Islam unlike Christianity did not believe in duality of Church versus Empire, The spiritual and temporal world thus cannot be Difurcated. In his words: "The State according to Islam is only an effort to realize the spiritual in a human organization." Hence he could not reconcile to the ideas of a secular state. According to Iqbal, "The Quran considers it necessary to unite religion and state ethics and politics in a single revelation much in the same way as Plato does in his Republic." 187 Itmay not be out of place to point out that though Iqbal believed in a theocratic State i.e. State based on law of Shariat yet believing in the sovereignty of God, he did not subscribe to the cult of the ruler as the viceregent of God. Thus the ruler in the theocratic State of his vision could not abuse authority and become a director. Moreover the aim of the state was to realize the spiritual perfection and development of religious life of subjects. Ifthe state could not do this, it ‘was apt to be doomed, In his words, "Neither the technique of medieval mysticism nor nationalism nor asthetic socialism can cure the ils of a despairing humanity.” His basing the state on a particular religion was in fact a challenge to moder secularist approach which treats religion as the private affair of the individual. Religion in his opinion, shapes all phases of life. His belief in the sovereignty of God as expressed in the total governance of all the aspects and phases of man's life through the laws of the ‘Shariat’ reflects his theocratic approach. ( His views on Western Civilisation ‘As already said, Iqbal stayed in Europe for a period of three years. These three years changed his outlook considerably and left indelible imprint upon his mind. The Wester civilisation had two diametrically opposite effects on Iqbal. On the one hand, the scientific attitude of mind and the exuberant initiative of Europeans, the untiring energy, the immense vitality and hectic activity of European life and the vision of the tremendous possibilities before the human life seem to impress him the most. On the other hand, materialism of the European society which resulted in the "soul destroying frustration of most individuals lies in bestial competition between fellowmen and between nation and nation,"19 disillusioned him with the West. He therefore did not like his countrymen to follow the West completely though he did not hesitate to exhort them to take advantage of what was valuable in the Westem civilisation. Hence on his return from Europe, he induced his Muslim brethren to imbibe in themselves the dynamism of the West and morel values of Islam. Actuated by dynamic activism of the West, he took cudgels in his hands to awaken the slumbrous souls and arouse them to the conviction that was not to be wasted in passive contemplation, rather it was to be lived actively and passionately. Thus the Western influence made him challenge the attitude of resignation and quiet contentment encouraged by Sufism. It made revolutionize the Islamic thought by repudiating the conception of a fixed and static universe, presided over by a dictatorial God and substitute it by the view that the world was a dynamic thing and was being advanced by man and by God through men. (G) A Progressive Revivalist Though Iqbal was a revivalist and believed in the tenets of Islam and sovereignty of God, yet he cannot be categorised as an ‘orthodox’ conformist. He suggested innovations in Islamic thought. For instance, instead of portraying God as the traditional Being, he described Him as the immanent God who did not exist some where outside the universe, and controlled it from within, He thus denounced the traditional idea of God existing far away from the world. Likewise, he was repelled by world denying tendencies in Islam. He aimed at lashing men into furious activity and imbuing them with restless patience, hence his repudiation of the conception of the fixed and static universe as expounded by the orthodox Islamic thought. He ‘went to the extent of saying that those who denied the joys of life, were greater sinners than those who did not accept the existence of God. Unlike an orthodox believer, he won't like a man to resign passively to the will of God. Heshould like to become His Viceregent through creative activity. Thus it can be concluded that Igbal was not an absolute revivalist. He may therefore be considered a non-conformist from the point of view of orthodox Islam. Conclusion An appraisal of his biogtaphy, political and religious ideas reveals that Iqbal was more of a poet than an original metaphysical or political thinker. His poems did gain him wide recognition as an illustrious poet of West Asia but reflected inconsistency of his views, He began his poetic career, composing poems that were national in outlook. ‘But like others of mixed ambitions and varied interests, he gradually moved towards a restricted nationalism, based on spiritual faith and religious beliefs."20 Ironically enough, this hapyend after his three years of visit to Europe. He became the champion of the cause of his minority community. He associated himself with the ambitions of his community and worked for the party which stood for a separate homeland for his comeligionists. Thus his contribution lies in upholding the idea of a Muslim State within India and arousing the hitherto slumbrous souls for standing against the professed tyranny of the majority community. Ahmad All has aptly remarked, "....ata time when the Muslims of India had already become aware of being left behind in the race of life and had set up the Muslim League to achieve their aims and political ideas, Iqbal associated himself with the ambitions of his community and dreamed of a separate homeland for his fellow faithful."21 He is an advocate of theocratic state where sovereignty of God is to prevail. The question arises how the sovereignty of God will be exercised, and who will be the medium of the expression of such a divine sovereignty in matters, political and economic ? Iqbal could not give any concrete answer. Possibly Quran was to be the final authority on doubtful mundance issues but diverse Interpretations of Quran could pose problem. The critics do not hesitate in denouncing Iqbal as a theological revivalist on account of his undue emphasis on 'Shariat. His concept of spiritual democracy, referring to divine sovereignty does not take us near to the concept of political democrcay and sovereignty of people which have become the cherished goals of suppressed humanity. Hence the critics are justified in describing him the champion of the reactionary and medievalist cult of the hero"22 -Iqbal calls him a superman, Likewise, his condemnations of capitalism and clarion call for revolt against the tyrannical, “unjust and exploitative bourgeoise class hardly wipes out the tears of wailing teeming millions. A concrete theory of socialism alone could enable him to find a prominent place in the galaxy of the torch bearers of the toiling masses. His emphasis on theocratic state at the cost of secularism and Pan-Islamism as a substitute for early nationalism speaks of Iqbal as a theological revivalist. His identification of the Congress with the native princes of India and eulogizing the Muslim League-the party comprising the Jandlords and the loyalists-reflect that Iqbal who once embodied in himself the aspirations of the subject Indian nation, was portraying the Indian Politics with jaundiced eyes and distorting the naked facts and stark realities. Keeping in view inconsistencies of his thought, Ahmad Ali has well summed up "....His thought despised imagination and his imagination the thought. Not being able to maintain the equilibrium, he often annulled the one at the expense of the other. We therefore find his work full of contradictions...."