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Analysis of Examiners observations on Performance of

Candidates in CSS
CE-2019: The Examiners have made the following observations on the
‘candidates' performance in compulsory and optional papers opted by
candidates in written part of the CSS
Competitive Examination 2019.

A:Compulsory Subject - English Essay:

A significant majority of candidates presented a crammed write up,
without realizing delicacy, twist and emphasis in the given topic. A large
number of candidates failed to reach 1200-1300 words, reflecting
shallow limited & scanty range of knowledge and understanding.
Candidates reproduced their early patterns of mechanical learning filled
with readymade material. Stock of similar material, quotes and examples
reflect consulting easily available sources, lacking original thinking,
critical evaluation and discursive strength of discussion. There were
grammatical errors/mistakes relating to Subject-Verb agreement, Verb
tense and Conjugation of Verb. An Essay is a great debate, an open
discussion or elaboration of statement where a candidate, with the help
of deep and diverse knowledge tries to justify or to negate or explain the
point of discussion in a logical manner. Features and caliber of good
Essay include: Good language-originality of thoughts-In-depth
knowledge-critical thinking-expressed in well versed manner-correct &
flawless language-literary expression-choice of appropriate vocabulary-
accuracy of language-well versed in English language-+Interpersonal
skills-organization of ideas-coherence-cohesion-clarity candidness-
comprehensiveness etc. Education system is preparing and testing high
marks achievers by a single line answer-choice of correct word (MCQs),
underlining of appropriate option etc. to push the easy way of getting
marks without hitting visionary approach and hampering the students
from hard work & labour. Reading A-rate recognized Newspapers Work
of well-known authors and magazines must be encouraged.
English (Précis & Composition):
The candidate’s ability and performance in language skills in the
scripts presented a dismal picture. On the whole, mistakes were
found in sequence of tense-subject verb agreement-use of
Pronominal-voice-higher tendency of using idioms with literal
meanings-overgeneralization of grammatical rules-
understanding of modifiers and qualifiers-punctuation-spellings
etc. Many of the students deviated from the contents of the
passage given for Précis. They expressed personal views and
coined their own stories, which make it evident having no idea
of the rules of Précis writing. In comprehension questions,
candidates followed trodden path and copied sentences from the
reading passage instead of using their own language and added
irrelevant details. Précis writing is an art of creativity, logical,
analytical thinking, understanding of given passage, rules for
academic/Précis writing. Candidates must focus on clarity of
concepts and creativity which is expected for appearing in
competitive examination.

English Literature:
Following are some of the observations that really need to work on these
areas. The expression of a few candidates was very good and had strong
arguments, but the required number of questions was not attempted. If
they had attempted, they would have scored very high, majority of the
candidates had weak expression, weak arguments, and weak spellings.
There were a few candidates who reproduced whatever they had
learnt/prepared. There is a greater tendency in these students not to
answer what is asked.
Grammatically correct English
Diction
Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the
choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words,
often separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number
of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly,
words should be appropriate to the context in which they are used.
Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or reader
understands easily. Proper diction, or proper choice of words, is
important to get the message across. On the other hand, the wrong
choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers, which results in
misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed.

Diction is the careful selection of words to communicate a message

or establish a particular voice or writing style. For example, flowy,
figurative language creates colorful prose, while a more formal
vocabulary with concise and direct language can help drive home a
point.

Diction is the choice of words that separates one from the other.
This refers to the connotation of the words in the context of the
topic, over and above their meaning. It is this choice of words
that sets the tone of an author's writing. This tone set by the
peculiar application of vocabulary is called diction.
Different Types of Diction in Writing
Different styles of diction impact how different ideas are expressed. There are eight common
types of diction:

1. Formal diction. Formal diction is the use of sophisticated

language, without slang or colloquialisms. Formal diction sticks to
grammatical rules and uses complicated syntax—the structure of
sentences. This elevated type of language is often found in professional texts, business
documents, and legal papers.
2. Informal diction. Informal diction is more conversational and often used in narrative
literature. This casual vernacular is representative of how people communicate in real
life, which gives an author freedom to depict more realistic characters. Most short stories
and novels use informal diction.+
 3. Pedantic diction. This is when a writer is highly detailed or academic in their writing.
Words are chosen specifically to convey only one meaning. It is sometimes used in
literature when characters speak in a highly educated manner, as in F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby.
4. Colloquial diction. Colloquial words or expressions are informal in nature and generally
represent a certain region or time. “Ain’t” and “y’all” are examples of colloquial
expressions, born in rural areas of the United States. Colloquialisms add color and
realism to writing.
5. Slang diction. These are words that originated within a specific culture or subgroup but
gained traction. Slang can be a new word, a shortened or modified word, or words that
take on a new meaning. Examples of common contemporary slang words are “aggro”
instead of “aggravated”; “hip,” which means trendy; and “throw shade,” which is to lob
an insult at someone.
6. Abstract diction. This is when a writer uses words to express something intangible, like
an idea or an emotion. Abstract phrases often lack physical detail and specificity because
they are things the reader cannot experience through their five senses.
7. Concrete diction. Concrete diction is the use of words for their literal meanings and
often refer to things that appeal to the senses. The meaning is not open to interpretation
because the writer is specific and detailed in their phrasing. For example, the sentence: “I
ate an apple.”
8. Poetic diction. Poetic diction is driven by lyrical words that relate to a specific theme
reflected in a poem, and create a euphonious, or harmonious, sound. Poetic diction
usually involves the use of descriptive language, sometimes set to a beat or rhyme.

EXAMPLES
John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a certain effect. He
says:

“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard

Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on …”

Notice the use of the formal “ye,” instead of the informal “you.” The formality here is due to the
respect the urn inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says:

“Ah, happy, happy boughs! that cannot shed

Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu.”

It is more formal to use “adieu” than to say “goodbye.”

Sometimes writers repeat their chosen words or phrases to achieve an artistic effect, such as in
the following example from A Tale of Two Cities, by Charles Dickens:
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was
the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was
the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was
the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was
the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.”
By repeating the phrase “It was the …” throughout the passage, the writer ensures that the
readers will give more consideration to the characteristic of the era they are going to read about
in the novel.

See this passage from ‘Globalization and Nationalism.’

On the one hand, 21st century can turn out to be our best century:

urbanization, integration, coming together, new era and new renaissance.

This could be a century of life expectancy going up and illiteracy going

down, a century of surge and tantalizing opportunities, a century of

further evolution and unleashed potential. This could be a century of

rapid changes and breath-taking innovation. A century of triumphant

globalization—this could be our best century.

And this could be our worst century: growing complexity, inequality,

fragility, global rippling effect with everything occurring in one place

ultimately affecting everything else. This could be a century of dismal

failures and universal plummet, a century of systemic shock and the

world put into chains. This could be a century of pandemics, of people

excluded from the global conversation. A century of triumphant

nationalism—this could be our worst century. But then, is it an either-or

question? And why do we expel the opportunity of our best century

being, at the same time, our worst one?

Writers choose words to create and convey a typical mood, tone, and atmosphere to their readers.
A writer’s choice of words, and his selection of graphic words, not only affect the
reader’s attitude, but also conveys the writer’s feelings toward the work.

Syntax
The syntax is that part of grammar which deals with the order of words and
phrases to form a proper sentence in a particular language. It is a system of
rules that tell you which word comes prior to and subsequent to another word
in a sentence, such that it makes a complete sense.

In simple words, the format with the help of which words and phrases are
structured, to frame a sentence is termed as syntax. Meaning that it decides
the way in which subject, verb and object is to be arranged, to form a correct
sentence. It is something that can make a huge difference in the context of the
sentence, as you can see in the example below:

 The puppy ran joyfully.

 The puppy joyfully ran.
 Joyfully, the puppy ran.

In the given example, you might have observed that we have just changed the
order of word ‘joyfully’ and the entire context of the sentence is changed, and
this is the power of ‘syntax’.
In creative writing, the syntax has a very important role to play, as it can make
the write up more interesting and engaging, as well as it also helps to
emphasize a particular point.

The difference between syntax and grammar

Prescriptive grammar involves a set of rules that speculate the way in

which language should be written and punctuated to follow agreed
conventions. In a sense, grammar doesn’t add enhanced meaning to your
sentences; it simply prescribes the form that should be used. Syntax is
concerned with how a sentence is worded and structured and involves
the type of sentence used (declarative, interrogative, exclamatory,
imperative); the order in which the words appear (passive, active); and
the length of the sentence (long, short).

If my written English is grammatically correct why do I need to be

concerned with syntax?
There is a distinct difference between writing that is grammatically
correct and writing that is interesting to read. Syntax adds meaning and
vibrancy to your sentences, where grammar simply ensures that the rules
of language are followed within that sentence. This is also, essentially,
the difference between professional editors and proofreaders. An editor will make
your writing more interesting, while a proofreader will just check for
mistakes.

Let’s look at an example:

His long-held wish was to walk slowly through the tortuous mountain
paths that his grandfather had carved out of the earth many years ago.
Syntax would refer to the sentence being declarative: stating a wish that
the boy had. It would also refer to the length of the sentence and the way
it is constructed in a manner that mimics the long, twisted paths in the
mountain, and the long time the boy had been wishing to walk them.
Grammar would refer to the need to ensure that the infinitive is not split:
“to walk slowly” rather than “to slowly walk”, and would necessitate
correct subject-verb agreement.

A well-crafted sentence can make all the difference to a reader. It can

convey the writer’s message more clearly and more effectively. Careful
syntax is the difference between a messy, meandering piece of writing
and a crisp, powerful piece of writing.

There are a number of things that you should think about when using
syntax:

Is the meaning of the sentence clear?

The young girl hit the man with a broom.
Is the young girl using the broom to hit the man, or is she hitting a man
who is holding a broom?

Does the sentence contain repetition?

James was really scared; he was really frightened.

How does the sentence/paragraph end?

In a fit of rage, Mary threw down the towel that she was cleaning Peter’s
brow with.
The use of the word “with” at the end of the sentence has very little
impact on the reader. However, if we reengineer the sentence we can
achieve something much more powerful:
Mary stopped cleaning Peter’s brow and threw down the towel in a fit of
rage.
This is much more dramatic and punchy and will ignite the reader’s
emotion much more than the first version.

(It’s not just the sentence that needs to end appropriately because syntax
is more than just looking at isolated sentences. We also need to consider
the paragraph as a whole and consider the way in which the sentences
work together. A paragraph should contain one idea or encapsulate one
part of the action and the sentences contained within this paragraph
should help to build this idea. One should consider how the sentences
within the paragraph are interacting with one another and whether the
order of them effectively achieves the aim of your communication.)

Is the sentence active or passive?

It is important is that the voice used within a document is appropriate to
the communication intentions. If, for example, you want to communicate
the fact that the action is happening at arm’s length, passive voice is
perfectly acceptable. On the other hand, if you want to inject energy and
directness into your writing, then sentences that are written in the active
voice will be much more powerful.

Does this sentence create the effect I want?

Definition of Syntax
Syntax is the arrangement of words into a sentence that make sense in a
given language. Syntax also refers to the rules and principles that govern
sentence structure in a language, i.e., how words and phrases may be
joined. Syntax therefore is not a strictly literary device, but instead is
part of every utterance and written line, and even the majority of
thoughts. Though linguists have looked for syntactical rules that are
universal in every language, it is now clear that there is no “natural way”
to express a thought.

Syntax is the way words are arranged in sentences. In other words, syntax is senten
structure. Syntax includes these important elements:
• Sentence parts
• Word order
• Sentence length
• Punctuation
First you need to understand basic sentence vocabulary: subject, verb, clause, phras
fragment. Then, you need to understand how writers use these sentence parts to get
effects they want. Finally, you need to have a basic understanding of some very spe
punctuation marks, specifically the semicolon, the colon, the dash, and italics. That
all. With these basic tools, you can improve your understanding of the experts’ use
language , and you can improve your own expertise with language.
Word Order
The normal word order in English is to have the subject first, then the verb a
details. But word order is a little more complicated than that. Look at how changin
word order changes the meaning in these sentences:
Jim said that he drives only a truck.
 (He drives nothing else.)
Jim said that only he drives the truck.
(No one else drives a truck.)
Jim only said that he drives a truck.
(He probably doesn’t rally drive a truck.)
Only Jim said that he drives a truck.
(No one else said it.)
Sentence Length
Writers vary sentence length to keep their readers interested and to control w
readers pay attention to. Most modern writers put the main ideas in short sentences
longer sentences to expand and develop their main idea.
Punctuation
Punctuation helps us understand the written word. In speech, we pause and
expression in our voices and on our faces to help the listener understand us. Writing
depend on punctuation.
The semi-colon (;) joins two or more clauses when there is no connecting word (and
When a semicolon is used, all clauses are equally important, and the reader should p
attention to them all.
Example: He is my best friend; I have known him most of my life.
The colon (:) tells the reader that something important will follow. It’s very import
confuse the colon and the semi-colon. The semi-colon shows equal importance, wh
colon throws the emphasis onto what comes after it
Example: He is my best friend: he helps me through hard times, and
good times with me.
The dash marks a sudden change in thought or sets off a summary. Parentheses can
too, but the dash is more informal and conversational.
Example: John—my best friend—lives right down the street.
Italics are used to talk about a word as a word (He used the word really too many tim
paragraph.) or for emphasis. When we handwrite something, we show italics by un
Example: Of all the people I’ve ever known, John is my best friend.
http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/writing_clearly.html

ARTICULATION
Articulation is a performative concept about the ordering of matter and
meaning. It is the ability to express ideas clearly and effectively in speech or
writing. An articulate essay is characterized by the use of clear, expressive
language.
Articulation is defined as expressing oneself readily, clearly, and
effectively. Someone is articulate if his writing has the qualities of
expressiveness, clarity, coherence, fluency.
HOW TO DO THAT
1) Read, read, and read widely, and deeply, both mainstream and the
fringes: newspapers, magazines, newsletters, all types of novels,
business books, literary and scholarly works, and even bill boards, wall
posters, merchandising displays, ad blurbs, and mailshots, online as
well as offline;
2) Maintain a roving eye for interesting words or phrases or sentences, in
(1) and see how they are strung masterfully together to express ideas or
messages eloquently and succinctly across to the reader;
3) While reading your daily newspaper, pay particular attention to three
specific areas:
a)the editorials; b) the economic analyses’) the political commentaries;
These segments - with powerful word choices - are usually written by
editors and senior journalists, with a seemingly impeccable command of
the English Language;
4) While watching movies or television programs, like news broadcasts,
talk shows, sitcoms, debates on hot issues, interviews with VIPs, etc.,
maintain a roving eye and ear for interesting as well as intriguing
dialogues or fun conversations;
5) Always keep a large note book handy to capture all the stuff in (1) to
(4); This initiative is called sentence mining;
6) Write, write, and write, as much as you can, and make sure you use
the captured stuff to enliven your own everyday language expression in
addition to helping you to internalize the new vocabulary. Moreover,
writing voraciously also enhances your vocabulary and grammar;
7) Use as much of the stuff you have captured in (5) in your daily
dynamic speaking activities, too: conversations, dialogues, discussions,
meetings, sales presentations or elevator pitches, web-casting, pod-
casting, public speaking gigs, etc.
EXPRESSION
Written expression is the ability to convey meaning through writing. It
involves low level skills such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
and grammar, but also high level composition skills such as planning,
organization, determining content, and revision to express information
effectively.
Written expression is among the most complex academic tasks because
it is dependent upon many sub skills. Students must be able to read and
spell, of course, but they also must be able to organize their writing, use
appropriate voice and word choice, convey ideas, use conventions
(such as punctuation and capitalization), and attend to the rhythm and
flow of the language. Finally, students must have sufficient fine motor
control so that their written products are legible. When English learners
begin learning the spelling for English words, they may go through the
invented spelling stage based on the ways sounds are spelled in their
first language. The writing of English learners is likely to be slow and
labored before they achieve cognitive academic language proficiency in
English. Individuals with writing disorders may make multiple errors of
grammar and punctuation within sentences; they may use poor
paragraph organization, and the ideas in their writing may lack clarity.
Writers with dysgraphia (inability to write coherently, as a
symptom of brain disease or damage) may tend to reverse,
omit, and/or add letters and sounds in their spelling of words. Written
expression takes practice as any skill does.
EXAMPLES OF BAD ENGLISH
1. He has been hoped(A) for a raise for(B) the last six months, but(C) his boss
is reluctant to give him one(D).
Analysis
This sentence has an error relating to the form of the verb that has been used. The
grammatical form of the verb hope are has hoped and has been hoping. The
phrase has been hoped is grammatically unacceptable and it must be replaced by
one of the two forms mentioned above.
The correct sentence is:
He has been hoping for a raise for the last six months, but his boss is reluctant to
give him one.
2. Some(A) bumper stickers on cars are(B) quite funny and make us
laugh, but(C) another(D)are quite ridiculous.
Analysis
There is nothing wrong in the given sentence with the phrase “Some bumper
stickers". The plural verb are agrees with the plural subject stickers and its present
tense is also consistent with the tense of the tense of the other parts of the sentence.
The conjunction but brings out the intended contrast within the sentence, and is
quite appropriate. The word another which is in singular number is not appropriate
for the contrasting with the plural word some in the beginning of the sentence.
Additionally, being in singular number, it does not agree in number with the plural
predicate are in the second part of the sentence.
So, the underlined word another must be replaced by the word others to render
the sentence correct.
Disorder of written expression is a type of learning disability in which a
person's writing ability falls substantially below normally expected range based on
the individual's age, educational background, and measured intelligence.
https://s3.amazonaws.com/cmi-teaching-ld/assets/attachments/187/DLD_HotSheet5.pdf?1405330219
https://www.york.ac.uk/media/study/schoolsandcolleges/sixth-form-resources/how-to-improve-your-
academic-writing.pdf

Common Expressions in Academic Writing

Account for
Account for means that you provide an explanation for something. It is
mostly used when you provide reasons for something.
Analyze
Analyze means that you examine a text in detail and discuss the
components and parts of a text and talk about how they interact with
each other.
Argue
Argue means that you say or write something in a way that you can
convince or persuade your audience. In your argument, you will provide
reasons or any explanation to support your argument. In some situations,
you argue to prove your point.
Assess
Assess means that you evaluate or determine the value or quality of a
given text. In an assessment, you will provide your own judgment of the
value of a text and provide explanations and reasons for your evaluation.
Characterize
Characterize means that you describe the features and qualities of a
concept or phenomenon. The features and qualities that you describe
should be easily identifiable. When you characterize something, you
make it different and distinguished from other things. For example, you
could characterize one of the classes that you are taking as “interesting”
or “boring.”
Classify
Classify means that you organize information by categories or classes.
In classification, you should be able to tell the difference between
categories or classes that you use, and you should be able to explain why
and how you classified the information.
Comment
Comment means that you say something about a text or a topic. When
you comment on something, you make relevant remarks about a text or a
topic and provide your ideas or opinions on the text or topic.
Compare
Compare means that you find some similarities or differences among 2
or more things and explain how they are similar or different. When you
compare things, you will mostly focus on how you characterize or
identify something by explaining similarities and differences.
Consider
Consider means that you think about something carefully. You will
think about a variety of aspects of a certain topic to develop your ideas
or opinions on the topic.
Contrast
Contrast means that you mainly find differences among 2 or more
things and explain how different they are from each other. When you
contrast things, it is important for you to explain how you identified
differences among the things that you contrast.
Criticize
Criticize means that you find something that you disapprove of based on
your evaluation of a given text or material. When you criticize certain
texts, opinions, and ideas, you will make sure to find faults and explain
why you disapprove of the things that you found. You will provide
reasons and evidence to explain why you criticize certain ideas.
Define
Define means that you explain the meaning of certain words or
concepts. While you are explaining the meaning, you will identify the
main features and characteristics of certain words and concepts and
explain what makes them different from other words or concepts.
Demonstrate
Demonstrate means that you prove something by showing explanations,
illustrations, and supporting evidence.
Describe
Describe means that you explain and specify certain objects or ideas in a
way that your audience can easily understand your point.
Differentiate Between
When you differentiate between items it means that you make a
distinction between 2 or more things. You will tell the difference
between the things and explain how and why you differentiated them.
Discuss
Discuss means that you think about certain aspects of a topic and
explore them in detail in your text.You will often express your opinions
or arguments based on the discussion.
Elaborate
Elaborate means that you explain something in more and at greater
length. When you elaborate on something, you will illustrate an idea
with rich description and explanations for it.
Evaluate
Evaluate means that you assess the value of certain texts or ideas based
on your own judgment. In an evaluation of a text, you will see how well
the ideas are developed according to certain contexts and audiences.
Examine
Examine means that you look at certain texts or ideas carefully and
critically study them so you can make your own evaluation or arguments
based on your judgment from the examination.
Identify
Identify means that you define certain concepts by providing identifying
characteristics of them, or provide descriptions or explanations for
certain concepts or words. For example, some assignments will ask you
to “identify the meaning of a concept A.”
Illustrate
Illustrate means that you explain and describe certain characteristics or
aspects of something. When you illustrate something in your text, you
will provide relevant explanations and examples to make it clearer and
understandable for your audiences.
Indicate
Indicate means that you point out or show something. Some
assignments will ask you to indicate specific information about
something, such as “indicate the name of the author, or book” and some
assignments will ask you to “indicate the meaning of certain ideas.”
Interpret
Interpret means that you explain your understanding of certain ideas in
a more comprehensive way. Some assignments will ask you to write
about your own interpretation of certain data or texts. You will provide
your own judgment and evaluation of them and explain how and why
you were able to interpret a given subject.
Justify
Justify means that you prove your point by explaining reasons for it.
You will defend your ideas by providing logical explanation to justify
your point.
State
State means that you clearly express something about certain topics. For
example, some assignments will ask you to state your opinions.
Synthesize
Synthesize means that you combine information in a way that could
coherently and effectively present your ideas or opinions. In some
assignments, you will be required to synthesize sources or ideas. This
means that you will combine the sources and ideas and organize them in
a way that is appropriate and approachable to your readers.
Verify
Verify means that you prove something by showing evidence or
information. It could also mean that you check and see to make sure
certain information is correct and accurate.
https://7esl.com/expressions/

GENERAL FEATURES OF AN ESSAY

IDEA: the general proposition or thesis that your essay argues about its
TOPIC, whether it's spelled out fully at the start or revealed gradually. It
should be (1) true, but (2) arguable--not obviously true, and (3) limited
enough in scope to be argued in a short composition and with available
evidence. (In the early stages, you might think of your idea as a
HYPOTHESIS, to help keep it open to change as you test it in drafting.)
MOTIVE: a reason for writing, suggested at the start of the essay and
echoed throughout, establishing why you thought the topic needed
taking up and why the reader should care (the "so what" factor). Perhaps
 the truth isn't what one would expect, or what it might appear to be
on first reading
 there's an interesting wrinkle in the matter, a complexity
  the standard opinion of this work (as great, or as -dull or minor)
needs challenging
 there's a contradiction, or paradox, or tension here that needs some
sorting out
 there's an ambiguity here, something unclear, that could mean two
or more things
 there's a mystery or puzzle here, a question that presents itself
 we can learn something interesting about a larger phenomenon by
studying this smaller one
 there's a published view of this that's mistaken, or needs qualifying
 he published views conflict
 this seemingly tangential or insignificant matter is actually
interesting, or important
 and so on.
STRUCTURE: the shape your idea takes, the sequence of sub-topics and
sections through which it is unfolded and developed. This happens by
the complementary activities of CONVINCING your reader and
EXPLORING your topic.
 Convincing requires you to push forward insistently, marshalling
evidence for your idea, in a firm, logical structure of clear
sections--each section proving further the truth of the idea.
 Exploring requires you to slow down and contemplate the various
aspects of your topic--its complications, difficulties, alternatives to
your view, assumptions, backgrounds, asides, nuances and
implications.
 The challenge is to make your essay's structure firm and clear
while still allowing for complication--without making it feel
mechanical or like a laundry list. (Just as you might think of your
idea, at the draft stage, as a hypothesis, you might think of your
structure, when it's a provisional outline of sections, as merely a
plan.)
EVIDENCE: the facts or details, summarized or quoted, that you use to
support, demonstrate, and prove your main idea and sub-ideas. Evidence
needs to be ample and concrete--enough quotation and vivid summary
so readers can experience the texture of the work, its sound and feel, so
they feel able to judge your analysis explicitly connected to the idea--so
it's always clear exactly what inference is being made from the evidence,
exactly how the details support the idea or sub-idea.
EXPLANATION: bits of background information, summary, context to
orient the reader who isn't familiar with the text you're discussing. This
includes essential plot information precise locating of scene or comment
(e.g. "in the opening scene/ the climactic scene/ the opening volley,
where the protagonist/ where the author/ where the critic wonders,
considers, proposes...., we find....)setting up a quotation, telling who's
speaking it, in what context, and what the reader should be listening for
in it.
COHERENCE: smooth flow of argument created by transition sentences
that show how the next paragraph or section follows from the preceding
one, thus sustaining momentum echoing key words or resonant phrases
quoted or stated earlier.
IMPLICATION: places where you speculate on the general significance
of your particular analysis of a particular text; you suggest what issues
your argument raises about the author's work generally, or about works
of its kind (e.g. all short stories), or about the way fiction or criticism
works, etc.
PRESENCE: the sensation of life in the writing, of a mind invested in
and focused on a subject, freely directing and developing the essay--not
surrendering control (out of laziness or fear) to easy ideas, sentiments, or
stock phrases.

HOW TO WRITE CLEARLY: USING PRECISE AND CONCISE

LANGUAGE
 Precise language: A vocabulary of precise nouns and vivid verbs
helps you create strong mental pictures and avoid wordiness.
 Concise language: Using the fewest possible words without
sacrificing meaning makes your writing more understandable.
 Especially avoid unnecessary use of the verb "to be" when it
contributes to nominalizations and expletives.
Precise language
Never sacrifice clarity to novelty. This sometimes occurs when student
writers work with a thesaurus in one hand, choosing substitutes from a
list of approximately similar, though unfamiliar, words. "Visage"
replaces "face," "endeavors" replaces "tries," "cogitation" replaces
"thought," "subsequent to" replaces "after." Or, as a result of late-night
brainstorming (or having read too many bad financial aid packets,
perhaps?), "at the present time" replaces "now," "in the event of"
replaces "if," and "in the majority of instances" replaces "usually."
For example, a speech writer for President Franklin D. Roosevelt wrote
the first sentence below; FDR himself revised it:
We are endeavoring to construct a more inclusive soc iety.
We're going to make a country in which no one is left out.
Never sacrifice meaning to novelty. That is, never search for a synonym
just to dress up an idea, and never use an unfamiliar word from the
thesaurus to replace a perfectly good familiar word. Thesaurus words
may be similar or related, yet not be identical or even equivalent in
meaning. Unfamiliar words may carry the wrong connotation or be
simply unsuitable for your audience. Learn a word's meaning and usage
before using it.
For example, the second sentence below is not identical in meaning with
the first (or indeed even comprehensible!), although the word
substitutions come from a standard thesaurus:
In addition to studying Western culture, students should be required to
study Asian, African, or other cultures. This expanded cultural study
would foster understanding of the modern global community.
In addition to examination of Western enlightenment, a pupil ought to
remain to apply one's mind to Oriental, African, or choice cultures. Such
an enlarged edifying trance would guest of empathy of latter-day
universal public.
Never sacrifice meaning to belonging. That is, avoid jargon, or words
and expressions known only to people with specialized knowledge or
interests. Even if readers know the jargon, it is more difficult to read
than plain English and slows down comprehension. Check your writing
once expressly to locate jargon, and cut out as much as you can. If
technical words or expressions are unavoidable (and they sometimes
are), define them the first time you use them and try sometimes to
substitute a plainer word. The trick is to cut the verbiage without
sacrificing meaning.
For example, contrast the two sentences below, the first written by a
scientist using scientific jargon, the second revised into plain English:
The biota exhibited a one hundred percent mortality response.
All the fish died.
Choosing precise nouns makes it unnecessary to add layers of
descriptive adjectives that lengthen sentences and comprehension time.
(Your adjectives, anyway, will have greater impact if they are not
overused.) Compare the following generic nouns on the left with the
more connotative suggestions on the right:

juvenile, teenager, child, adolescent

Youth
Woman lady, mistress, matron, femme fatale
House cabin, mansion, cottage, villa
Group horde, clan, team, committee

Perhaps even more than nouns and adjectives, vivid verbs awaken strong
images in readers' minds. Strong verbs do more than almost anything
else to improve prose. Compare the following:
Lit up Ignited
Leave behind Abandon
Go back Return
Get the audience involved involve the audience
Got to see that Realized
Got better Improved
Got there Arrived
Put in installed, deposited
Put off postpone, delay
Put into action Activate
Put in place arrange, place

Concise Language
After college, when a job recruiter reads your resume, he or she may
simply refuse to wade through excess verbiage. A wordy resume may be
tossed. And a future supervisor will want to be able to comprehend your
summary report rapidly and painlessly. Writing that is concise packs
maximum meaning into the fewest possible words–think of how you
would pack your suitcase for an extended tour of Europe. If you use
precise language, you will probably find you are already using fewer
words. However, if you examine how you use "to be" verbs–am, is, are,
were, was, been–you may find even more that you can condense.
As much as possible, replace the verb "to be" with a stronger verb. "To
be" is often part of a construction called an expletive, a filler expression
like "there were," "it is," or "here are." The problem with expletives,
besides their meaninglessness, is that they are wordy and their verbs are
lackluster. The subject follows the verb, resulting in an indirect,
roundabout expression. To avoid expletives, lead with the subject or
even choose a different subject and, if possible, substitute a vivid verb to
make the sentence more straightforward and easier to understand:
There are problems with the lease.
The lease has problems.
There are several good reasons to delay making this decision.
We should delay making this decision for several reasons.
There is a natural desire among adolescents to experience freedom from
authority.
Adolescents naturally crave freedom from authority.
Expletives often occur with nominalizations. Nominalizations are nouns
created by adding an ending to a verb or an adjective: "specificity" from
the verb "specify," for example, or "validity" from the adjective "valid."
Writing that is overloaded with nominalizations (think government
publications) is hard to understand, is almost always too wordy, and uses
weaker verbs. Change the nominalizations back into verbs or adjectives
if possible:
Using nominalizations:
There is a requirement that all students have an evaluation of their
transcripts for placement purposes or to meet a prerequisite.

Changing nominalizations back into verbs:

The college requires that the admissions office evaluate all student
transcripts for placement and prerequisites.
Even complex ideas–especially complex ideas–benefit from a careful
effort to condense and to eliminate unnecessary words. By streamlining
your writing you help your readers understand–and that is the point,
after all.

Connecting Your Ideas

In essay writing, each paragraph should articulate a single main idea that
relates directly to the thesis statement. This construction creates a feeling
of unity, making the paper feel cohesive and purposeful. Connections
between ideas—both between sentences and between paragraphs—
should enhance that sense of cohesion.
Following the parts of a poorly constructed argument can feel like
climbing a rickety ladder. Transition words and phrases support the
rungs and rails, smoothing the journey of reading your paper so it feels
more like climbing a wide, comfortable staircase. Remember, though,
that transitions are more than just words and phrases; if you’re having
trouble coming up with transitions between paragraphs, revisit your
essay’s overall structure to make sure your ideas themselves are
arranged in a logical order, with no repetitions or missing steps.

Why Use Transitions?

Using transitions will make your writing easier to understand by

providing connections between paragraphs or between sentences within
a paragraph. A transition can be a word, phrase, or sentence—in longer
works, they can even be a whole paragraph. The goal of a transition is to
clarify for your readers exactly how your ideas are connected.

Transitions refer to both the preceding and ensuing sentence, paragraph,

and section of a written work. They remind your readers of what they
just read, and tell them what will come next. By doing so, transitions
help your writing feel like a unified whole.

Transitions between Paragraphs

In Topic Sentences

Using transitions in your topic sentences can explain to the reader how
one paragraph relates to the previous one. Consider this set of topic
sentences from a paper about metrical variation in the poem “Caliban
Upon Setebos”:

 Paragraph one: “Browning begins the poem by establishing a

correspondence between metrical variation and subversive
language.”
  Paragraph two: “Once Caliban begins his exploration of the nature
of Setebos, though, the pattern established earlier in the poem
begins to break down.”
 Paragraph three: “Browning further subverts the metrical
conventions established in the opening stanza by … switching to
iambic pentameter when acknowledging that unmotivated events
can and do occur.”

The transitions help the reader understand how the argument is

progressing throughout the paper, beginning with the poem’s basic
meter, and then explaining different ways in which the pattern shifts.
The word “though” in the second topic sentence lets the reader know
that the pattern explained in the first paragraph is going to change in the
second paragraph. The use of “further” in the third topic sentence alerts
the reader that the pattern is shifting again in the third paragraph. These
simple words are the handrail for the steps the reader is climbing.

In Concluding Sentences

A paragraph’s concluding sentence also offers an excellent opportunity

to begin the transition to the next paragraph—to wrap up one idea and
hint at the next.

You can use a question to signal a shift:

It’s clear, then, that the band’s biggest selling original compositions
were written early in their career, but what do we know about their later
works?

Alternatively, you could conclude by comparing the idea in the

current paragraph with the idea in the next:

While the Democratic Republic of Congo is rich in natural resources, it

has led a troubled political existence.
An “if–then” structure is a common transition technique in concluding
sentences:

If we are decided that climate change is now unavoidable, then steps

must be taken to avert complete disaster.

Here, you’re relying on the point you’ve just proven in this paragraph to
serve as a springboard for the next paragraph’s main idea.

Transitions within Paragraphs

Transitions within a paragraph help readers to anticipate what is coming

before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions tend to be single
words or short phrases. Words like while, however, nevertheless, but,
and similarly, as well as phrases like on the other hand and for example,
can serve as transitions between sentences and ideas.

Pointing Words

Pointing words let you refer back to complex ideas concisely. Also
called “hooks,” these words scoop up the information just offered and
link it to other information in the paper. Let’s look at an example:

There is nothing overtly deviant about the poem’s formal elements. But
upon close examination, those intricacies of form are even more
suggestive of a problem in the island hierarchy than is the content of
Caliban’s speech.

This is a concluding sentence, and the word “those” refers to the writer’s
argument laid out in the previous paragraphs. If the writer had instead
written “the intricacies,” we readers might not know to mentally link the
previous argument with this statement. Using the word “those” is a
gesture to include all the references to form that went before this
paragraph.
Can you see how the pointing words (this, that, these, those) in the
following examples serve to link one idea to the next, or to the main idea
of the paper?

 “For those reasons…”

 “This suggestion is further buoyed by…”
 “These facts clearly point to…”
 “That kind of reasoning only makes sense if…”

Signal Phrases

Also within paragraphs, signal phrases alert the reader that he or she is
about to read referenced material, such as a quotation, a summation of a
study, or statistics verifying a claim. Ideally, your signal phrases will
connect the idea of the paragraph to the information from the outside
source.

 “Jennifer Aaker of the Global Business School at Stanford

University writes, in support of this idea, that…”
 “In fact, the United Nations Environmental Program found that…”
 “However, ‘Recycling programs,’ the Northern California
Recycling Association retorts…”
 “As graph 3.2 illustrates, we can by no means be certain of the
outcome.”

Such phrases prepare the reader to receive information from an

authoritative source and subconsciously signal the reader to process
what follows as evidence in support of the point being made.

Here are some common signal-phrase verbs: acknowledges, adds,

admits, argues, asserts, believes, claims, confirms, contends, declares,
denies, disputes, emphasizes, grants, implies, insists, notes, observes,
points out, reasons, refutes, rejects, reports, responds, suggests, thinks,
writes.
Transition Paragraphs

In longer works, you might need an entire paragraph to connect the ideas
presented in two separate sections. The purpose of a transitional
paragraph is to summarize the information in the previous paragraph,
and to tell your reader how it is related to the information in the next
paragraph. Transition paragraphs are good places to review where you
have been and how it relates to the next step of your argument.

Appropriate Use of Transition Words and Phrases

Before using a particular transitional word or phrase, be sure you

completely understand its meaning and usage. For example, if you use a
word or phrase that indicates addition (“moreover,” “in addition,”
“further”), you must actually be introducing a new idea or piece of
evidence. A common mistake with transitions is using such a word
without actually adding an idea to the discussion. That confuses readers
and puts them back on rickety footing, wondering if they missed
something.

Whenever possible, stick with transition words that actually have

meaning and purpose. Overusing transition words, or using them as
filler, is distracting to the reader. “It is further concluded that,” for
example, sounds unnatural and a little grandiose because of the passive
voice. “Also,” or “Furthermore” would be clearer choices, less likely to
make the reader’s eyes roll.

With that said, here are some examples of transitional devices that might
be useful once you’ve verified their appropriateness:

To indicate addition: and, again, and then, besides, equally important,

finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what’s more,
moreover, in addition, still, first (second, etc.).

“Strength of idea is indeed a factor in entrepreneurial success, but

equally important is economic viability.”
To indicate comparison: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up
against, balanced against, although, conversely, in contrast, although this
may be true, likewise, while, whilst, although, even though, on the one
hand, on the other hand, in contrast, in comparison with, but, yet,
alternatively, the former, the latter, respectively, all the same.

“In contrast to what we now consider his pedantic prose, his poetry
seemed set free to express what lies in every human heart.”

To indicate a logical connection: because, for, since, for the same

reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in
fact, in addition, in any case, that is.

“The Buddha sat under the bodhi tree for the same reason Jesus
meditated in the desert: to vanquish temptation once and for all.”

To show exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite,

of course, once in a while, sometimes.

“Advocates of corporate tax incentives cite increased jobs in rural areas

as an offset; still, is that sufficient justification for removing their
financial responsibilities?

To show time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a while, finally, then,

later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then.

“First, the family suffered a devastating house fire that left them without
any possessions, and soon thereafter learned that their passage to the
New World had been revoked due to a clerical error.”

To summarize or indicate repetition: in brief, as I have said, as I have

noted, as has been noted, as we have seen, to summarize.

“We have seen, then, that not only are rising temperatures and increased
weather anomalies correlated with an increase in food and water
shortages, but animal-migration patterns, too, appear to be affected.”
To indicate emphasis: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed,
in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly,
notwithstanding, only, still, it cannot be denied.

“Obviously, such a highly skilled architect would not usually be inclined

to give his services away, and yet this man volunteered his services over
and again to projects that paid him only through appreciation.”

To indicate sequence: first, second, third, and so forth, next, then,

following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this,
simultaneously, concurrently.

“So, finally, the author offers one last hint about the story’s true subject:
the wistful description of the mountains in the distance.”

To indicate an example: for example, for instance, in this case, in

another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to
demonstrate, to illustrate, consider.

“Take, for example, the famous huckster P. T. Barnum, whose

reputation as ‘The Prince of Humbugs’ belied his love and support of the
finer things of life, like opera.”

To qualify a statement: under no circumstances, mainly, generally,

predominantly, usually, the majority, most of, almost all, a number of,
some, a few, a little, fairly, very, quite, rather, almost.

“Generally, we can assume that this statement has merit, but in this
specific case, it behooves us to dig deeper.”

Flow and Cohesion

When we talk about "flow" we mean cohesion or how ideas and
relationships are communicated to readers. Flow can involve the big-
 picture (how parts of the essay fit together and the way the sequence of
these parts affect how readers understand it) and the sentence-
level (how the structure of a sentence affects the ways meanings and
relationships come across to readers).
Big-Picture Revision Strategies
Reading Out-Loud
Oftentimes, you can identify places that need some extra attention
sharing your writing with a friend, or reading it out loud to yourself. For
example, if it's hard to actually say a sentence at a normal conversational
pace, this might indicate that there's something you can change about the
structure that will make it easier to say (and probably, easier to
understand). A few more tips:
 When you read out-loud, make sure to slow down. If you are talking too
fast, you might fill-in gaps or otherwise not notice things you want to
change. You also want to give yourself time to process what you're
saying as you say it.
 Have another person read to you. It can be really helpful to hear your
writing in another person's voice. This might help you hear your writing
in a different way than when you read silently in your head.
o If there's nobody around, there are also many computer programs that
can convert text to speech and read to you, including Microsoft Word.
 Take notes while you read. While you might want to fix things as you
read, if you're worried about flow, it's also good to read your essay all
the way through so that you can hear how parts fit together. If you don't
want to interrupt your reading, you can take notes by doing things like
putting a checkmark in the margins, using a highlighter, or making a list
on a separate sheet of paper.
Structure and Sequence
Sometimes issues of flow and cohesion might actually be structural. It's
good to reflect on the structure of an essay, the order of the different
parts, and how they all fit together. If you want to revise the structure of
your essay, consider trying one of the following activities.
Sign-Posting and Transitions
 A great way to help readers comprehend the flow of ideas is include
things like sign-posts and transitions. A sign-post is basically just
language to point out different parts of the essay for readers in order to
help them navigate your ideas. For example, strong topic sentences are
good as sign-posts because they tell readers what upcoming paragraphs
are going to be about. Transition sentences can help readers understand
how the ideas you were just discussing in a previous paragraph relate to
what's coming up with the next paragraph. Here are a couple questions
that can help you brainstorm sign-posting statements. After you
brainstorm, you can then revise these sign-posting sentences so they fit
better with your writing.
 What is the purpose or main idea that you want to get across in a specific
paragraph?
FOR THE NOVICE
Try starting a sentence by writing "In this paragraph, I will discuss..."
After you complete this sentence, you can then revise it to make it fit
better with your writing.
 How does this paragraph relate to the one that comes immediately after?
o "In the previous paragraph I discuss [purpose of paragraph 1] and this
helps better understand [purpose of paragraph 2] because..."
 What does this paragraph or idea have to do with the main purpose or
argument of the essay?
o This paragraph supports my argument because..."
 Are you trying to help readers make a comparison to something you say
earlier in your essay?
o While I discuss [previous idea or concept] above, I will now talk about
[new idea or concept] because..."
Revision on the Sentence-Level
Verbs, or Stuff We Do
A sentence seems clear when its important actions are in verbs. Compare
these sentences where the actions are in bold and the verbs are
UPPERCASE:
 Because we LACKED data, we could not EVALUATE whether the
UN HAD TARGETED funds to areas that most needed assistance.
 Our lack of data PREVENTED evaluation of
UN actions in targeting funds to areas most in need of assistance.
Nominalization
Turning a verb or adjective into a noun is called a “nominalization.” No
element of style more characterizes turgid writing, writing that feels
abstract, indirect, and difficult, than lots of nominalizations, especially
as the subjects of verbs.
Our request IS that you DO a review of the data. vs. We REQUEST
that you REVIEW the data.

Verb → Nominalization Adjective → N

discover Discovery Careless c

Resist Resistance Different d

react Reaction Proficient p

Try this: when editing, underline the actions in your sentences. Are
those actions in the form of verbs? If not, you might try rewriting your
sentences to turn those actions into the main verbs in the sentence.
Active and Passive Verbs
Some critics of style tell us to avoid the passive everywhere because it
adds a couple of words and often deletes the agent, the “doer” of the
action. But in fact, the passive is sometimes the better choice. To
choose between the active and passive, you have to answer two
questions:
1. Must your readers know who is responsible for the action?
  Often, we don’t say who does an action, because we don’t know or
readers won’t care. For example, we naturally choose the passive
in these sentences:
o The president was rumored to have considered resigning.
o Those who are found guilty can be fined.
o Valuable records should always be kept in a safe.
 On the other hand, this sentence seems vague or less specific
because who does the action matters:
o Because the test was not done, the flaw was not corrected.
2. Would the active or passive verb help your readers move more
smoothly from one sentence to the next?
 We depend on the beginning of a sentence to give us a context of
what we know before we follow the sentence to read what’s new.
A sentence confuses us when it opens with information that is new
and unexpected. In the following sentences, the passive verb is
in bold and new information is in italics.
o The weight given to industrial competitiveness as opposed to the
value we attach to liberal arts will determine our decision.
 In this sentence, notice how the passive verb phrase sets up the new
information:
o Our decision will be determined by the weight we give to
industrial competitiveness as opposed to the value we attach to
the liberal arts.
Try this: We need to find our passive verbs before we can evaluate
whether or not to change them. While you’re editing, try underlining all
the “to be” verbs, since these are often paired with other verbs to make
passive constructions. The verbs you’re looking for are: am, are, is, was,
were, be, become, became. Once you’ve identified these verbs, check to
see if they are necessary, or if the sentence would be clearer or stronger
+without them. Example: “There is one explanation in the story…” vs
“The story explains…”
Cohesion
Writing is more coherent when readers are able to make connections
across sentences and paragraphs. On the sentence level, this can include
when the last few words of one set up information that appears in the
first few words of the next. That’s what gives us our experience of flow.
1. Begin sentences with information familiar to your readers. Readers
get that information from two sources: first, they remember words
from the sentence they just read. Second, readers bring to a sentence
a general knowledge of its subject. In a paper on black holes, for
example, readers would find references to “astronomers” familiar,
even without prior mention.
2. End sentences with information that readers cannot
anticipate. Readers prefer to read what’s easy before what’s hard,
and what’s familiar and simple is easier to understand that what’ new
and complex.
Consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in their
subjects, help readers understand what a passage is generally about.
Asense of coherence arises when a sequence of topics comprises a
narrow set of related ideas. But the context of each sentence is lost by
seemingly random shifts of topics. Unfocused, even disorganized
paragraphs result when that happens.

Readers understand what a passage is generally

about when they see consistent ideas toward the
beginnings of sentences, especially in their
subjects. They feel a passage is coherent when they
read a sequence of topics that focuses on a narrow
set of ideas. Compare related ideas. But when
topics seem to shift randomly, readers lose the
context of each sentence. When that happens, they
feel they are reading paragraphs that are unfocused
and even disorganized.

Try this: While editing, check for these words: this, these, that, those,
another, such, second, or more. Writers often refer to something in a
previous sentence with these kinds of words. When you use any of those
signals, try to put them at or close to the beginning of the sentence that
you use them in.
Concision
Here are some tips to help your writing become more precise and cut out
extra words.
1. Delete meaningless words. Some words are verbal tics that we use
unconsciously:

kind of Actually Particular Really certain

virtually Individual Basically Generally given

2. Delete doubled words. Most of these paired words are

redundant:

full and complete hope and trust any and all

true and accurate each and every basic and fundam

hopes and desires first and foremost various and sund

3. Delete what readers can infer. This can include redundant

categories like “period of time,” “pink in color,” or “shiny in
appearance.
4. Replace a phrase with a word. This one may be difficult, but
the best way is to look at a “wordy” passage, and see if some
of the longer phrases can be shortened or replaced with
synonyms. Look at these sentences:

As you edit, first replace nominalizations with clauses.

As you carefully read what you have written to improve wording and catch err
 punctuation, the thing to do before anything else is to see whether you could us
subjects and verbs instead of the same ideas expressed in nouns.

5. Change negatives to affirmatives. When you express an idea in the

negative form, it requires an extra word, since “same” = “not
different.” If you want to emphasize the negative, do not translate it!

not different → Similar not many →

not the same → Different not often →

not allow → Prevent not stop →

not notice → Overlook not include →

6. Can you make sense of the negatives in this sentence?

Except when you have failed to submit applications without
documentation, benefits will not be denied.
This handout contains excerpts from Joseph M. Williams' Style: Ten
Lessons in Clarity and Grace (New York: Longman, 2000).
Good paragraphs have the following characteristics:
 The sentences in the paragraph work together to support a single idea.
The topic sentence, usually the first sentence, states the main message
of the paragraph.
 Effective topic sentences guide the reader from paragraph to
paragraph, providing a “story line” for the document.
 An effective paragraph follows a pattern of organization that is easily
recognizable and reveals the logical arrangement of the sentences.
 A paragraph connects its ideas clearly, indicating the relationship
between the sentences in a paragraph and between one paragraph and
the next.
 The 7 Cs of Professional Writing

The 7 C’s are simply seven words that begin with C that characterize strong professional style.
Applying the 7 C’s of professional communication will result in writing that is

 Clear
 Coherent
 Concise
 Concrete
 Correct
 Complete
 Courteous.

CLEAR writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it because often a lack of
clarity comes from unclear thinking or poor planning; this, unfortunately, leads to confused or
annoyed readers. Clear writing conveys the purpose of the document immediately to the reader;
it matches vocabulary to the audience, avoiding jargon and unnecessary technical or obscure
language while at the same time being precise. In clarifying your ideas, ensure that each sentence
conveys one idea, and that each paragraph thoroughly develops one unified concept.

COHERENT writing ensures that the reader can easily follow your ideas and your train of
thought. One idea should lead logically into the next through the use of transitional words and
phrases, structural markers, planned repetition, sentences with clear subjects, headings that are
clear, and effective and parallel lists. Writing that lacks coherence often sounds “choppy” and
ideas seem disconnected or incomplete. Coherently connecting ideas is like building bridges
between islands of thought so the reader can easily move from one idea to the next.

CONCISE writing uses the least words possible to convey the most meaning while still
maintaining clarity. Avoid unnecessary padding, awkward phrasing, overuse of “to be” forms (is,
are, was, were, am, be, being), long preposition strings, vagueness, unnecessary repetition and
redundancy. Use active verbs whenever possible, and take the time to choose a single word
rather than a long phrase or cliched expression. Think of your word count like a budget; be cost
effective by making sure every word you choose does effective work for you. Cut a word, save a
buck! As William Zinsser asserts, “the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its
cleanest components.”[1]

CONCRETE writing involves using specific, precise language to paint a picture for your readers
so that they can more easily understand your ideas. If you have to explain an abstract concept or
idea, try to use examples, analogies, and precise language to illustrate it. Use measurable
descriptors whenever possible; avoid vague terms like “big” or “good.” Try to get your readers to
“see” your ideas by using specific terms and descriptions.
 CORRECT writing uses standard English punctuation, sentence structure, usage, and grammar.
Being correct also means providing accurate information, as well as using the right document
type and form for the task.

COMPLETE writing includes all requested information and answers all relevant questions. The
more concrete and specific you are, the more likely your document will be complete as well.
Review your checklist of specifications before submitting your document to its intended reader.

COURTEOUS writing entails designing a reader-friendly, easy-to-read document; using tactful

language and appropriate modes of addressing the audience; and avoiding potentially offensive
terminology, usage, and tone. As we have discussed in an early section, without courtesy you
cannot be constructive.

 In some cases, some of these might come into conflict: what if being too concise
results in a tone that sounds terse, or an idea that seems incomplete? HENCE,
PRIORTISE AS BELOW:

1. Clear: Plan ahead! Know your purpose and convey your ideas in a unified manner.
2. Coherent: Organize your thoughts in a logical, structured progression.
3. Concise: Budget your words wisely; ensure your writing contains only what’s
necessary.
4. Concrete: Use specific and precise language, use measurable descriptors and avoid
vague language.
5. Correct: Adhere to proper grammar, punctuation, and document structure.
6. Complete: Give all the important information and answer all relevant questions.
7. Courteous: Format so that the document is easy to read. Use appropriate and tactful
language.

Be mindful of the tradeoffs, and always give priority to being clear: writing
that lacks clarity cannot be understood and therefore cannot achieve its
purpose. Writing that adheres to the 7 C’s helps to establish
your credibility as a technical professional.