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Frames of References: Art Museums as Unique Visual Media

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FRAMES OF REFERENCES
– ART MUSEUMS AS UNIQUE VISUAL MEDIA
Aneta Hristova; Meri Batakoja
Saints Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje, Macedonia
Abstract: The age old activity of collecting arts is not
intrinsically dependent on the art museum as separate
architectural type. How was the art museum as an
independent structure conceptualized and why? What
was the idea behind that concept? Was it created as a
medium consciously and what kind of messages was it
supposed to deliver? What kind of unique “textual”
overlaps the various disciplines of archaeology, art
history, politics, literature, science and architecture
created in order to produce what we today recognize as
art museum space? This study focuses on the crucial
historical moments of the late 17th century when such
questions were posed for the first time within the
classical discourse of the French architectural theory
which followed the consolidation of French absolutism
and the foundation of the Royal academies of arts and
sciences, until the mid 19th century when the answers to
those questions were finally exemplified in built
architecture. The study gives a comprehensive overview
of the cultural context art museums as public
institutions emerged from and became new spatial
models for collective cultivation.
Keywords: architectural theory, public buildings, art
museum, media, referential frame, modernism, typology
53
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
UDC 316.774:069
I. INTRODUCTION
Despite the broad frame of interfering social and
political references of the awakened, hedonistic 16 th
century society being far more comprehensive than
the architectural one, it is in the very course of the 16 th
and 17th century classical architectural theory where
we can find the emerging awareness of its potential as
a powerful, self-conscious media for artistic
representation. Within the general theoretical dispute,
the emergence of art museum as architectural type is
one of the most stratified one. Its long formative
history represents a dense cobweb of intertwined
significances: the politics in the court of Louis XIV for
the setting of museum’s institutional frame; the way
the musaeum was etymologically and philosophically
constructed as classical ideal in the 17 th and 18th
century studies and encyclopedias; the way it was
transposed in the architectural theory as architectural
episode of the Querell des Anciens et Modernes; the way
it was imagined and interpreted throughout the
multiply architectural competitions organized by the
Acadèmie in the period between 1770s-1790s; the way
all those efforts diminished both in the final
КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015
conversion of the Louvre Palace as the first public
musée in 1793 and in the architecture of every new
public art museum in the 19th century Western World.
II. THE POLITICAL BEHIND THE CLASSICAL AND VICE VERSA
A. The Foundation of the Royal Normative Classical
Style in the 17th Century French Architectural Theory
The transposition of the classical legacy from the
Italian to the French art theory in the 16th century and
the course of the French architectural theory towards
the classical synthesis in the 17th century stood firmly
on the political and ideological platform of the French
Absolutism, reaching its peak in the reign of Louis XIV.
Whereas in the 16th century in Italy the academies
were associations of independent artists free to make
their own status and select their members, in France
the foundation of the visual arts academies was
programmed by the state authorities (Richelieu,
Colbert) and prescribed, commissioned and carried
out by the King. The Enlightenment and the
centralized Absolutism formed, as H. V. Kruft states
“an unholy alliance”1 in the creation of these
institutions, thus conducting the course of the 17 th
century Royal Academy of Architecture (Acadèmie
Royal d’Architecture, 1671), which “ruled over the
architects, students, contractors, royal buildings,
provinces, towns” and became “a mighty instrument in
the service of the central power”.2
The task of the Acadѐmie consisted of the passing
of resolutions, which were eventually to be
incorporated into a normative architectural aesthetics
and ultimately in the establishment of a “national”
French order (idea initiated by Philibert Delorme). 3 At
the beginning, the principles on which the Acadѐmie’s
54
discussions were based derived from philosophy and
the natural sciences, and were not specific to
architecture: in the spirit of Descartes’ rationalist
philosophy, the basic principle of all discussion was
raison, with an absolute belief in the authority of
Antiquity. Mathematics played a key role in achieving
certitude, while geometry was the basic instrument of
all beauty.
At first, architectural theory in the Acadèmie
followed the literary theory (Boileau, La Bruyѐre)
holding the belief that greatness and perfection could
be achieved only by imitating Antiquity, which implied
reading aloud of Vitruvius and Renaissance authors:
Palladio, Scamozzi, Vignola, Serlio, Alberti, Viola,
Cataneo. The basic positions of the Acadèmie of beautѐ
universelle were prescribed and processed in a
standard form, although the Acadèmie simultaneously
traced its autonomous discourse on the task of bon
goût opposing the ideals of the enlightened liberalism
to the royal normative rationalism personified as the
“Blondel – Perrault” conflict.4
Completing the difficult task to make a new revised
translation of Vitruvius, the latter got the chance to
present his own body of theory in which he attacked
the eternal classical principles, specifically the concept
of proportion, giving a way to a more empirical
method of achieving beautѐ that introduced usage as
an aesthetic premise. It was, among symmetry and
proportion, accepted by his successors at the
Acadèmie who claimed that “when building, it is no
less important to dispose the rooms skillfully than it is
to adorn the facades finely”5 (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1 Claude Perrault. Ordonnance for the five kinds of
columns after the method of the Ancients, 1683 39
Focusing on the aspect of Vitruvian dispositio
rather than the aesthetic tasks of architecture, the late
17th century French theorists made space distribution
the substantial architectural concept and an
instrument of the further programmatic classification
of building types.
B. The Relativist Architectural Aesthetics and the
Concept of “Architecture Parlante” in the Late 18 th
Century French Architectural Theory
In accordance to its task, at the first half of the 18th
century the Acadèmie Royal d’Architecture proceeded
with the theoretical debates advocating the primacy of
taste over function and vice versa, which accentuated
the importance of the relationship between the basic
aesthetic concept and the utility value of the building,
while abolishing the notion of normative architectural
doctrine. After the Acadèmie approved the definitions
55
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
of the four fundamental concepts that defined the
quality of the architecture work: bon goût, ordonnance,
proportion and convenance, owe to its respectful
member Germain Boffrand (1667-1754), another
concept was systematically introduced in architectural
theory – that of caractѐre. Caractѐre revoke the
Vitruvian concept of decor, concerning the
appropriateness of form and content, i.e. the
attribution of specific quality to the function or to the
occupant of the building. With the concept of caractère
Boffrand redefined the role of the aesthetics now
focusing on the effect derived from visual rhetoric
which traced the course of the “Revolutionary
architecture” and the so called architecture parlante.
His treatise earned thematic elaboration with
Jacques - Francois Blondel, who assigned particular
caractѐres to particular types of building, giving the
highest character sublimitè to important public
buildings. He also extended the notion of character as
an expression of function to the overarching idea of
style as an expression of effect, which he maintained
to have autonomous cultural background recognizable
as a “true architecture”.
During the mid 18th century alongside a
reorientation towards a normative classical style
emerged a Rousseau-ist school of thought which
derived every architectural tenet directly from the
rationally justifiable archetypes, with Marc Antoin
Laugier being the principle herald. He declared that all
architectural rules should derive from Nature and all
architectural processes were imitations of processes
of nature, exemplified by the primitive hut as the
origin of all the possible forms of architecture. (Fig. 2)
КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

to their extreme with logical vigor.6 Etienne Louis

Fig. 2 Marc-Antoine Laugier, Frontispiece to Essay on
Architecture (Essai sur L’Architecture) ,1753 36
Boullѐe (1728-99) was the first to imply the visual
effects of the solid geometrical bodies into a series of
“poetic” images which he comprehended in an
imaginary architectural museum, showing the
rhetorical power of the architectural drawings: “In
time, one would have a museum of architecture
containing all that could be expected of the art from
those cultivating it”.7 Boullѐe’s desire towards
monumentality, both in size and appearance, best
illustrated at his monument to Newton, ultimately led
his ideas to pure abstraction and his search for
character de grandeur to symbolism of the sublimity
of the divine bond between Architecture and Nature.
(Fig. 3)

For Laugier, the primitive hut embodied all

structural logic and regarded the Orders not as
ornamental features but as constituent parts of a
building, thus overcoming the dichotomy between
structure and applied ornament. In his proposition
that truth of architecture (architecture vraie) lies in its
structural logic, Laugier is considered the founder of
the new concept of functionalism, superseding the 17th
century concept of usage (function understood in
terms of use) and the initiator of the proceeding 19th
and 20th century debate about functionalism.
From the beginning of the 18th century onwards
the idea of the “Revolutionary architecture” arose Fig. 3 Étienne-Louis Boullée, Newton Memorial (Cénotaphe
among the royalist progressive circles. Contrary to the de Newton), 1784 24
common misunderstanding of this movement as a
break with tradition and being direct precedent of the This tendency towards reduction of architecture to
modern architecture, these ideas were not expression basic geometric forms proceeded with Claude –
of the political upheaval of the French revolution of Nicolas Ledoux (1736-1806), who, as Boullѐe before
1789, but a rigorous desire to push the existing ideas him, questioned or more precisely, disregarded

56

function in the sense of the practical value of
architecture in favor of its symbolic, i.e. semantic
content. Around 1800 he developed his own concept
of architecture parlante based on a system of
“descriptive” and “eloquent” architectural designs
covering all architectural tasks according to a
proposed “social order”. His unique radical
formulation of architecture as an instrument of moral
purification of the society, as shown in his project of a
complex ideal salt-producing town of Chaux changed
the concept of caractѐre as a means of expression to an
educational tool. (Fig. 4)
Fig. 4 Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-
Senans (Salines de Chaux), 1775 - 1778 33
Both Ledoux and Boullѐe employed terms from
Classical architecture, giving them a personal content
due to their own views of architecture where
proportion practically disappeared as an aesthetic
concept and the caractère took precedence over usage.
Although the architectural discourse of the Acadèmie
Royal d’Architecture varied significantly, the
57
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
enthusiasm for the Classical heritage remained
constant all throughout the 18th century.
C. Towards the New Age – The 19th Century
Forerunners of Functionalism
The architectural theory at the beginning of the
19th century in France was driven by the academy stuff
of the two newly founded institutions: École des
Beaux-Arts8 and École Polytechnique9 in Paris, both
considered adherents of the Modern movement of the
20th century. Owe to Louis – Ambroise Dubut (1760-
1846), one of the winners of the Grand Prix
competitions,10 and his treatise “Architecture civile”,
Ledoux’s criteria of architecture parlante were
revisited and redefined as “la disposition, la salubritè et
l’ѐconomie”, all together under the concept of “utilitѐ”,
which was a remarkable departure from
Revolutionary architecture. Employing another
Vitruvian concept, that of distribution (oeceonomia),
Dubut traced the course of architecture towards the
radical simplifying schematism worked out by Jean-
Nicolas-Louis Durand (1760-1834) attributed mostly
to the fact that the latter studied and was a teacher
afterwards at the engineering school École
Polytechnique.
Being a winner of the Grand Prix prizes twice,
Durand was still under the neo-classicist influence
when he published his “Prècis des leçons d’architecture”
(1802). Revealing his break with the Vitruvian
tradition, the theory of mimesis and Laugier’s theory
of the primitive hut, Durand pronounced a radical
concept of architecture reduced to two principles, that
of convenance (propriety) embracing the concepts of
soliditè, salubritѐ and commoditè and the concept of
ѐconomie (economy) embracing symetrie, regularite
КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015
(retaining the Classical orders in their generic sense)
and simplicitѐ (deriving from the neo-classicism). He
considered the square and the right angle the basic
forms of all architecture (and the formal basis of town-
planning).
Durand’s dominating criterion for architecture was
however disposition which led him to the full
dedication to functionalism. Durand’s rationalist
principles gained codification into a systematic theory
of architectural composition based on a grid system of
horizontals and verticals generating infinite number of
combinations of plans and elevations in terms of
volumes according to the requirements of disposition.
(Fig. 5)
Fig. 5 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Lectures on Architecture
(Précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'École
Polytechnique) ,180227
Launching his catalogue of unlimited combination
of architectural features, Durand was recognized as
the forerunner of the standardization enabling
prefabricated construction, which was practically
implemented afterwards by Joseph Paxton at his
Crystal Palace of 1851.
58
Further abolition of Classical norms is seen in the
work of Henri Labrouste and Eugenѐ-Emmanuel
Viollet-le Duc (1814-79), the latter being the
protagonist of the Gothic revival as a French national
style, who defined architecture as purely and simply a
product of the building process thus opening the
prospect of a new architecture based on functional,
national and social premises. Auguste Choisy (1841-
1909) and Julien Guadet (1834-1908) were the last
representatives of the French classical architectural
theory, who despite being stylistically eclectic,
exhibited a number of progressive features tracing the
path to the 20th century Modern movement.11
III. FRENCH MUSEUM PROTOTYPES
A. Musaeum of Alexandria as the Ultimate but the
Impossible Classical Ideal
As juxtaposed to this development of architectural
thought, the museum as a possible new architectural
type conceptualized exactly in the 17th century French
circles, followed (curiously) the same departures of
architectural thought adopting and testing the new
qualitative categories, from the imaginative
meditations over the Musaeum of Alexandria as an
ultimate classical ideal towards the rationalized
“modernist” museum scheme of Durand.
The scholarly interest for Musaeum of Alexandria
in France was present as early as in the beginning of
17th century. Its history was reconstructed through
various academic efforts12 and until the mid 18th
century a credible but not completely reliable historic
construct was formed. However, this singular classical
model that could be looked upon to was deprived of
any physical existence. There was not any primary

documentation about it and its location within
Alexandria remained only a subject of speculation.
This confronted the classical thought on its most
primary level because anything known about the
single classical model in museum context was of
programmatic origin and there was nothing known
about its form.
The Alexandrian Project was believed to be
conceptualized as a combination of Plato’s Academy
and Aristotle’s School in the Lyceum of Athens.13
Plato’s Academy (Academia) was part of an open
space, a public garden in the suburb of Athens,
surrounded with a wall and adorned with temples,
statues and sepulchers of important men.14 It
represented informal gathering of chosen community
discussing among the olive trees under the guidance of
Plato. According to Plato, the knowledge acquired oral
tradition and not books. His peripatetic “dialogues”,
from the word peripatetikos meaning the act of
walking, favored walking and talking over the sitting
and studying. That is why Young Lee lucidly concludes
that we can understand Plato’s Academia in
architectural terms as combining principles of
gymnasium and musaeum, the first being dedicated to
the exercise of body, the second to the exercise of
soul.15
The same spatial structure is present in the
concept of Aristotle’s Lyceum of Athens. Consisted of
common architectural elements of a Greek Palaestra16
we find the novelties of the Aristotle’s Lyceum in the
incorporation and importance of a sanctuary
dedicated to the Muses and a library established by
Aristotle himself.17 The Library didn’t consist of
collection of manuscripts only, but consisted of at least
collections of arts and of natural sciences. It is a well
59
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
known fact that Alexander the Great didn’t forget his
tutor, lavishly sponsored the Aristotle’s school
financially and provided rare plants and animals from
distant lands for Aristotle’s growing private collection.
That’s how Aristotle established a rich botanical
garden and a form of zoo for the needs of his research
and teaching.18 With all said, we can conclude that
regardless of the existing structures of the “old
Lyceum”, Aristotle needed a combination of academy
(study and lecturing halls), museum (temple dedicated
to the Muses) and library (for various collections). It
sounds like comprehensive and self-sufficient
educational and research facility of encyclopaedic
program.
The ancient historical knowledge about the
Musaeum, however, didn’t provide any stable formal
reference, but at least provided an extensive inventory
of ancient words signifying various architectural
spaces as fractured from the whole. The French
Musaeum was only comprised as a knowledgeable
“building of words:” exedra, oecus, xystus, peripatoi ...
These fractured spaces began to finally synthesize
in the period of 1770-1790 when many architectural
competitions for museum design in the Academies
were launched as a possible realization of the
theoretical museum project.
B. The Grand Prix Museums and Boulée’s Museum of
the Sublime
The architectural programme for the muséum,
subject of the architectural competition for Grand Prix
de Rome of 1779 was consisted of:
“A garden intended for the culture of foreign plants
or as a public walk. The sciences depository will
include a library, a cabinet of medals and several
КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015

rooms for maps (géographie) and prints. That of the

arts will include rooms and galleries for painting,
sculpture, and architecture. That of natural history will
include rooms for collections of anatomy, injections,
conservation of animals, plants, and shells: a
communal salon will be placed in the plan, preceded
by a room, vestibule, and large stairwell. The
construction of this building will be in masonry and
vaults without any woodwork. This project will not
have an assembly room intended for different
academies. It will be carried out on the principal floor,
and in the sequence of each of the parts of the museum,
in closed rooms (cabinets) for persons destined for
public service, and for the study of scientists and
amateurs. All the rooms and cabinets of the muséum Fig. 6 Gisors, Projects for a Museum, First prize award for the
will be placed on different floors elevated above the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture, 1779 40
ground level, destined to be occupied by a printing
press, several laboratories, depositories, and other
objects of indispensable service. The lodgings of the
director and the intendant will be formed in a part of
the major floor, and the disposition (of the plan) need
not be concerned with the symmetry of the exterior
decoration or the ease of movement (commodité)
within the building. Students will take up a single level
in the main floor and might expect individual lodgings
in the mezzanine.”19
Helen Rosenau, presenting the first and second
place winners of the same 1779 competition, Gisors
(pupil of Boulée) and Lannoy (pupil of Antoine),
respectively, also confirms the comprehensive
architectural program consisted of botanical garden
and a library, a cabinet for medals, rooms for housing
geographical exhibits and engravings, as well as halls
Fig. 7 Lannoy, Projects for a Museum, Second prize award
for the display of the arts and natural history.20 (Fig. 6) for the Grands Prix of the French Academy of Architecture,
(Fig. 7) 1779 40

60

The winning projects both represent typologically
hybridized form. We can recognize in them the ideal
musaeum consisted of school, temple and library as
unified program and typological crossover,
recognizing the Rotunda, the circular temple
associated with the Temple of the Muses, the cross, as
a kind of rudimentary panoptical device and the ring
associated with the palaestra that can be multiplied
several times providing variable and greater capacity
for realization of the ambitious scholarly programme
of the Academies and the Library.
We cannot skip the possible and probable link of
these winning projects to Boullée’s passionate
preferences towards the architecture that can stay
innocent of utility, for which monuments of public
gratitude, the architectural group museums belong to,
are especially illustrative. Boullée’s theory and his
greatest strivings from the “Architecture, Essay on Art,”
are maybe best exemplified through his own “Project
for a Museum at the Center of Which is a Temple of
Fame Containing the Statues of Great Man” from 1783.
Fig. 8 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum, 178334
61
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
The whole of his museum project is produced by
the regularity and symmetry imposed by the quincunx,
pattern which Boullée recommended for the
regulation of the “immensity” of the scale to be fully
developed as an overall effect in temples.21 (Fig. 8)
He used colonnades as an ingenious technique to
achieve this effect of succession in a way to fully
develop the overall effect of immensity. He even
emphasized the “scale” by lowering the entrance level
and providing gradient ascent towards the centre of
the quincunx or where the Temple of Fame was
positioned. In his “Reflections on Architecture in
Particular” Boullée praises the interior vaulting of a
dome that architecture has prepared for painting and
sculpture to bring out all their beauty.
The effect of the immensity and the effect of the
perfect rendering of light within the dome created this
museum’s character of the sublime. (Fig. 9)
Fig. 9 Étienne-Louis Boullée , Project for a Museum,
Interior view, looking toward the Temple to Fame, 178334
КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015
C. Durand and the Birth of the Art Museum as
Functionally Determined “Modernist” Type
In 1802, in Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’s “Précis des
leçons d'architecture” (Lectures on Architecture),
among various functional types, there was also a
museum project that was specialized in exhibiting art
with repositories intended for separate exhibition of
painting, sculpture and architecture and enriched only
with artists’ studios.
Fig. 10 Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, Project for a Museum,
180229
Durand’s museum composition is consisted of
separate elements (galleries) dedicated to separate
groups of art works: architecture, painting and
sculpture. Durand explained the museum as a building
in which the connection and maintenance of the
functional links between these elements and the
treasury is basic motive for its existence.22 (Fig. 10)
62
This is quite a dramatic conceptual shift in this
chronological juxtaposition of French (proto)
museums. The museum conceptualized ideally for two
centuries as a laboratory and repository of all the
world knowledge after the single model of Antiquity
was here transformed in a building that exhibited
adequate amount of related material items properly
collected and maintained.
So, somewhere in-between 1783 and 1802, the art
museum as programmatically understood today was
born. This conceptual shift was surely not an
overnight phenomenon. The continual attacks over the
eternal classical principles were continually
rationalizing the architectural thought and Durand’s
functionalist museum scheme can be read as their
logical and expected end-product. The broader
process of modernization of thought embedded the
phenomenon of industrialization leading towards
single-functional edifices, incorporated in the values of
the new École Polytechnique after 1794.
IV. CONCLUSION
This study deconstructs the idea of the art museum
as unique visual media and forms an original
inventory of museum prototypes as juxtaposed to
their conceptual origins.
The condensed demonstration of the otherwise
much longer and steeper path of the successive
transformations of architectural thought in the French
architectural theory from the 17th century peak of the
classical revival through diverse departures of its
normative doctrines, introduced the socio-political
and culturally complex processes the new qualitative
categories were developed in, forming the

architectural autonomous system that would
eventually be embedded into the Modern movement
of the 20th century. The development of this
architectural theory system and its categories is
significant when juxtaposed to the process of
inventing of the museum as an architectural type
because it illustrates how every hesitation and change
of direction of architectural thought were reflected in
the evolution of this single architectural type by
changing the map of references that informed its
conceptual creation. This doesn’t prove the
architectural theory to be the ultimate frame of
reference, but it allows us to peek into its dynamic
nature and the ways the architectural thought is never
firmly established but constantly in the state of
becoming in the wider cultural field. Understanding
architectural theory as a field of continually changing
frames of references allows us to believe that it holds
the power not just historically to acknowledge the
emergence of new architectural types as shown in the
example of the birth of art museum as “modernist”
type in the 19th century, but also to anticipate possible
new types of our century.
ENDNOTES
[1] (H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128)
[2] (Hautecoeur. according to H. V. Kruft, 1994: 128)
[3] In 1671 Colbert announced a competition with a prize of
3.000 livres for the design of a “French” order, which ended
unsuccessfully. Ibid: 129
[4] Both Francois Blondel (1617-86) and Claude Perrault (1613-
88) were appointed professors at the Acadèmie.
[5] Ibid: 138
[6] It was Emil Kaufmann who “discovered” it and named it
“revolutionary architecture” in the 1920s, revealing first the
writings of Ledoux and than of Boullѐe. Ibid: 158
63
FRAMES OF REFERENCES …
[7] From Boullѐe, Considerations (1968: 40) Ibid: 159
[8] École des Beaux – Arts was founded in 1648 by Charles Le
Brun as the Académie de peinture et de sculpture (the famed
French Academy). In 1793, the institutes were suppressed.
However, in 1816, the name was changed when it merged
with the Académie d'architecture.
[9] École Polytechnique was established in 1794 by the
mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French
Revolution and became a military academy under Napoleon
I in 1804.
[10] Louis – Ambroise Dubut won the Grand Prix competition in
1797 with a design for a public granary.
[11] Choisy’s view of the history of architecture reduces it to its
logical structures. He sees stylistic features as merely
expression of the new materials and methods of construction
of the new age, mostly of the iron. His device that a new spirit
demands a new formal language is considered to be the light-
motif of L’Esprit Nouveau, the journal edited by Le Corbusier
and Ozenfant. Ibid: 287
[12] For the full list of academic attempts to recover Musaeum’s
history read in: P.Y. Lee, "The Musaeum of Alexandria and the
Formation of the Museum in Eighteenth-Century France," in
The Art Bulletin (College Art Association) 79, no. 3 (1997):
391.
[13] Demetrious of Phaleron, a student of Theophrastus, the
successor to Aristotle in his school in Athens, was in charge in
the Ptolemy’s book buying programme. It is the only factual
connection to Aristotle’s School mentioned in numerous
written sources on the theme. In Strabo’s description of
Alexandria, the Musaeum is mentioned briefly. His description
contains the common elements of Greek Palaestra type
although assuming a kind of palatial structure.
A. Erskine, "Culture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The
Museum and Library of Alexandria," in Greece & Rome,
Second Series (Cambridge University Press on behalf of The
Classical Association) 42, no. 1 (April 1995): 40. (P.Y. Lee,
1997: 391)
IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer- Reviewed
Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/academy/
[14] (P.Y. Lee, 1998: 419)
[15] Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by
Morris Hicky Morgan, Harvard University Press, 1914: 159-
162.
 КУЛТУРА / CULTURE, 12/ 2015
[16] This existence of the Aristotle’s Lyceum and its physical and
programmatic structure is confirmed by the excavations in
Athens from 1996.
IEP – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (A Peer-
Reviewed Academic Resource) http://www.iep.utm.edu/
lyceum/
[17] F.C. Robb, "Aristotle and Education," in Peabody Journal of
Education (Taylor&Francis) 20, no. 4 (January 1943): 209-
210.
[18] (Young Lee, 1997: 392)
[19] (Roseau, 1960: 23)
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