SCIENCE CHINA

Earth Sciences
•NEWS FOCUS• October 2023 Vol.66 No.10: 2386–2390
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-023-1170-y

Water: The lifeblood of the Earth-human system revealed in

elemental correlations
1* 2 3 4
Zimeng WANG , Yongsheng LIU , Anhuai LU & Yanxin WANG
1
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China;
2
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences,
Wuhan 430074, China;
3
Beijing Key Laboratory of Mineral Environmental Function, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
4
MOE Key Laboratory of Groundwater Quality and Health, State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Source Apportionment and
Control of Aquatic Pollution, School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China

Received June 25, 2023; revised August 10, 2023; accepted August 21, 2023; published online September 19, 2023

Citation: Wang Z, Liu Y, Lu A, Wang Y. 2023. Water: The lifeblood of the Earth-human system revealed in elemental correlations. Science China Earth
Sciences, 66(10): 2386–2390, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-023-1170-y

1. Elements and human history 2. Elemental correlations across Earth spheres

The rich chemistry of Earth’s elements played an inherent and
multifaceted role in shaping the course of human history.
Generally, the more inert an element is, the simpler it becomes
to extract it from minerals, facilitating its use in the crafting of
tools, devices, and weapons. During the Bronze Age, the use
of copper, despite its limited hardness and scarcity, was pre-
valent. However, the advent of the Iron Age brought the su-
perior hardness and abundance of iron into play, transforming
large-scale agricultural and warfare applications. Subse-
quently, in the Machine Age, electrolysis enabled the ex-
traction of aluminum, an even more abundant element. The
superior properties of aluminum have since been instrumental
in revolutionizing transportation and fueling globalization.
Driven by the increasing abundances of metals in the Earth’s
crust, the captivating historical transitions from the Bronze
Age to the Iron Age and ultimately the Alumina (Machine)
Age were influenced by their escalating reactivities towards a
significant constituent: “water” (hydrogen ions). This in-
tricate relationship between metal availability and their pro-
pensity to interact with “water” shaped the trajectory of
progress throughout these distinct epochs.
* Corresponding author (email: zimengw@fudan.edu.cn)
An intuitive angle to understand the Earth-human system is
through its average elemental concentrations in various
media of this planet. Massive datasets of elemental con-
centrations that have been documented for samples of rocks,
natural water, and organisms have allowed for the estimation
of average abundance (Emsley, 2011). Informed by tox-
icological data, Environmental Protection Agencies enforce
standards (e.g., maximum contamination levels, MCL) for
various elements in drinking water. We compiled the data to
obtain statistically meaningful average concentrations of
elements in the lithosphere (crust and soil), hydrosphere
(seawater and river (Gaillardet et al., 2003)), human organ-
isms (blood and whole body), and society (drinking water
MCL). We then plotted the logarithmic average concentra-
tions of each element and obtained 21 correlations (Figure
1). While it is no surprise that all of these elemental con-
centrations are positively correlated, the noticeable differ-
ences in their degree of correlations provide intriguing
information and a unique overarching angle to envision how
the Earth works.
The elemental correlations within each sphere are more
distinct than the correlations between spheres. For instance,
the crust (seawater, body) correlates better with soil (river,

© Science China Press 2023 earth.scichina.com link.springer.com

 Wang Z, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2023) Vol.66 No.10 2387

Figure 1 Correlation-Clustering heatmap of the elemental concentrations in different components of the earth-human system. Both axes represent con-
centrations in mg/kg, expressed as logarithmic values. The shaded area of the linear regression lines indicates 95% confidence interval. Color blocks represent
the value of the correlation coefficient (Pearson, data based on log- standardization). Histograms of diagonal indicate that data follows a normal distribution.
Dots of blue, red, orange, green, purple represent outliers of different elements. The annotated values in cluster analysis are Euclidean distances. Data for the
crust, soil, seawater, body, and blood primarily originates from the book (Emsley, 2011). In instances where average concentrations are reported as ranges,
logarithmic medians are used for plotting. River data primarily comes from (Gaillardet et al., 2003), while MCL values are largely established by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). In cases lacking federal values, state MCL or maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) values are
employed. Detailed values and sources are available as Appendix Table S1 (https://link.springer.com).

blood) than with any other medium, and vice versa. The
lithosphere is the primary source of all-natural elements,
providing the building blocks and nutrients for living or-
ganisms. However, the migration, accumulation, and turn-
over of elements in other media are governed by complex
physical, chemical, and biological processes. As depicted in
Figure 1, the correlations of lithospheric elements with other
media return the lowest group of regression coefficients,
particularly for soil (pedosphere), which is the living and
most elusive skin of the Earth. The water-rock interactions
reflected in the periodic table, as seen by the correlation
between crust/soil and seawater/river, show mediocre re-
gression coefficients, highlighting many scattered data
points for reactive elements with distinct aqueous mobility,
falling apart from the linear regime outlined by the rare earth
elements.
3. Elemental connections between living and
non-living systems
In the early 1970s, new analytical technologies emerged that
allowed scientists to measure the levels of multiple elements
in various environmental and biological samples. This led to
a convergence between the fields of medicine and geoscience
(namely, medical geology) (Thornton, 1993). The seminal
2388 Wang Z, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2023) Vol.66 No.10

research revealed similarities in the abundance curves of

elements present in rocks, seawater, and blood, suggesting
that there are close connections between living and non-
living systems (Hamilton et al., 1973; Hamilton, 1974). This
seminal finding unveiled a simplistic truth that humanity is
not a supernatural or unique entity. Instead, humans are a
product of the evolution of Earth’s crustal materials, and our
survival is tied to the continual metabolic exchange of these
materials (Liu and Li, 1977). Our analysis of this data (with
additional updates and quantitative regression analysis) re-
inforced these connections, showing that the correlation
between the composition of blood and the human body and
the levels of elements in soil, crust, river, and seawater be-
comes increasingly stronger in that order. The “outliers” in
this data, such as phosphorus, iron, and sulfur, are caused by
the nonproportional composition of these elements in the
building blocks of the human body, such as bone, tissue, and
blood cells (proteins). Despite its anomalous behaviors in the Figure 2 Correlation between average elemental concentrations of rivers
correlations with crust and soil, chlorine, acting as a proxy and drinking water maximum concentration levels (USEPA). Note that
for salinity, demonstrates a robust correlation between blood TDS and DOC data, as special cases, were not included in the regression,
and were not shown in Figure 1.
(body) and waters, illustrating that “blood can be thought of
as our private ocean”. This uniformity in the overall material
composition between the human body and the Earth provides
a fundamental theory for unraveling the mysteries of en- currently, another evolutionary branch was exploring the
vironmental health. possibility of a cartilaginous structure, leading to the pre-
cursors of today’s sharks and rays. Recent breakthroughs
(Zhu et al., 2022) identified that the crucial evolutionary
4. Hydrosphere as the central nexus development that occurred over four hundred million years
ago was the advent of jaws. Water was once the cradle of life
Correlations between elements in the hydrosphere and other on Earth. Interestingly, the average composition of natural
media show higher regression coefficients compared to other water invisibly provides a simple but quite robust baseline
correlations (Figure 1), emphasizing how water, as the most for setting the health standards for human drinking water
dynamic geological force, serves as a central hub linking the (Figure 2).
lithosphere and human organisms. But how do the con-
centrations of these elements in different geospheres relate to
societal concerns? The quality of drinking water is arguably 5. Water quality standards surrounding a
the most important and direct public health issue throughout baseline
human history. The final dataset for the periodic table of
elements (Table S1) is related to their toxicities, as reflected Toxicology provides the initial basis for government agen-
by the MCL for drinking water. Bioavailability and toxicity cies to set regulations for each element, but the actually
depend on the detailed speciation of the elements, rather than enforced MCL and maximum contaminant level goal
on their total concentrations. However, for pragmatic rea- (MCLG) are more complex reflections of the socio-eco-
sons, MCLs regulate the total concentrations for most ele- nomic and technological circumstances and may vary with
ments, except in cases where regulations are proposed for time and regions. Despite the high degree of correlation
specific speciation/valence that pose dramatically higher between river concentration and MCL, there are interesting
hazards (e.g., arsenite, chromate, methyl-mercury). In- scientific and engineering stories behind the several outliers
tuitively, those elements that are enriched in the environment apart from the regression line (Figure 2). While Fe and Mn
are more likely to be organism-friendly and less toxic to are less concerning toxins in drinking water, they are regu-
humans. In our analysis, the best correlation with MCL was lated more stringently (below the regression baseline) be-
also obtained with river water concentrations (Figure 2). cause their precipitated oxides cause aesthetic issues with
Interestingly, humans are seen as a specific form of advanced water (Sain and Dietrich, 2014). As micronutrients with wide
bony fish. Our ancient ancestors once swam in the oceans, safety margins, Zn and Cu are more loosely regulated, not
having successfully developed a bony skeleton. Con- just because we are comfortable with taking in a bit of them
 Wang Z, et al. Sci China Earth Sci
from drinking water (actually, we take in even more from
food). They are inevitable corrosion products from drinking
water distribution systems. The MCL of F was particularly
higher than the regression baseline, and the story behind is
one of public health’s greatest successes, community water
fluoridation to protect dental health. Nevertheless, recent
research about fluoride exposure in pregnancy provides
evolving evidence to inspire scientists and health authorities
to re-evaluate the safety claims, potentially narrowing the
gap between the MCL to the regression line (Till and Green,
2021). The endemic diseases caused by excessive fluoride
exposure are another story of medical geology. The MCL
typically exhibits a higher tolerance for total dissolved solids
(TDS), predominantly salts. This tolerance is particularly
noticeable in situations where drinking water is sourced from
groundwater, inevitably containing some TDS. In contrast, a
stricter standard is applied to dissolved organic carbon
(DOC), given its potential to harbor unforeseen emerging
contaminants and to serve as a growth medium for patho-
gens. This discrepancy in tolerances can also be perceived
from a risk-control perspective.
6. River/water health links to planetary health
Through a simple correlation analysis across different
spheres of the ecosystem, we can gain a clear view of water
(the hydrosphere) as the central hub of the earth-human-
society nexus. In particular, river networks represent the
large biogeochemical nexus between continents, ocean and
atmosphere, and global change may affect river ecosystem
metabolism and elemental (e.g., carbon) fluxes (Battin et al.,
2023). While we may not notice any change when con-
centrations are plotted on a logarithmic scale, recent decades
have shown clear trends of increasing solute concentrations
in large rivers worldwide. These increases have led to var-
ious “river syndromes” concentrated in specific latitude
zones (around 30°–50°N and 30°–40°S), where anthro-
pogenic disturbances such as rapid urbanization and agri-
cultural irrigation have accelerated severe rock weathering
(Wu et al., 2021). Calcium levels in many areas of Europe
and eastern North America are also declining to critically
low levels for the aquatic food web, which is a paradoxical
outcome of successful acid deposition remediation (Wey-
henmeyer et al., 2019). The global climate change is ex-
pected to accelerate the delivery of terrestrial carbon and
river CO2 emission due to elevated precipitation and higher
runoff for those regions with wetter climate, such as in high
latitude and alpine regions (Liu et al., 2022). Nevertheless,
the extensive damming (massive conversion of free-flowing
rivers to reservoirs) and intensive land-use change (wide-
spread implementation of reforestation programs) resulted in
an unexpected decrease in CO2 emission from Chinese in-
October (2023) Vol.66 No.10 2389
land waters (Ran et al., 2021). In the Anthropocene, even a
slight shift in the logarithmic concentration of a solute ele-
ment on our plots can have catastrophic effects on the health
of the aquatic ecosystem. Despite being widely separated on
the periodic table and abundance chart, the fates and bio-
geochemical cycles of many elements are intertwined in the
earth system, which can ultimately impair human health. The
human blood circulatory system is vital for maintaining body
temperature, regulating acid-base balance, managing elec-
trolyte levels, and supporting the functioning of the immune
system. Similarly, the intricate network of massive river
systems and the global water cycle play a crucial role in
sustaining the overall ecological balance and health of our
planet.
The ancient text Guanzi·Shuidi, dating back to the Spring
and Autumn period (over 2700 years ago), explicitly states,
“The Earth is the origin of all things and the root of life;
water is the blood of the Earth, flowing like qi in the mer-
idians”. In the Pangu mythology that has been circulated
since the East Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period
(over 1800 years ago), after Pangu split heaven and earth, his
body transformed into various landscapes, among which
rivers originated from his blood vessels. During Renaissance
(over 500 years ago), Leonardo da Vinci was captivated by
water and famously referred to it as ‘vetturale della natura’,
or the driving force of all nature. He perceived river networks
as a distinct circulatory system that carried the “blood of the
Earth.” A century ago, Vladimir Vernadsky, now celebrated
as one of the pioneers of Earth system science (Steffen et al.,
2020), proposed the concept of our planet as a “water en-
velope,” encapsulating it as the biosphere. Today, our ele-
mental correlation analysis across various Earth spheres
provides an intuitive but thought-provoking clue to the
central connecting role of water in sustaining the harmony,
health and habitability of our planet, and emphasizes the
important role of water science in multidisciplinary research
in environmental geology, planetary health and earth system
science.
Acknowledgements The perspective outlined in this paper first
emerged at the Health Geoscience Strategic Symposium in Wuhan, March
2021, sponsored by the Division of Earth Sciences, the Chinese Academy of
Sciences and the National Natural Science Foundation of China. Zimeng
WANG received support from a Cyrus Tang Faculty Fellowship. Discussions
with Profs. Yong-Guan ZHU, Xinbin FENG, Peng GONG, and Satish MY-
NENI (Princeton University, USA) provided valuable insights. Doctoral
student Xiangmei ZHAI at Fudan University helped with literature search
and preparation of the figures. Two anonymous reviewers provided valuable
suggestions to improve the clarify and readability of this paper. This work
was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 42020104005) and the Disciplinary Development Strategy Research
Project of the Division of Earth Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences
(Grant No. XK2020DXA004).
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
2390 Wang Z, et al. Sci China Earth Sci
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