NUMBERTHEORY

ELEMENTARY
ANDMETHODSOFPROOF

The underlying content of this chapter is likely to be familiar to you. It consistsof

propertiesof integers(whole numbers),rational numbers (integer fractions), and real
numbers. The underlying theme of this chapter is the question of how to determine the
truth or falsity of a mathematicalstatement.
Here is an exampleinvolving a conceptusedfrequentlyin computerscience.Given
any real numberr, the floor of ;r, or greatestintegerin x, denotedixl , is the largestinteger
that is lessthan or equal to x. On the numberline, lxl is the integerimmediatelyto the
left of .rr(or equal to x if ;r is, itself, an integer). Thus 12.31-- 2, 112.99999
) : 12, un6
L- I 5l : -2. Consider the following two questions:

1 . F o ra n y re al numberx,i s l x - l l : [x] - 1?
2. For any real numbersx and y, is lx - .vl : lxl - Lll?
Take a few minutes to try to answer thesequestionsfor yourself.

It turns out that the answerto (1) is yes,whereasthe answerto (2) is no. Are thesethe
answersyou got? lf not, don't worry. In Section3.5 you will learnthe techniquesyou need
to answerthesequestionsand more. If you did get the coffect answers,congratulations!
You have excellent mathematical intuition. Now ask yourself, "How sure am I of my
answers? Were they plausible guessesor absolutecertainties? Was there any difference
in certaintybetweenmy answersto (1) and (2)? Would I havebeenwilling to bet a large
sum of money on the correctnessof my answers?"
One of the best ways to think of a mathematicalproof is as a carefully reasoned
argumentto convincea skepticallistener(often yourself) that a given statementis true.
Imaginethe listenerchallengingyour reasoningevery stepof the way, constantlyasking,
"Why is that so?" If you can countereverypossiblechallenge,thenyour proof as a whole
will be correct.
As an example, imagine proving to someonenot very familiar with mathematical
notationthat if ;r is a numberwith 5r * 3 : 33, thenx : 6. You could argueas follows:
If 5r * 3 : 33, then 5"r * 3 minus 3 will equal 33 - 3 since subtractingthe same
numberfrom two equal quantitiesgives equal results.But 5x * 3 minus 3 equals5-r
becauseadding 3 to 5x and then subtracting3 just leaves5x. Also, 33 - 3 : 30.
Hence 5x : 30. This meansthat x is a number which when multiplied by 5 equals
30. But the only numberwith this propertyis 6. Therefore,x : 6.

t25
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 3.1 Direct
Proof
andCounterexample
l: Introductjon
I27

iel of math- in the statement.Mathematicians define terms very carefully and precisely and consider
i often orru: it important to learn definitions virtually word for word.
:r caneasilx
to err on thi
len eventhi
e) disco\e: An integer z is even if, and only if, n equalstwice someinteger. An integer n is odd
lr requirins if, and only if, n equalstwice some integer plus l
:aknesses ir- Symbolically, if n is an integer, then

t-eor death n is even <+ 3 an integer /<such thatn :2k.

rning a neu z is odd e 3 an integer ft such thatn : Zk + l.
leterminin-s
e$' that the
Lisanalysis. It follows from the definition that if you are doing a problem in which you happen
to know that a certain integer is even, you can deduce that it has the form 2 . (some
J in Section integer). Conversely, if you know in some situation that a particular integer equals
e shouldbe 2 . (some integer), then you can deducethat the integer is even.
sheshould Know a particular n has the form
deduce
r haveever ------->
integer n is even. 2 . (some integer).
rd language
'e complete Know n has the form deduce
2 . lsomeinreger).

Example 3.1.1 Even and Odd Integers

Use the definitions of even andodd to justify your answersto the following questions.

a. Is 0 even?

b. Is -301 odd?

c. If a and b are integers, is 6azb even?

k you have d. If a andb areintegers,is lOa * gb * 1 odd?
ru succeed.
trying will e. Is every integer either even or odd?
ry that the Solution
rd proof is
:antpart of a . Ye s ,0 : 2.0.

b . Y e s ,-301 :2(-151) + l.
re listed in
a n dC , (l ) c . Y e s ,6 a2b:2(3a2b),andsi nce aandbarei ntegers,soi s3azb(bei n gapr oduct of
n addition. integers).
:iplication. d. Yes, lUa -f 8b * | : 2(5a + 4b) 1 l, and since a andb are integers,so is 5a 4b
urse,most I
(being a sum ofproducts ofintegers).
. is not an
e. The answer is yes, although the proof is not obvious. (Try giving a reasonyourself.)
ld integers We will show in Section 3.4 that this fact results from another fact known as the
quotient-remaindertheorem. I

The integer 6, which equals 2 . 3, is a product of two smaller positive integers. on

the other hand, 7 cannot be written as a product of two smaller posiiive integers; its only
t what the positive factors are I and 7. Apositive integer,such as T,thatcannotbe written
as a
that occur product of two smaller positive integers is calledprime.
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 Proof
3.1 Direct andCounterexample I29
l: lntroduction

Anonconstructive proofofexistence involves showing either (a) that the existence

of a value of ,x that makes Q(x) true is guaranteedby an axiom or a previously proved
theorem or (b) that the assumptionthat there is no such x leads to a contradiction. The
disadvantageof a nonconstructiveproof is that it may give virtually no clue about where
or how r may be found. The widespreaduse of digital computersin recentyearshasled to
some dissatisfactionwith this aspectof nonconstructiveproofs and to increasedefforts to
produce constructiveproofs containing directions for computer calculation of the quantity
in question.

DisprovinglJniversalStatementsby Counterexample
To disprove a statementmeansto show that it is false. Considerthe questionof disproving
a statementof the form
Y x i n D ,i f P (x)then Q@ ).

Showing that this statementis false is equivalent to showing that its negation is true. The
negation of the statementis existential:
lx in D such that P (.r) and not QQ) .

But to show that an existential statementis true, we generallygive an example,andbecause

the exampleis usedto show that the original statementis false, we call it a counterexample.
Thus the method of disproof by counterexamplecanbe written as follows:

Disproof by Counterexample

To disprove a statementof the form'oVx e D, if P (x) then Q @)," find a value of r in

D for which P (x) is true and Q (x) is false. Such an x is called a counterexample.

Example3.1.4 Disproof by Counterexample

Disprove the following statementby finding a counterexample:
Vreal numbersaandb,ifaz : b2 thena: b.

Solution To disprovethis statement,you needto find real numbersa andb suchthataz : b2

and a I b. The fact that both positive and negative integers have positive squareshelps
in the search. If you flip through some possibilities in your mind, you will quickly see
that 1 and -1 will work (or 2 and -2, or 0.5 and -0.5, and so forth).
rqe

Statement: V real numbers a and b, if az : bz, then a : b.

Counterexample:Let a: l arrdb: -1. Thenaz : 17 : I andbz : (-l)z : l,
and so a2 : b2. But a f b since| + -L

It is a sign of intelligence to make generalizations. Frequently, after observing a

property to hold in a large number of cases,you may guessthat it holds in all cases.You
may, however, run into difficulty when you try to prove your guess. Perhapsyou just
have not figured out the key to the proof. But perhapsyour guessis false. Consequently,
dLt:
when you are having serious difficulty proving a generalstatement,you should intemrpt
" -i your efforts to look for a counterexample. Analyzing the kinds of problems you are
T encountering in your proof efforts may help in the search. It may even happen that if
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 l: Introduction131
3.1 DirectProofand Counterexample

derstanding Example3.L.6 Generalizing from the Generic Particular

rsion of the
At some time you may have been shown a "mathematical trick" like the following. You
the squares
ask a personto pick any number, add 5, multiply by 4, subtract6, divide by 2, atd subtract
: that if the
twice the original number. Then you astoundthe person by announcing that their final
result was 7. How does this "trick" work? Let x stand for the number the person picks.
Here is what happenswhen the person follows your directions:

r discussing Step Result

n: Pick a number. x

Add 5. xl-5

is form and Multiply by 4. (x+ 5).4:4xI20

rstion. This Subtract 6. (4x * 20)- 6:4x -l 14
t satisfy the 4x+ 14
Divide by 2.
2
Subtracttwice the original number. (2x I7) - 2x :7

Thus no matter what number the person startswith, the result will always be 7. Note that
the r in the analysis above is particular (becauseit representsa single quantity), but it
is also arbitrarily chosen or generic (becauseit can representany number whatsoever).
This illustrates the processof drawing a generalconclusion from a particular but generic
object. I

The point of having r be arbitrarily chosen(or generic) is to make a proof that can be
generalizedto all elementsof the domain. By choosing x arbitrarily, you are making no
I specialassumptionsabout x that are not also true of all other elementsof the domain. The
word generic means "sharing all the common characteristicsof a group or class." Thus
re used. For everything you deduce about a generic element x of the domain is equally true of any
n be written otjrerelementof the domain.
every even When the method of generalizing from the generic particular is applied to a property
sibletask. of the form "If P (x) then Q@) ," the result is the method of direct proof . Recall that the
exhaustion. only way "If P(x) then Q@)" can be false is for P(r) to be true and Q@) to be false.
ircuitry of a Thus to show that "If P(x) then Q@)" is true, supposeP(x) is true and show that Q(x)
computer's must also be true. It follows by the method of generalizing from the generic particular
compute all that to prove a statementof the form "Yx e D, if P(x) then Q@)," you supposex is a
ruld take to particular but arbitrarily chosenelement of D that satisfiesP(x), and then you show that
xhaustionis
-r satisfies0(x).

that works
It is called Method of Direct Proof
derlying the
1. Express the statementto be proved in the form "Yx e D, if P(r) then 0(x)."
(This step is often done mentally.)

2. Start the proofby supposingx is a particular but arbitrarily chosenelement of D

for which the hypothesis P(x) is true. (This step is often abbreviated"Suppose
ose _{ ls a x € D andP (x);' )
nisfiesthe 3. Show that the conclusion Q@) is true by using definitions, previously established
results, and the rules for logical inference.
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 andCounterexample
Proof
3 1 Direct 133
l: Introduction

this meansthat m I n can

Your goal is to show that ru * n is even. By definition of even,
be written in the form
2 ' (someinteger).
what is to be shown to
This analysis narrows the gap between the starting point and
to I\\'11
showing that
Iers are
2r * 2s : 2' (someinteger).
which saysthat
why is this true? First, becauseof the distributive law from algebra'
.deato asr 2r l 2s: 2(r + s).
re pairs .': which implies that r * s
J SUmS ar3
and, second,becausethe sum of any two integers is an integer,
'OU Canlta: is an integer.
and giving a
'particulr This discussionis summarizedby rewriting the statementas a theorem
theorem refers to a statement that is known
r be true ir formal proof of it. (In mathematics,the word
formal proof, as well as many others in this
to be true becauseit has been proved.) The
logical flow apparent. Such comments are
en lnteseri text, includes explanatory notes to make its
be omitted entirely. For this reason they
) represen: purely a.onu.ni"n." foithe reader and could
of algebr.:- are italicized and enclosedin squarebrackets: [ ]'
has compared con-
Donald Knuth, one of the pioneers of the scienceof computing,
to writing a mathematical proof
is. What i. structing a computer program from a set of specifications
this analogy, the bracketed comments can
based on a set of axioms.* In keeping with
documentation provided by a good program-
be thought of as similar to the explanatory
:\'en. a human reader
mer. Documentation is not necessaryfor a program to run, but it helps
t in generai. understandwhat is going on.
rth of thern

;ing?" The Theorem3.1.1

: proof.
The sumof anytwo evenintegersis even
:ersthat are
Proof:
mustshow
Supposezr andnareltarticular but arbitrarily chosen)evenintegers. lwe
By definition of even, m : 2r andn :2s for some integersr
thil m + n is even.f
and s' Then
the proof?"
m * n :2r * 2s by substitution
:2(r I s) outa 2.
byfactoring
point to the
nition of thrs Hence
Let k : r * s. Note that k is an integerbecauseit is a sum of integers'
bllows from
m I n :2k where k is an integer.
show'll
It follows by definitionof eventhat m * n is even. lThis is what we neededto
I
re arbitrarill
.n t: 2r a n d
you realize that
Most theorems. like the one above, can be analyzed to a point where
rvantto shou' as soon as a certain thing is shown, the theorem will be proved. When that thing has been
ltationsfor ttl
in placeof nr

*Donald E. Knuth, The Art of computer Programming,2nd ed., vol' I (Reading'MA: Addison-
Weslel. 1973),P. ix.
r see page l l 3 for a discussionof the role of universalmodusponensin this proof.

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 3.i Direct
Proof l: Introduction
andCounterexample 135

66littlewords" that make the logic of your arguments clear.

,s hos. * th 6. Include the
rcfs in a]fu When writing a mathematical argument, especially a proof, indicate how each
sentenceis related to the previous one. Does it follow from the previous sentenceor
: used i: "' from a combination of the previous sentenceand earlier ones? If so, start the sentence
r-r pr:n d" by stating the reason why it follows or by writing Then, or Thus, ot So, or Hence, or
Then- irim Therefore, or Itfollows that, and include the reason at the end of the sentence. For
on $'a-;-lrdd instance,in the proofofTheorem 3.1.1,onceyou know that ru is even,you can write:
"By definition of even, m : 2k for some integer k," or you can write, "Then m : 2k
for some integer ft by definition of even."
If a sentenceexpressesa new thought or fact that does not follow as an immedi-
ate consequenceof the preceding statementbut is neededfor a later part of a proof,
le mrttrn'il's, introduce it by writing Observethat, or Note that, or BuL ot Now.
sendinst mr Sometimesin a proof it is desirableto define a new variable in terms of previous
e. Tr1 n irc variables. In such a case,introduce the new variable with the word Let. For instance,
1.ou acn-:u@l in the proof of Theorem3.1.1,onceit is known thatm * n :2(r * s), where r and s
are integers, a new variable ft is introduced to representr * s. The proof goes on to
I lbr ul-liqgr say,"Let k : r * s. Then ft is an integerbecauseit is a sum of two integers."

VariationsamongProofs
It is rare that two proofs of a given statement,written by two different people,are identical.
Even when the basic mathematical stepsare the same,the two people may use different
r the bo{ d notation or may give differing amounts of explanation for their steps, or may choose
5 31d 5r*nrqg different words to link the steps together into paragraph form. An important question
mething hllm is how detailed to make the explanationsfor the steps of a proof. This must ultimately
han 1." Thrs be worked out between the writer of a proof and the intended reader, whether they be
a compro studentand teacher,teacherand student,studentand fellow student,or mathematicianand
colleague. Your teachermay provide explicit guidelines for you to use in your course. Or
, represem& you may follow the exampleof the proofs in this book (which aregenerallyexplainedrather
lar integer n fully in order to be understoodby studentsat various stagesof mathematicaldevelopment).
onveniemm, Rememberthat the phraseswritten inside brackets [ ] are intendedto elucidatethe logical
proof. Thu; flow or underlying assumptionsof the proof and need not be written down at all. It is
t. n: 1'- f 'm- entirely your decision whether to include such phrasesin your own proofs.

CommonMistakes
nd abbrer:,r-
the procrfd' The following are some of the most common mistakespeople make when writing math-
ematical proofs.
1. Arguing from examples.
Looking at examples is one of the most helpful practices a problem solver can
engage in and is encouragedby all good mathematics teachers. However, it is a
r subsequem mistake to think that a general statementcan be proved by showing it to be true for
somespecialcases.A universal statementmay be true in many instanceswithout being
true in general.
Here is an exampleof this mistake. It is an incorrect"proof" of the fact that the
the theorem-
sum ofany two evenintegersis even. (Theorem3.1.1).
;ult obtainod
stablishedcr This is true becauseif m : 14 and n : 6, which are both even,
sing phra-rcr thenm I n :20, which is also even.
Somepeoplefind this kind of argumentconvincing becauseit does,after all, consist
of evidencein supportof a true conclusion. But rememberthat when we discussed
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 3.1 Direct andCounterexample
Proof 137
l: Introduction

)t have a true Supposep is a prime number. If p is prime, then p cannot be

(enly used to written as a product of two smaller positive integers.
how that the The use of the word fin the second sentenceis inappropriate. It suggeststhat the
an argument primenessof p is in doubt. But p is known to be prime by the first sentence.It cannot
be written as a product of two smaller positive integers becauseit is prime. Here is a
correct version of the fragment:
reletter narne Supposep is a prime number. Becausep is prime, p cannot be
ment: written as a product of two smaller positive integers.
t.
GettingProofsStarted
andn implie:
Believe it or not, once you understandthe idea ofgeneralizing from the genericparticular
to integers rn
and the method of direct proof, you can write the beginnings of proofs even for theorems
tm andn are
you do not understand.The reasonis that the starting point and what is to be shown in a
that the sum
proof dependonly on the linguistic form of the statementto be proved, not on the content
of the statement.

out giving an
Bxample 3.1.8 Identifying the "starting Point" and the "Conclusion to Be Shown"
even integers
Write the first sentenceof a proof of the following statement(the "starting point") and the
last sentenceof a proof (the "conclusion to be shown"):
2r and
r is even. Every complete, bipartite graph is connected. Youarenotexpected
to
understandthis statement.

Solution It is helpful to rewrite the statementformally using a quantifier and a variable:

domain hypothesis conclusion
uslon.
Formal Restatement:V graphs G, it G is complete and bipartite, then G is connected.

r variation of The first sentence,or starting point, of a proof supposesthe existenceof an object (in
f' of the facr this case G) in the domain (in this casethe set of all graphs)that satisfiesthe hypothesis
of the if-then part of the statement(in this case that G is complete and bipatite). The
conclusion to be shown is just the conclusion of the if-then part of the statement(in this
are casethat G is connected).
Starting Point: Stppose G is a fparticular but arbitrarily chosenl graph such that G
is complete and bipartite.
for Conclusion to Be Shown' G is connected.
*lfor Thus the proof has the following first and last sentences:
rich First sentenceof proof: SupposeG is a fttarticular but arbitrarily chosenl graph such
that G is completeand bipartite.
neansfor the lASt sentenceofproof: Therefore G is connected.
ntegerk) and
Of course,to reach the last sentenceof the proof, the definitions of the terms will have to
,t * l). Thu-t T
be used.

ShowingThatan ExistentialStatementIs False

rthinking thar
g the word ii Recall that the negation of an existential statementis universal. It follows that to prove an
agment: existential statementis false, you must prove a universal statement(its negation) is true.
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joordjo spoqlowpue fuoaq1ioqLrrnNfue1ueue13g raldeq3 gtI
 andCounterexample
Proof L39
l: lntroduction
3.1 Direct

o n e o fth e o l d e s tprobl emsi nmathemati csthatremai nunsol vedi stheGol d bach

be
In Example 3'1'5 it was shown that every even integerfrom 4 to 30 can
conjecture.
representedasasumoftwop.i-"numbers..Morethan250yearsago,ChristianGoldbach
can be so represented'
(16gC-|1764)conjectured that every even integer greaterthan 2
Explicitcomputer-aidedcalculationshaveshowntheconjecturetobetrueuptoatleast Gleick
1016and infinity. As pointed out by James
1016.But rhereis a trugec'liai;l;;""
oftheNewYorkTimes,manyotherplausibleconjecturesinnumbertheoryhaveproved that
Leonhard Euler rtii'-tlg3l,io. e*ample, proposedin the eighteenthcentury
false.
';;; words, no three
In other
r^-;-;;: io nui no nonrrivial whole number iolutions.
perfect fourth power' For small numbers' Euler's
perfect fourth powen uJJup to another
c o n j e c tu re l o o k e d good' B uti nl g87aH arvardmathemati ci an' N oamE l ki es' provedit
Corporation in
of Thinkincyltlil"t
wrons.onecountere;;;, ro""9Uv11's-"grye : 422'4814 '*
+ 414'5604
a longcomput.,,"ur.nll,'si"80ot +"217'\91
InMay2000,.tocelebratemathematicsinthenewmillennium,''theCtayMathematics
InstituteofCambridge,Massachusetts,announcedthatitwouldawardprizesof$lmillion
classical mathematical questions' one of
each for the solutions to seven longstanding, on a
belonging to a certain classcan be solved
them, "P vs. NP," urk, *h"th"t pto;l"-' that are presently
than ttt" i"ry inefficient methods
computerusing more efficient methods
knowntoworkro,ti'"-.ThisquestionisdiscussedbrieflyattheendofChapter9,

Sef3.Ir
Exercise
prime' and composite
h 1-3. use the definitions of even, odd'
:: iustify eachof Your answers'

1. Assume that ft is a particular integer' written as a sum ot two

b' Is 0 an even integer? 9. There is a perfect squarethat can be
a. Is -17 an odd rnteger? squares.
other Perfect
c. Is 2ft - 1 odd?
- 2 is prime'
e integers' 10. There is an rntegern suchthat 2n2 5n *
2. Assume that m andn are particular
a. ls 6m * 8n even? b' Is 10nn * 7 odd? Disprovethe statementsrn l1-13 by giving
a counterexample'
c. lf m > n > 0, is m2 - n2 comPosite? < b then a2 < b2'
& 1.1. For all real numbers a and b, if a
S i. Assume that r and s are parlicular integers' n-l
b' Is 6r + 4s2 + 3 odd?- rs ood'
a. Is 4r.s even? I 2. For all integersn. if n is odd then -
]I
c. If r and s are both positive,is 12 + 2r s + s2 composite?
-t n is odd then n and n are
Li 13. For all integersm andn,if2m
Frove the statementsin 4-10' both odd.
t J. There are integers m andn such that
m > | andn > 1 and true forall integers'
,-{ In 14-16, determinewhether the property is
1 1. and false for other
- + - rs an lnteger. ffue for no integers' or true for some integers
mn l integers. JustifY Your answers'
l.
lJ, such that - +- l s a n
5. There are distinct integers m and n n 14.@ + b12:a2+ b2 15. 3n2- 4n'l I is Prime.
-t
integer. odd'
I 6. The averageof any two odd integers is
tLi

that
ut 6. There are real numbers a andb such of exhaustion'
nd Prove the statementsin l7 and 18 by the method
,l GT n :u 6 +rt. 26 canbe expressed
nd 17. Every positive even lnteger less than
- 1 is prime' (For instance'
:J,i 7. There is an integer n > 5 such that2" as a sum of three or fewer perfect squares'
l\r > I and 2: > rto t0: 12-F32and 1 6 - 4 2 . 1
8. There is a real number x such that:r

dr -{ 17April 1988.
-JamesGleick,..Fermat,sLastTheoremstillHasZeroSolutions,',NewYorkTimes,
that only a hint or partialsolutionis
are given in Appendix B' The'symbol fl indicates
anc
. ^:
lI For exerciseswith blue numbers, solutions than usual'
si""".'iit;tvrntot * ,ig"uit ittat an exerciseis more challenging
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 3.2 D'e:t Proofand Counterexample
ll: Rational
Numbers l4l

It - The difference of any two even integers is even. 5'7. lf m andn areperfectsquares,thenm I n I 216in is also
a perfectsquare.Why?
The difference of any two odd integers is even.
: 9 B; , tt + 58. If p is a prime number,must 21'- I also be prime? Prove
m i> tru; - For all integersn andm, if n - m is even then n3 - m 'l rs :
or give a counterexample.
3\'en.
3r rnd r:., * 59. If rr is a nonnegativeinteger,must 22' * I be prime? Prove
Fora llint eger sn, if nis pr im et hen( - l) ' : -1.
or give a counterexample.
a n \ a 1 :: 44 For all integersm, if m > 2 thenm2 - 4 is composite.
60. When expressionsof the form (r - r)(x - s) are multi-
re I i . ' -
Jtr For all integersn, n2 - n * 11 is a prime number. plied out, a quadraticpolynomial is obtained.For instance,
' re A i : -
(,r - 2) (r - (-7)) : (x - 2)(x + 1) : .t2 * 5r - 14.
Llt\ l L * 51. For all integersn,4(n2 I n I l) - 3n2 is a perfectsquare.
f/ a. What can be said about the coefficients of the polyno-
:r and ir-y
Ei ery positiveintegercan be expressedas a sum of threeor mial obtainedby multiplying out (-r - r)(,r - s) when
:erverperfect squares. both r and s are odd integers? when both r and.r are
-l l -i - . even integers? when one of r and s is even and the other
Two integersareconsecutive if, and only if, one is one more is odd?
:han the other.) Any product of four consecutiveintegers is b. It follows from pafi (a) rhat xr - 1253x*255 cannot
0. I l i - - xe less than a perfect square.
rr SOmel:r- be written as a product of two polynomials with integer
rd l <r. Ii rrr and ,? are positive integers andmn is a perfect square, coefficients. Explain why this is so.
Ith r an.i .' thenn and,r are perfectsquares. * 61. Observethat (r _ r)(x _ s)(x _ r)
-].- t _ ; : .r3 - (r * s + r)-t2* (r.r + rt + st)x - rst.
fhe difference of the squaresof any two consecutive inte-
$ as to b';
Eersis odd.
a. Derive a resultfor cubic polynomialssimilarto the result
For all nonnegative real numbers a and b, 1m : .vGJb. in part (a) of exercise 60 for quadratic polynomials.
odd intesr:
\ote that if x is a nonnegativereal number, then there is a b. Can 1513t7x2 _ 8r -27 be written as a productof
unique nonnegative real number t-, denoted .16, such that threepolynomialswith integercoeflicients?Explarn.
m odd inti- '': : x.)
theree\l:l:
, i l ls e \ e l ]
For all nonnegativereal numbers a and b,
I sincert t. Jt+b:Jo+^,6.
- 1. Thus

ren. t| l tl i:
3.2 OirectProofand Counterexampte
tl:
RationalNumbers
quals.14'r-r,i Such, then, is the whole art of convincing. It is contained in two principles: to define all
notations used,and to prove everything by replacing mentally the defined terms b,vtheir
ers.B),dex- definitions.- BlaisePascal,1623-1662
Ln : 2 A f - r":
lt. !:
- Sums, differences, and products of integers are integers. But most quotients of integers
are not integers. Quotients of integers are, howeveq important; they are known as rational
alse.Justitl. numbers.
ppropnate-

A real number r is rational if, and only if, it can be expressedas a quotient of two
integerswith a nonzerodenominator.A real number that is not rational is irrational.
More formally, if r is a real number, then
:r rs even.
r isrational <+ 3 integersdandb suchthat, : ! andb + 0.
e summand. D
called sum-

The word rational containstheword ratio, which is anotherword for quotient.A rational
numberis a fraction or ratio ofintesers.
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 Numbers I43
ll: Rational
3.2 D rectProofandCounterexample

N o te th atyoucanuseanargumentsi mi l artothi sonetoshow thatanyr epeat ing

d e c i ma l i s a rati onal number.InS ecti on].3w eshow thatanyrati onal nu m ber canbe
written as a repeating or terminating decimal'
n aldnn (becausesums and productsof
i. Yes, s\ncem andn areintegers.so atem I
product property. (one version of
integers are integers). Also mn * 0 by the zero
is 0, then their product is also not
this property .uy", tt ut if neither of two real numbers
It follows that (m * n) lmn is a quotient
0. See exercise g at the end of this section.)
o ftw o i n te gersw i thanonzerodenomi natorandhencei sarati onal num ber 'l

from the GenericParticular

Moreon Generalizing
re\ er S o m e p e o p l e l i ketothi nkofthemethodofgeneral i zi nefrol thegeneri cpa r t icular as
holds for all elements in a domain' then
JIntE: a challenge process. If you claim a propefit
Someonecanchall,engeyourclaimuypictinganyelementinthedomainwhatsoeverand
a s k i n g y o u to provethatthatel ementsati sfi estheproperty.Toproveyou r claim , you
is, you must have a way to convince the
must be able to meet all such challenges. That
challengerthatthepropertyistrueforanarbitrarilychosenelementinthedomain.
i.x' claims that every integer is a rational number. "B" chal-
lence --: For example, ,uppor"
that
lengesthis Uy'u,ting "A' to prove it for n - 1' "N'observes
"tui*
ilculet"-r
, : w hi ch i s a quoti entof i ntegersandhenccrati onal '
,eshou{' 1
pla)' cl"r
thisexplanation
"B" accepts againwith n : -12' "N'respondsthat
but challenges
-12
--::
-12 : rvhich is a cluotientof integersanclhenceraticrial'

n : 0' but "A' answersthat

Next "B" tries to trip up "A'by challengingwith
0
'e disct-l-;s O: rvl.richis a quotientof integersrncl hcnccratlonrl
i
tions 3.t"
to all "B"s challengesbecause"A'has a
As you can see,"A', is ableto respondeffectively
of rational numbers: "A' just divides
generalprocedurefor puiting integersinto the form
,'B" gives by 1. That is, no matter what integer n "B" gives "A" "4',
whateverinteger
writes
n
n:1 which is a quotientof integersand hencerational

This discussionproves the following theorem

Theorem3.2.1
Everyintegeris a rationalnumber'

to condensethe above discussion

:rs and thu-i In exercise 11 at the end of this section you are asked
into a formal Proof.
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 3.2 DirectProofand Counterexample
ll: Rational
Numbers 145

Theorem3.2.2
'lThe sumof any
he sum any rwo rational
fwo rationalnumbers
numbersis rationaL.
rational.

Proof:

Supposer and s are rational numbers. lWe must show that r

* s is rational.l Then,
by definition of rational,r : a I b and s : c d for someinteger
I s a, b, c,and d with
b l 0 a n d d l 0 .Thus

.ac
,'+s : ; f . hr suhrl i rrrti trn
bd

ad+ bc
: -- by basic algebra.
bd
> >r-lt
Let p : ad I bc andq - bd. Then p andq are integersbecause
products and sums
of integersare integersand becausea, b , c, andd are allintegers.
itro 4 t' 0 by the
zero product property. Thus

r f s : 4 *h".e p and,qare integers and,q 0.

q I

Therefore, r * s is rational by definition of a rational number.

fThis is what was to
be shown.l

Deriving New Mathematics from Otd

section 3 ' 1 focused on establishingtruth and falsity of mathematical
theoremsusing only
the basic algebranormally taught in secondaryschool; the fact
that the integersare closed
under addition, subtraction, and multiplication; and the definitions
of the terms in the
theoremsthemselves.In the future, when we ask you to prove
something directly from
the definitions, we will mean that you should restrict youiself
to this apprJach. However,
once a collection of statementshas been proved directly from
the j"Rnitionr, another
methodof proof becomespossible.The statementsin the collection
can be usedto derive
additionalresults.

Example 3.2.3 Deriving Additional Results about Even

and odd Integers
Supposethat you have already proved the following properties
of even and odd inteqers:
r - The sum, product, and difference of any two even integers
are even.
2. The sum and difference of any two odd integers are
even.
3. The productofany two odd integersis odd.
4. The productof any evenintegerand any odd integer
is even.
5. The sum ofany odd integerand any evenintegeris
odd.
6. The differenceofany odd integerminus any eveninteger
is odd.
7' The differenceof any evenintegerminus any odd integer
is odd.
use the properties listed above to prove that if a is any
odd integer and D is any given
I b2 + |
integer.thena2 is an lnteger.
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 3.2 DirectProofand Counterexample
ll: Rational
Numbers 147

odd. 16. Given any rational number r, _r is also a rational

number. tional), then the other solution is also rational. (Use
also the
+ 17. If r and s are any two rational fact that if the solutions of the equation are r and
numbers with r < s, then s, then
ition , f J x2 + bx + c : (x - r)(.r - s).)
i, rational.
br.2 2
30. Prove that if a real number c satisfiesa polynomial
o equation
obe # 18. Forallrealnumbersaandb,if a < bthena !^b . U. ofthe form
<
z
T (You may use the properties of inequalities in
T16_T25 of r t x 3 *r z x 2 +r r x +r o - 0 ,
Appendix A.)
where rs, rt, 12, andh are rational numbers,then
rrem i9. Given any two rational numbers r and s with r <
c satisfies
s, there an equation of the form
is anotherrational number between r ands. (Hint: Use
the
resultsofexercises 17 and lg.) n z x 3I n z x 2 *n p l r ? o : 0 ,

L'se the properties of even and odd integers that are wherers, n1, n2, zndn3 are integers.
listed in
Erample 3.2.3 to do exercises20_22. Indtcatewhich properties
'.tru uSeto justify your
reasoning.
10. True or false? If m is any even integer and
n is any odd
integeq then m2 * 3n is odd. Explain.
* 3 1. Prove that for all real numbersc, if c is a root
of apolynomial
11. True or false? If a is any odd integer, thenaz* with rational coefficients, then c is a root of a polynomial
a is even.
Explain. with integer coefficients.
r\\'o ll. True or false? If k is any even integer and n rs any In 32-36 find the mistakes in the .,proofs,,that
odd the sum of anv
lf is integer, then (ft * 2)2 - (m _ l)2 is even. Explain. two rational numbers is a rational number.
nof
)erive the statementsin23-25 ascorollariesof Theorems 32. "Proof: Let rational numbers r :
3.2.1, ) ands : j be given.
-: 1.2, and the resultsof exercises12, 13, 15,and 16. Then r *s :
ol+ J : l, whichis Jrational number.This
is what was to be shown."
'-1. For any rational numbers r and s, 2r + 3s is rational.
So. 33. "Proof: Any two rational numbersproduce a rational
lJ. If r is any rational number, then 3rz _ 2r num_
T * 4 is rattonal. ber when added together. So if r and ., are particular
but
l-i. For any rational number s, 5s3 + gs2 _ 7 is rational. arbitrarily chosenrational numbers, then r
+ s is rational.,,
16. It is a fact that ifn is any nonnegativeinteger, 34. "Proof: Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
then By defi-
nition of rational, r : af S for some integers a
1 ll and D with
t+- | _l- ( l/ 2, + 1) b I O, and s : a/b for some integers a ind b
+- + - - L. . . r with b t' 0.
2 '22 23' ' 2n 1- 0/ 2) Then r * s : a/b I a/b :2a/b.
e oI Let p :2a. Then p
(A more generalform of this statementis proved is an integer since it is a product of integers.
in Section Hence
4.2). Is a number of this form rational? Ii so, express r * s : p/b, where p and b are integers andb
TTTCF it as f0. Thus
a ratio of two integers. r + ^ris a rational number by definition of rational.
This is
ton. what was to be shown."
) are i-. Supposea,b,c,anddareintegersanda
fc. Supposealso 35. "Proof: Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
that x is a real number that satisfiesthe equation Then
: o/b and s : c/d for some integers
and | a, b, c, andd with
ax * b b f 0 and d f 0 (by definition of rational). Then
r + s_
c * + d: ' ' a/b + c/d. But this is a sum of two fractions,
which is
-' -; Must "r be rational? If so,express asa ratio of two
a fraction. So r + s is a rational number since
a rattonal
;- . -r integers. number is a fraction-"
t i3. Supposea, b, and
I-
c areintegersandx, y,and z arenonzero
36. "Proof: Supposer and s are rational numbers.
real numbers that satisfy the following equations: If r * s is
.;, rational, then by definition of rational r
* s : a76 1o. ro_"
xY r? mtegers a and b with b f 0. Also since r and
: u ana s are rauo_
:-l-- nal, r : i / j and s : m / n for some integers i, j,
^Ty x+ 2 . m, andn
tm- with j * 0 andn t'0. Itfollowsrhatr
Is x rational? If so, expressit as a ratio of two integers. + s : i ii + m/ n _
a/b,which is a quotientof two integerswith
anonzero de_
19. Prove that if one solution for a quadratic nominator. Hence it is a rational number. This
.lrn- equation of the is what was
form x2 * bx qc :0 is rational (where & to be shown."
and . *e,u_
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 3.3 Direct
Proof
andCounterexample
lll: Divisibilitv
l4g

Solution Yes. To say that a I b meansthat b : ka for some integer ft. Now k must be a
positive integerbecauseboth a and b are positive. It follows that

l<k
becauseevery positive integeris greaterthan or equal to 1. Multiplying both sidesby a
)ol, you $er3 gives
s lnto grouF
a< k.a:b
(since multiplying both sides of an inequality by a positive number preservesthe
inequality-properry T19 of Appendix A). I
:nlv divisibie
Example 3.3.4 Divisors of 1
tiful subjet-ro
Which integersdivide l?
rs.
Solution By Example 3.3.3 any positive integer that divides I is less than or equal to l.
Since I : I ' l, I divides I, and thereare no positiveintegersthat are lessthan l. So the
only positive divisor of 1 is l.
on the other hand, if d is a negative integer that divides l, then | : dk, and so
1 : ldl. lkl. Henceldl is a positiveinregerrhatdivides1. Thus lttl : l,and so d : _1.
It follows that the only divisors of I are I and _ l. I

Example 3.3.5 Divisibility of Algebraic Expressions

a. If a andD are integers,is 3a I 3b divisible by 3?

b. If k andm areinregers,is l)km divisible by 5?

egers and Solution

a. Yes. By the distributivelaw of algebra,3a * 3b :3(a I b) anda * b is an integer

becauseit is a sum of two integers.

b. Yes. By the associativelaw of algebra,10km:5.(2km) and 2km is an integer

becauseit is a productof threeintegers. t

When the definition of divides is rewritten formally using the existential quantifier,
tf - 7 ?
the result is

dln {) Sanintegerk suchthatn: dk.

Since the negationof an existential statementis universal, it follows that d doesnot divide
n (denotedd I n)if, andonly ii vintegersk,n * dk,or,inotherwords, thequotientn/d
is not an inteser.

n
Foral l i ntegersnandd, d Xn <+ ;a is not an integer,

Example 3.3.6 Checking Nondivisibility

D o e s4 | 1 5?

Solution No, f; : 3.75, which is nor an inreger. T

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This discussionis summarizedas follows:

Latron
neans ffr"or"- 3.3.1 Tfansitivity of Divisibility
91\'es b and b divides c' then a divides c
For all integersa, b, andc, if a divides
Iteger.
b (the
Proof:
divides
arb it r ar ily chose nfintegerssuchthat a
Supposea, b, andc ateI p arti cula r but of divisibility'
a divides c.l By definition
b andbdivides c. lwe must show that
r ands'
b : ar and c : bs for someintegers

By substitution
c: bs
- (ar)s
: a(rs) bY basic algebra'
e number
ofintegers' and therefore
ivides the Letk :rs. Then k is an integersinceit is a product
c : ak where k is an integer'
is what was to be shown'I
Thus a divides c by definition of divisibility' lThis
I

rnediatelt Itwouldappearfromthedefinitionofprimethattoshowthatanintegerisprimeyou
at must b€ w o u l d n e edtoshow thati ti snotdi vi si bl ebyanyi ntegergreaterthanl andlesst han
i ts e l f.In fbct,youneedonl ycheckdi vi si bi l i tybypri menumbers' Thithat s f ollowsf r om
any integer
following theorem' which^says
s such thar Theorem 3.3.1, Exampt" ii.z, and the
rire iaea of the proof is quite simple' You
greaterthan I is divisibre Lv u pr-" number.
s ta rtw i th aposi ti vei nteger.Ifi ti spri me' youaredone;i fnot,i tinot'saproduct
you of t wo
is prime' you are done; if
smaller positive factors. if on" of theie ""i !111':::
contlnue
or siitt smaller positive factors' You can
of the factors and write it as a product
inthisway,factoringthefactorsofthenumberyoustartedwith,untiloneofthemturns chosento be
out to be prime. This ;;" h"d* eventually becauseall the factors can be
one'
positive and each is smaller than the preceding
1i-

Theorem3.3.2Divisibility by a Prime
Any integern > 1 is divisible by a prime number'
terms of c-
esc in terms Proof:
chosenlintegerthat is greaterthan l' lWe
Supposen is alparticular but arbitrarily
that divides n'f If n is prime' then n is
must show that there is a prime numbir
divisiblebyaprimeno-Uo(namelyitself)'andwearedone'Ifnisnotprime'then'
as discussedin ExamPle3'l'2b,
n : ros1 where rg and sg are integers and
1< ro< na.ndl < so< tx'
n'
nains onlY to It follows by definition of divisibility that rs I
onPage152
contmued
roduct of two
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 andCounterexample
Proof 153
lll:Divisibility
3.3 Direct

for
integersa andb that satisfy theseequations
Must it follow thata : D, or can you find
1! I'ltri which a I b? The equationsimpll' that
b-ka:k(l b):(kl )b.

Si n c e b Ia ,b* 0,andsoyoucancancel bfromtheextremgl eftandri ghtsidest oobt ain

1-kl .
it r' n
-1
1' But the only divisors of 1 are 1 and
In other words, k and I are divisors of : b : a' But
-1' If k l: 1' then
Hr -l t (seeExample 3.3.4). Thus k and 1 are both 1 or
-o and so a anal thatyou can f ind a
ysi ssuggests
i f k :t: - 1, then tr: + b' Thi s
is a formal answer:
count"rexample by taking b : -a' Here

3 t r i r. Sta te ment:Foral l i ntegersaandb,i fal bandbl athena:b'

: Then
Counterexample: Let a :2 andb -2'
. l f r ; i' but a f b since2 + -2'
a I b since2l (-Z) andbla since(-2) l2'
is false'
;e find n Therefore, the proposeddivisibility property
\\' factor
rnd there
'nce you discover a counterexample(provided
The searchfor a proof will frequently help
iu.t, false). conversely, in trying to find a
the statemenryou are trying to prove 1s,rn
counterexampletbraStatement,youmaycometorea|izethereasonwhyitistrue(ifitis'
i-0 . 1.
infact,true)'Theimportantthingistokeepanopenminduntilyouareconvincedbythe
le r r isa
evidenceof your own carefulreasoning'

Theorem
TheuniqueFactorization
Themostcomprehensivestatementaboutdivisibilityofintegersiscontainedinatheorem
the integers' Becauseof its importance'
known as theuniquefactorization theorem for
of arithmetic. Although Euclid, who
to find soff this theorem is also called thefundamentql theorem
l i v e d a b out300B .C ,,seemstohavebeenacquai ntedw i ththetheore m , it wasf ir st st at ed
preciselybythegreatGermanmathematicianCarlFriedrichGauss(rhymeswithhouse)
in 1801.
Theuniquefactorizationtheoremsaysthatanyintegergreaterthanleitherisprime
in a way that is unique excapt' perhaps'
or can be written as a product of prime numbers
For example'
'just by con-' for the order in whichihe primes are written'
' 12:2' 2' 2' 3 ' 3 :2' 3 ' 3 ' 2' 2:3 ' 2' 2' 3 ' 2
ttw secontl'
written in any order,but any factorization of
;problems. and so forth. The three 2,s and two 3's may be
oYe, stafi or T2asaproductofprimesmustcontainexactlythree2'sandtwo3's-noothercollection
multiplies ortt to 12'
of prime numberstesides three 2's and two 3's

the Integers
d andb.r Th*o"** 3.3.3Unique FactorizationTheoremfor
'me (FundamentalTheoremof Arithmetic)
he condition-'
k' distinct prime numbers
Given any integer n > l, there exist a positive integer
€2," ek suchthat
pr, pz, . .-., Pt ,-andpositiveintegers€r, ''
n : pl' pi' p3'
...pir .
numbersis identical to this except'
.e well-ordenn5 and any other expressionof n as a product of prime
ng strong math* perhaps,for the order in which the factors are written'
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L-. The sum of any three consecutive integers is divisible by
tto ; 3. (Two integers are consecutive ii and only if, one is one
r ler more than the other.)
i. The product of any two even integers is a multiple of 4.
r
he
19. A necessarycondition for an integer to be divisible by 6 is
l.
that it be divisible by 2.
A sufficient condition for an integer to be divisible by 8 is
that it be divisible by 16.
ll. For all inte gersa, b, andc, if a I b anda I c thena | (2b - 3c).
# a For all integersa,b, Ntd c,if ab lc thena lc arrdblc.
lr. For all integers a, b, and c,if a is a factor of c then ab is a
f'actorof c.
ffi l.l. For all integersa,b, andc,if al(b * c) thenalb or alc.
J Fo rall inte ge r sa, b, andc , if albc t hena I b or al c .
l: Fo rallin teg er saandb, r f aI bt hena2 lb2.
l- Fo rallin teg er saandn, if alnz anda < nt henal n .
-5. For all integersa andb,if a ll\b thena I l0 or alb.
19. .{ fast-food chain has a contestin which a card with numbers
on it is given to each customer who makes a purchase. If
some of the numbers on the card add up to 100, then the
customer wins $100. A certain customer receives a card
containing the numbers
7 2,2 r , 15, 36, 69, 81, 9, 27, 42, and 63.
Will the customer win $100? Why or why not?
. 1_ -
lt\,
1- Is it possible to have a combination of nickels, dimes, and
G> quartersthat add up to $4.72? Explain.
lus:
-:-. Is it possibleto have 50 coins, made up of pennies,dimes,
I
and quarters,that add up to $3? Explain.
-:1. Two athletesrun a circular track at a steadypace so that the
first completesone round in 8 minutes and the secondin l0
:ar: minutes. If they both start from the samespot at 4 Rrr,r.,when
will be the first time they return to the start together?
ll
::, It can be shown (seeexercises41-45) that an integeris di-
B-. visible by 3 if, and only if, the sum ofits digits is divisible
by 3. An integer is divisible by 9 if, and only if, the sum
lot
of its digits is divisible by 9. An integer is divisible by 5 if,
and only if, its right-most digit is a 5 or a 0. And an integer
is divisible by 4 il and only if, the number formed by its
right-most two digits is divisible by 4. Check the following
integersfor divisibility by 3,4,5 and 9.
a. 637,425,403,'t05,125 b. 12,858,306,120,312
a c. 51'7,924,440,926,512 d. 14,328,083,360,232
,:*. Use the unique factorization theorem to write the folowine
integersin standardfactored form.
a. 1 17 6 b. 5377 c . 3675
3,3 DirectProofand Counterexample
lll: Divisibility155
35. Supposethat in standardfactoredform a : pit pSt ... pir,
where ft is a positive intefier',p1, pz, . . . , p* are prime num-
bers;and €r, €2, .. . , ep arapositiveintegers.
a. What is the standardfactored form for a2?
b. Find the leastpositive integern suchthat 25.3.52.73.n is
a perfect square.Write the resulting product as a perfect
square.
c. Find the leastpositive integer m suchthat 22.35.7.ll.m rs
a perfect square.Write the resulting product as a perfect
square.
36. Supposethat in standardfactoredforma: p"rtpi, ...pio,
wherek is a positiveinteger;pt, pz, . . . , p1 areprime num-
bers;and €r, €2, . . . , €1,zta positive integers.
a. What is the standardfactored form for a3?
b. Find the leastpositive integer ft suchthat 24.35.7.ll2 .k is
a perfect cube (i.e., equalsan integer to the third power).
Write the resulting product as a perfect cube.
37. a. If aandbareintegersandl2a:25b,does12lb? does
25 | a? Explain.
b. Ifx and y are integersand 10-r: 9y, does 10 | y? does
9 lx? Explain.
38. How many zerosare at the end of458.885? Explain how
you can answer this question without actually computing
the number.(Hint: l0 :2. 5.)
39. Ifn is an integer andn > l, then n! is the productofn and
every other positive integer that is lessthan n. For example,
5!:5.4.3.2.1.
a. Write 6! in standardfactored form.
b. Write 20! in standardfactored form.
c. Without computing the value of (201)2determine how
many zeros are at the end of this number when it is wrif
ten in decimal form. Justify your answer.
*40. In a certain town 2/3 of the adult men are married to 3/5
of the adult women. Assume that all marriagesare monog-
amous (no one is married to more than one other person).
Also assumethat there are at least 100 adult men in the town.
What is the least possiblenumber of adult men in the town?
of adult women in the town?
Definition: Given any nonnegative integer n, the decimal
representation ofn is an expressionofthe form
d*d*r. . .dzdtd.o,
where ft is a nonnegativeinteger; ds, d1, d2, ..., dp @alled,
the decimal digits ofn ) are integers from 0 to 9 inclusive;
d1 I 0 unlessn : 0 andt : 0; and
n : d r . l f f * d t - r . 1 0 k t +. . . + d 2 . 1 0 2+ 4 . t 0 + h.
(For example,2,503 :2.103 + 5.102+ 0.10 + 3.)
41. Prove that if n is any nonnegative integer whose decimal
representationends in 0, then 5 ln. (Hint: If the decimal
representationof a nonnegative integer n ends in d6, then
n : lom * do for some integer la.)
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 Tt The Quotient'RemainderTheorem
3.21.1
"or*. q and r such
exist unique integers
Given any integer n and positive integer z/' there
that
n:cl q1-r and 0< r< d'

in Section 4'4'
We give a proof of the quotienGremaindertheorem
Ifnispositive,thequotient-remaindertheoremcanbeillustratedonthenumberline
as follows:
d 2d3d qdn

- dq * r' where r is nonnegative'd must

---.': :L[MN,' If n is negative,the picture changes'Since n
n. Then the nonnegativeinteger r is
be multiplied uy u n"guii* inteier q to go below
as follows:
addedto come back up to ,?' This is illustrated
qd n -3/ -2! -( I

Erample 3.4.1 The Quotient-Remainder Theorem

and r such lhat n : dq -l r
Foreachofthefollowingvaluesofnandd'findintegers4
and0<r<d'
a.n:54,c] :4 b'n:-54'd:4 c'n:54' d :' 10

Solution
a. 54:4'13 + 2; henceq - 13 andr :2'
:2'
b. -54 : (-14)' 4+2:hence q - -14 andr
: 54' I
c. 54 :70' 0 + 54;hence4 : 0 andr

div and mod

that enableyou to compute many
A number of computer languageshavebuilt-in functions
Thesefunctions are called div and
values of q andr for the q"uori"nu."r,'aindertheorem.
calledI andvain Java,and arecalled
mod in pascal,arecalled) and7oinc andct-F, are
/(or\)andmodin.NET.Thefunctionsgivethevaluesthatsatisfythequotient-remainder
th e o re mw h enanonnegati vei ntegerni sdi vi dedbyaposi ti vei ntegerda ndt her esult
not give the values that satisfy the
is assignedto an integer variable. However, they do
is divided by a positive integer d
quotient-remainderth-eoremwhen a negative integer n
definitionsfor div (short
(seeexercise16 at the end of this section). So we restrict our
,'divided by") and mod (shorlfor "modulo") to division of a nonnegativeinteger' The
f,lt\ p, > a for
10'3 and l0'4'
Liler :,',r u modulo conceptis discussedin greaterdetail in Sections
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 3 .4 Dir e ctPr o o fandoounterexaffi pl el v: utvi sonl nl ouasesanol rl euuouerl t-K cl l l drrrucr rrrtr urtrrrr LJ J

More generally,if DayT isthe day of the week today and DayN is the day of the week
in N days, then
DayN : (DayT * N) mod1, 3.4.1

w h e reSu n d ay:0, MondaY : 1, .... S aturday:6. I

of Integers
Representations
In Section 3.1 we defined an even integer to have the form 2ft for some integer k' At that
time we could have defined an odd integer to be one that was not even. Instead,because
it was more useful for proving theorems, we specified that an odd integer has the form
2k + | for some integer k. The quotient-remainder theorem brings these two ways of
describing odd integers together by guaranteeingthat any integer is either even or odd.
To seewhy, let n be any integer, and consider what happenswhen n is divided by 2. By
als one ;r the quotient-remaindertheorem (with d : 2), thereexist integersq and r such that
d mus l:e n:2q* r and 0< r< 2.
an mtesr
Bu tth e o n l y i ntegersthatsati sfy0< r< 2arer:0andr= 1. Itfol l ow sthat givenany
this in ry
integer n,there exists an integer 4 with
rte rt,Jl-",r n:2q* 0 or n:2q* I.
i_rnoreu
un
In the casethatn : 2q * 0 : 2q, n is even. In the casethat n : 2q * l, n is odd. Hence
-
n is either even or odd.
The parity of an integer refers to whether the integer is even or odd. For instance,5
has odd parity and 28 has even parity. We call the fact that any integer is either even or
to obrtu. odd the ParitY ProPertY.

Example 3.4.4 Consecutive Integers Have Opposite Parity

Prove that given any two consecutiveintegers, one is even and the other is odd.
Solution Two integersare called consecutiveif, and only if, one is one more than the other.
So if one integeris n, the next consecutiveintegeris ru * 1.
To prove the given statement,start by supposing that you have two particular but
arbitrarily chosenconsecutiveintegers. If the smaller is m, then the larger will be m * I.
How do you know for sure that one of these is even and the other is odd? You might
imaginesomeexamples:4, 5; 12, 13; I,013,1,014. In the first two examples,the smaller
of the two integers is even and the larger is odd; in the last example, it is the reverse.
These observationssuggestdividing the analysisinto two cases.

Case l: The smaller of the two integers is even.

Case2: The smaller of the two integers is odd.
ltrat da1 ;r
In the first case,when rn is even, it appearsthat the next consecutiveinteger is odd.
Is this always true? If an integer ln is even, must r?4* 1 necessarilybe odd? Of course
has 7 da1:
the answeris yes. Becauseif m is even, then m : 2k for some integer k, and so m * I :
2k + l. which is odd.
In the secondcase,when rn is odd, it appearsthat the next consecutiveinteger is even.
Is this always true? If an integer m is odd, must tto * 1 necessarilybe even? Again,
the answer is yes. For if m is odd, then m : 2k * I for some integer k, and so m I | :
(2 k + r) * I :2k a ) :2(k * 1), w hi ch i s even.
This discussionis summarizedas follows.
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 Theorem 161
-:o Casesandthe Quotient-Remainder

Example 3.4.5 Representations of Integers Modulo -l

Sh o w th a ta n y i ntegercanbew ri tteni noneofthefourforms
n :4 q or n-4q-t1 or n:4q* 2 or n:4q* 3

for someintegerq.
: 4. This
:1 " Solution Given any integer n, apply the quotient-remaindertheorem to n with d
-,.-
/ t "ii . i, :
implies that there exist an integer quotient q and aremainder r such that
'!: : ':' j
n:4q* r and 0< r< 4.

But the only nonnegativeremaindersr that are lessthan 4 are 0, I,2, and 3. Hence
i s e'' ; : n :4 q or 4:4q * | or n:4q 12 or n:4q *3
I
for someintegerq.

:U m - , The next example illustrates how alternative representationsfor integers can help
. e\ 3:, establish results in number theory. The solution is broken into two parts: a discussion
and a formal proof. These corespond to the stagesof actual proof development. Very
few people,when askedto prove an unfamiliar theorem,immediately write down the kind
I rri - -
rr'{1,-;1
of tormat proof you find in a mathematicstext. Most need to experiment with several
--
possible approachesbefore they find one that works. A formal proof is much like the
ending of a mystery story-the part in which the action of the story is systematically
I reviewed and all the loose ends are carefully tied together'

.then<lst
Example 3.4.6 The Square of an Odd Integer
Ot. Cof.lltr
prove that the squareof any odd integer has the form Sln * I for some integer m.
\ou r:' n
'en inl-f51
Solution Begin by asking yourself, "Where am I starting from?" and "What do I need to
show?" To help answerthesequestions,introduce variables to representthe quantities in
ose Ih:: ir the statementto be Proved.
Fonnal Restatement:V odd integersn, 3 an integerrt such lhat n2 :8m I l'
From this, you can immediately identify the starting point and what is to be shown.
) ou k: -,fu Starting Poinf.. Supposen is a particular but arbitrarily chosenodd integer.
:ht. In --:r' To Show:3 an integerrr such thatn2 : 8m I l.
is true ,:n :
This looks tough. Why should there be an integer m with the property thar n2
isumed '1-, - l. Perhapsyou
8m*l? Tharwouldsaythat(n2- 1)/8isaninteger,orthat8dividesn2
r stateriilfi
could make use of the fact that nz - | : (n - l)(n + 1). Does 8 divide (n - 1)(n * 1)?
Since n is odd, both (n - 1) and (n * 1) are even. That meansthat their product is divisi-
ble by 4. But that's not enough. You need to show that the product is divisible by 8. This
seemsto be a blind alleY.
You could try anothertack. Since n is odd, you could representn as 2q * I for some
integerq. Then nz : (2q+ 1)2 : 4q2+ 4q | | : 4(qz * q') + 1. It is clear from this
analysis that nz can be written in the form 4m * I, but it may not be clear that it can be
written as Sru * 1. This also seemsto be a blind alley.*
yet anotherpossibility is to use the result of Example 3.4.5. That exampleshowed
that any integer can be written in one of the four forms 4q, 4q -l l,4q *2, or 4q *3.
Two of these,4q * I and 4q *3, are odd. Thus any odd integer can be written in the
le 1 . 3. 8 .l :,
*Seeexercise25 for a differentperspective.
3r values:i:
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 3.4 Direct
Proof
andCounterexample
lV:Division
intoCases
andtheQuotienlRemainder
Theorem153

sed or. Note that the result of Theorem 3.4.3 can also be written, "For any odd integer n,
n z mo d S :1 ."
lusior
prool
ErerciseSet3.4
: H 21. Prove that a necessaryand sufficient condition for a non-
" ::.-h of the valuesof n and d given in l-6, lind integers4
rr,:' .uchth atn : dq I r and} < r < d. negative integer n to be divisible by a positive integer d is
- , t : 70, d: 9 thatnmodd:0.
2 . n :6 2 ,d :7
22. Amatix M has 3 rows and 4 columns.
, : r : 36, d: 40 4 . n :3 ,d :7 1

ent- i c = - ! , J , 4- 1 1 6. n: -2 7 ,d :8 a.tz aB
1""
I Att A)) azt
"rof
oto
i -- -rle the expressionsin 7-10.
- t.4 3d iv9 b. 43m od9
L,;;";; ay au)
I

ta\.e i t. 50 div 7 b. 50 mod'|
t t.28 div5 b. 28m od5
',
a.3 0d iv2 b. 30m od2
- Check the correctnessof formula (3.4.1) given in Example
-1.4.3for the following values of DayZ and N.
a. DayT:6 (Saturday)and N: 15
b. DayT : 0 (Sunday) and N : 7
c. DayT:4 (Thursday)and N : 12
r I Justifyformula (3.4.1)for generalvaluesof DayZand N.
,-r. On a Monday a friend says he will meet you again in 30
days. What day of the week will that be?
t -.1" If today is Tuesday,what day of the week will it be 1,000
days from today?
-: January 1, 2000 was a Saturday,and 2000 was a leap year.
What day of the week will January 1, 2050 be?
il ll. The / and % functions in Java operateas follows: lf q andr
are the integers obtained from the quotient-remaindertheo-
rem when a negative integer n is divided by a positive inte-
,eerd, then n/d is q * 1 and nVad is r - d, provided that
thesevalues are assignedto an integer variable. Show that
n I d nd n%odsatisfy one of the conclusionsof the quotient-
remainder theorem but not the other. To be specific, show
that the equationn : d .nld + n%odis true but the condi-
;rcn
tion 0 < nVod < d is false. (The functions div and mod in
Pascal,/ and Voin C and C**, and / (or \ ) and mod in
and .NET operatesimilarly to I and Voin Java.)
n-. When an integer a is divided by 7, the remainder is 4. What
is the remainder when 5c is divided by 7?
- !. When an integer b is divided by 12, the remainderis 5. What
to r
is the remainder when 8b is divided by 12?
H 29. lJse the quotient-remainder theorem with r/ : 3 to prove
-9. When an integer c is divided by 15, the remainderis 3. Whar
I is the remainder when 10c is divided by 15?
The 12 entries in the matrix are to be stored in row major
form in locations 7,609 to 7,620 in a computer's memory.
This means that the entries in the first row (reading left to
right) are storedfirst, then the entriesin the secondrow, and
finally the entries in the third row.
a. Which location will a22be stored in?
b. Write a formula (in I and j) that gives the integer n so
that a;; is stored in location 7,609 + n.
c. Find formulas (in n) for r and s so that a,, is stored in
location7,609 +n.
23. Let M be a matrix with m rows and n columns, and
suppose that the entries of M are stored in a computer's
memory in row major form (see exercise 22) in locations
N , N + 1 , N +2 , . . . , N + m n - l . F i n d f o r m ul a si n ftfo r
r and s so that a., is stored in location N * ft.
24. Proye that the product of any two consecutive integers is
even.
25. The result of exercise24 suggeststhat the secondapparent
blind alley in the discussionof Example 3.4.6 might not be
a blind alley after all. Write a new proof of Theorem 3.4.3
basedon this observation.
26. Prove that for all integers n, n2 - n * 3 is odd.
27. Show that any integer n can be written in one of the three
forms
n:3q or n : 3 q *1 or n:3q-1 2
for some integer q.
28. a. Use the quotient-remaindertheorem with d : 3 to prove
that the product of any three consecutive integers is di-
visible by 3.
b. Use the mod notation to rewrite the result of part (a).
that the squareof any integer has the form 3k or 3k * 1 for
someintegerft.

uccess 10. Supposed is a positive integer and n is any integer. If d I n, 30. Use the quotient-remainder theorem with d : 3 to prove
rry for what is the remainderobtainedwhen the quotient-remainder that the product of any two consecutive integers has the
theorem is applied to n with divisor d? form 3k or 3k * 2 for some inteser ft.
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 3.5 I -::t Proof
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V:Floor

lmagine a real number sitting on a number line. The Jloor and ceiling of the number are
the integersto the immediateleft and to the immediateright of the number (unlessthe
number is, itself, an integeq in which caseits floor and ceiling both equal the number
itself ). Many computerlanguageshar e built-in functionsthat computefloor and ceiling
automatically. These functions are verv convenientto use when writing certain kinds
of computerprograms. In addition. the conceptsof floor and ceiling are important in
analyzing the efficiency of many computer algorithms.
: : n,
,: ' tr,,4 ll

Given any real numberx, the floor of x, denotedlxl, is definedas follows:

Lxl : thatunique integern suchthat n < x < n * l.

Symbolically, if x is a real number andn is an integer, then

Lxl-n <+ n<x<n*7.

L,li -- -

-T
#
alue of r. n tt+l
+
floor of -r = Lxl

Given any real number x, the ceiling of r, denoted fxl , is defined as follows:

fx'l : thatuniqueinteger n such that n - | < x < n-

Symbolically, if x is a real number andn is an integer, then
rumber.-:el
'il \tJte-r:"Tl l xf:n < + n-7< x< n'
r e "rf .{ :,:r

i
ceiling ofr = [r1

Example 3.5.L Computing Floors and Ceilings

Computelrl and fx'l for eachof thefollowingvaluesof ;r:
a.2514 b. 0.999 c. -2.01
Solution
a. 2514:6.25 and6< 6.25< 7;hence12514):6andl25l4l:7.
:0 and[0.999]: l.
b. 0 < 0.999< l;hence10.9991
c. -3 < -2.01 < -2; henceL-2.011: -3 andl-2.011: -2.
INT (x).
[l] is denoted
Notethaton somecalculators T
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 3.5 D rectProofand Counterexample
V: Floorand Ceiling 167

Thus if x and ) are positive,

ttTtl ]XUll x * ) : L-rl + Lyl * the smn of thefractional parts of x and y.
But also
tal :! lllG
x * y : Lx * lj * thefractional part of (x * y).

.I-\E:'t''il
Theseequationsshow that ifthere exist numbersx and y suchthat the sum ofthe fractional
parts of x and y is at least 1, then a counterexamplecan be found. But there do exist such
x and y; for instance,-r : I and y : j as before. I

The analysisof Example 3.5.4 indicatesthat if x and y arepositive and the sum of their
fractional parts is less than I , then Lx * yJ : lxl * Lyj . In particular, if r is positive
a n d m i s a p o s i t i vei nteger,thenf.rl ml :l x)-l Lm):fx.l * m.(Thefracti onalpar t
of m is 0; hencethe sum ofthe fractionalpartsofx and la equalsthe fractionalpart ofx,
which is lessthan 1.) It turns out that you can usethe definitionof floor to show that this
equation holds for all real numbers-r and for all integersm.

Example 3.5.5 Proving a Property of Floor

Prove that for all real numbers-r and for all integersm,lx + m) : lr) * m.
Solution Begin by supposingthat x is a particular but arbitrarily chosenreal numberand that
la is a particular but arbitrarily choseninteger. You must show that Lx * m) : lxl * m.
Sincethis is an equationinvolving lrl and lx -l m), it is reasonableto give one of these
quantitiesa name: Let n : Lxl. By definition of floor,

ni sani nteger and n < x < nl l .

This double inequality enables you to compute the value of f-t * ntI in terms of n by
adding ru to all sides:

n* m< x* m< n* m11.

Thus the left-hand side of the equation to be shown is

l x-fm):nl m.
On the other hand, since n : Lxl, the right-hand side of the equation to be shown is

l x)+ m:nl m
also. Thus Lx * m) : f"rl * la. This discussionis summarizedas follows:
ft€ -i mud
or ;"-ir,.]ildl
u?r":st$, Theorem3.5.1
For all realnumbers m,lx * m) : lxl * m.
x andall integers

Proof:

Supposea real number x and an integerm are given. lWe must show that lx * m ) :
Lx) * m.lLet n : Lxl. By definition of floor, n is an integerand
n< x< n* 1..
Add m to all sidesto obtain

n* m< xl m < nl ml l
continuedon page 168
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 3.5 Direct
Proof
andCounterexample
V:Floor
andCeilins169

v direction
Given a nonnegativeintegern and a positive integer d, the quotient-remainder
theorem
guaranteesthe existenceof unique integersq and,r such that
egers is an n:dql r and 0< r< d.
r be shoq'n
The following theorem statesthat the floor notation can be used to
describe q andr as
follows:

,:lalrl
l a n dr :n - tl;), ln l
Thus if, on a calculator or in a computer language, floor is built in
but div a1'dmocl are
= L.rJ+ r, not, div and mod can be defined as follows: For a nonnegative integer
n and apositive
integer d,

n d iv d: L : l a n dn m o d:d" - t l: )
:h and merge
integer. The Note that d divides n if, andonry if, n mod d :0,or, in other words, n : dLn/cr). you
are askedto prove this in exercise13.

Theorem3.5.3
Ifn is a nonnegativeinteger and d is a positive integer, andif q :
ln/d.l and r :
n - d l n /dl ,tben

n:dq* r and 0< r< d.

Proof:
Supposen is a nonnegativeinteger, d is a positive integer, q:
lnld), andr:
n - d ln / d ). [we mustshow that n - dq t r and0 < r i d.1 ny
substitution,
emainder
dq* r : , t l: l * ( , - al ll) : , .
L dJ \ LdIl
showthat So it remainsonly to show that 0 < r < d. But q :
ln/dl. Thus, by definition of
floor.

n
q = A < q + r.

de of the Then

dq . , < dq * d by multiplying
all partsbyr/
and so

0 < n - dq < d by subtracting d4 from all parts.

rl to each
But

r : n - r l: l- n _ dq.
how that La)
Hence

0 <r <d Aysubsriturion

lThis is what was to be shown.f

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 3.6 Indirect
Argument:
Contradiction
and Contraposition17l

f$ Frrr any odd integern, "Proof: Supposen is any odd integer. Then n : 2k -l 1 for
some integer ft. Consequently,
f "rf n2+3
l4l 4 |2k+||_tzt +tl-| _2k
:t:n' _,_
il. irnd the mistake in the following "proof" thar Ln/2J: | ) l: _ JL '
t - l) /2 if n is an odd integer. But n : 2k + 1. Solvingfor ft givesk: (n - 1)/2.
Hence,by substitution,
ln/21 : @ - Dl2)'

3.6 tndirectArgument:Contradiction
and Contraposition
Reductioad absurdumis oneof a mathematician's
finestweapons.It is a far finer
gambitthananychessgambit:a chessplayermayofferthesacrificeof a pawn or even
a piece,but themathematician
offersthegame.- c H. Hardy,1977-1947

In a direct proof you start with the hypothesisof a statementand make one deduction after
another until you reach the conclusion. Indirect proofs are more roundabout. One kind
of indirect proof, argument by contradiction, is basedon the fact that either a statement
is true or it is false but not both. Supposeyou can show that the assumptionthat a given
statementis not true leads logically to a contradiction, impossibility, or absurdity. Then
that assumptionmust be false; hence, the given statementmust be true. This method of
proof is also known as reductio ad impossible or reductio ad absurdum becauseit relies
on reducing a given assumptionto an impossibility or absurdity.
Argument by contradiction occurs in many different settings. For example, if a man
accusedof holding up a bank can prove that he was some place else at the time the crime
was committed, he will certainly be acquitted. The logic of his defenseis as follows:

SupposeI did commit the crime. Then at the time of the crime, I would have had to be
at the sceneof the crime. In fact, at the time of the crime I was in a meeting with 20
people far from the crime scene,as they will testify. This contradicts the assumption
that I committed the crime, sinceit is impossibleto be in two placesat one time. Hence
that assumptionis false.
Another example occurs in debate. C)netechnique of debateis to say, "suppose for
:ege:. -i!ilI a moment that what my opponent says is correct." Starting from this supposition, the
debaterthen deducesone statementafter anotheruntil finally arriving at a statementthat
is completely ridiculous and unacceptableto the audience. By this means the debater
l . l i] iii[ n
showsthe opponent'sstatementto be false.
The point of departurefor a proof by contradiction is the suppositionthat the statement
to be proved is false. The goal is to reasonto a contradiction. Thus proof by contradiction
has the followins outline:

Method of Proof by Contradiction

1. Supposethe statementto be proved is false. That is, supposethat the negation of
the statementis true. (Be very careful when writing the negation!)
2. Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.

3. Conclude that the statementto be proved is true.

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 3.6 lndirectArgument:
Contradiction
and Contraposition173

ul a Ffod.
Theorem3.6.2
radicti.-: m
if r-ou u mtlt Thereis no integerthatis bothevenandodd.
o e\arndE$
Proof:

fwe take the negation of the theorem and supposeit to be /rue.] suppose not. That
is, suppose there is an integer n that is both even and odd. lwe must deduce a
contradictionl By definition of even, n :2a for some integera, andby definition
of odd, n : 2b * 1 for someintegerb. Consequently,
I a "zillit-nlL*
2a : 2b I I by equating the two expressionsfor n
alize ths
\\-45 and so
m.
:easonin_g
2a-2b:l
integer" Tuo 2(a-b):l
n: that rhem (a - b) : ll2 bYalgebra.
Now since a and b are integers, the difference a - b must also be an integer. But
a - b : l/2, and I 12 is notan integer.Thus a - b is an integer anda -b is not an
integer, which is a contradiction. fThis contradiction shows that the supposition is
false and, hence,that the theorem is true.l

The next example asks you to show that the sum of any rational number and any
irrational number is irrational. One way to think of this is in terms of a certain object
(the sum of a rational and an irrational) not having a certain property (the property of
being rational). This suggeststrying a proof by contradiction: supposethe object has the
not. Thir property and deducea contradiction.
orr.l Then
,TIS A SW:
Example 3.6.3 The Sum of a Rational Number and an rrrational Number
r and -\- l: Use proof by contradiction to show that the sum of any rational number and any irrational
rs that tinc number is irrational.
Solution Begin by supposingthe negation of what you are to prove. Be very careful when
writing down what this means. If you take the negation incorrectly, the entire rest of the
proof will be flawed. In this example,the statementto be proved can be written formally as
vs the
V real numbers r and s, if r is rational and
re." Bec
s is irrational, then r * s is irrational.
at qhich
From this you can seethat the negation is

I a rational number r and an irrational

numbers such that r * s is rational.

caution! The negationof "The sum of any irrational number and any rational
number is irrational" is Nor "The sum of any irrational number and any
rationalnumberis rational."
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 ..1A 'gLrnenr: C o^trodr tro^ and C onl raposi tron 175

Now bc - acl andbd areboth intesersIsittcea. b. c. nntl d are, ttnd.since products

and tlffirenc:esof integersare irrregersl.andbtl # 0 lbl, the :,eroproductproper\'1.
Hences is a quotientof the tu o integersbc - atl andbd with bd I 0. Thus,by def:
inition of rational,.i is rational.u hich contradictsthe suppositionthat s is irational.
fHenc:ethe suppositionisful.seutttl tlte theoremis true.l

Argumentby Contraposition
A secondform of indirect argument,argumentby contruposition,ts basedon the logical
equivalencebetweena statementand its contrapositive. To prove a statementby con-
traposition,you take the contrapositiveof the statement,prove the contrapositiveby a
direct proof. and concludethat the original statementis true. The underlyingreasoning
is that since a conditional statementis logically equivalentto its contrapositive,if the
contrapositiveis true then the statementmust also be true.

Method of Proof by Contraposition

1. Expressthe statementto be proved in the form

Vx in D, if P(,r) then O(x).
(This stepmay be done mentally.)

2. Rewrite this statementin the contrapositiveform

Vx in D, it QG) is falsethen P(x) is false.
(This stepmay also be done mentally.)

3. Provethe contrapositiveby a direct proof.

a. Supposex is a (particularbut arbitrarily chosen)elementof D suchthat Q(r)

is false.

b. Show that P(;r) is false.

Example 3.6.4 If the Square of an Integer Is Even, Then the Integer Is Even

rr I- ,' Provethattbr all intesers

n, if ll is eventhenn is even.
Solution to be proved.
First form the contrapositiveof the statel.nent

C o tttrttl tttsi ti te.

For al l i ntegers
n. i f n i s not e\en thennl i s not even.
Iiru:
By the quotient-remainder theoremwith d : 2, any integeris evenor odd, so any integer
that is not evenis odd. Also by Theorem3.6.2,no integercan be both evenand odd. So
if an integeris odd,thenit is not even.Thusthe contrapositivecanbe restatedasfbllows:
For all integersn. if rr is odd then rrr is oclcl.
Contrcrpo.sitiver
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 3.6 -rrrectArgument: andContraposition
Contradiction 177

As an example,here is a proof b1'contradictionof Proposition3.6.4,namely that for

any integern,if nz is even then n is even.

Proposition3.6.4
For all intesersn.if nz is eventhenn is even

Proof (by contradiction):

fWe take the negation of the theoremand supposeit to be trae.l Supposenot. That
is, supposethere is an integer n such that rz2is even and n is not even. lWe must
deducea contradictioz.l By the quotient-remaindertheorem with d : 2, any integer
is even or odd. Hence, since n is not even it is odd, and thus, by definition of
odd.r : 2k + | for someintegerk. By substitution and algebra:n2 : (2k * l)2 :
4k2+ 4k + | :2(2kz + 2k) + 1. But2kz * 2k is an integerbecauseproductsand
sums of integersare integers. So n2 : 2 ' (an integer)+ l, and so, by definition of
odd,n2 is odd. Therefore,lr2 is both even and odd. This contradictsTheorem3.6.2,
which statesthat no integer can be both even and odd. fThis contradiction showsthat
'. :-rfr
the supposition is false and, hence,that the proposition is true.l
- aif

Note that when you use proof by contraposition, you know exactly what conclusion
you need to show, namely the negation of the hypothesisl whereasin proof by contradic-
tion, it may be difficult to know what contradiction to head for. On the other hand, when
you useproofby contradiction,onceyou havededucedany contradictionwhatsoever,you
aredone. The main advantageof contrapositionover contradiction is that you avoid having
to take (possiblyincorrectly)the negationof a complicatedstatement.The disadvantage
of contraposition as compared with contradiction is that you can use contraposition only
for a specific class of statements-those that are universal and conditional. The discus-
sion above shows that any statementthat can be proved by contraposition can be proved
by contradiction. But the converseis not true. Statementssuch as "Ji i" irrational"
(discussedin the next section)can be proved by contradictionbut not by contraposition.

Proof as a Problem-SolvingTool
Direct proof, disproof by counterexample,proof by contradiction,and proof by contra-
position are all tools that may be used to help determine whether statementsare true or
false. Given a statementof the form
For all elementsin a domain,if (hypothesis)then (conclusion),

imagine elementsin the domain that satisfy the hypothesis. Ask yourself: Must they
satisfy the conclusion? If you can see that the answer is "yes" in all cases,then the
statementis true and your insight will form the basis for a direct proof. If after some
thought it is not clear that the answer is "yes," try to think whether there are elementsof
the domain that satisfy the hypothesisatd not the conclusion. If you are successfulin
finding some,then the statementis false and you have a counterexample.On the other
hand,ifyou are not successfulin finding suchelements,perhapsnone exist. Perhapsyou
can showthat assumingthe existenceof elementsin the domainthat satisfythe hypothesis
and not the conclusionleadslogically to a contradiction.If so,thenthe given statementis
true and you havethe basisfor a proof by contradiction.Alternatively,you could imagine
elementsof the domain for which the conclusionis false and ask whethersuchelements
alsofail to satisfythe hypothesis.If the answerin all casesis "yes," then you havea basis
for a oroof bv contraoosition.
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 3.7 TwoClassical
Theorems 179

)1F'' -re statementsin 17 and 18 by contraposition. | : I 11, which is rational. This is a contradiction. lHence
the supposition is false and the theorem is true.f"
- -: : product of two positive real numbersis greaterthan 100,
:en at least one ofthe numbers is greater than 10. 28. a. Use the propertiesof inequalities in Appendix A to prove
that for all integers r, s, and n, if r > Ji and s > Jn
l -- a sum of two real numbers is less than 50. then at least
then rJ' > ,.
.r..' of the numbersis lessthan 25.
l/ b. Use proof by contraposition and the result of part (a) to
t l".nsider the statement"For all integers n. if n2 is odd then show that for all integers n > l, rf n is not divisible by
: ls odd." any positive integer that is greaterthan 1 and lessthan or
:. \lrite what you would supposeand what you would need equalto ,r/F,then n is prime.
to show to prove this statementby contradiction. c. Use proof by contraposition and the result of paft (b) to
: Write what you would supposeand what you would need show that for all integers n > l, if n is not divisible by
to show to prove this statementby contraposition. any prime number less than or equal to .fi, then n is
. e>\ tl prime.
illl l.rnsider the statement"For all real numbers r. if 12 is irra-
aln -.d
I - -- :inal then r is irrational." 29. Use the result of exercise 28 to determine whether the fol-
--
u!t1-- - . Write what you would supposeand what you would need lowing numbers are prime.
r (r l1 ! =
to show to prove this statementby contradiction. a. 66'7 b. 557 c. 527 d. 613
: Write what you would supposeand what you would need
TI [r]:lf 30. The sieve of Eratosthenes,named after its inventor, the
to show to prove this statementby contraposition.
ne e i : : Greek scholar Eratosthenes(276-194 B.c.), provides a way
:i' = :;rch of the statementsin 2l-26 in two ways: (a) by con-
tlS€ -r]r:
to lind all prime numbers less than or equal to some fixed
r--:, -rtion and (b) by contradiction. number n. To construct it, write out all the integers from
ll le negative of any irrational number is irrational. 2 to n. Cross out all multiples of 2 except 2 itself, then all
multiples of 3 except 3 itself, then all multiples of 5 except
''- lhe reciprocal
of any irrational number is irrational. (The 5 itself, and so forth. Continue crossing out the multiples
reciprocal of a nonzero real number x is 1/x.) of each successiveprime number tp to Ji. The numbers
that are not crossedout are all the prime numbers from 2 to
IJ I l ! : d
n. Here is a sieve of Eratosthenesthat includes the numbers
l;\ F.rrallintegersa,b,andc,if a /bcthena /b. (Recallthat from 2 to 2'7. The multiples of 2 are crossed out with a /,
-,.:re
symbol /means "does not divide.") the multiples of 3 with a \, and the multiples of 5 with a -.

! fitLl':-a 5 F.-rrall integers m and n, if m I n is even then m andn are 23.{sK7,,\Wtttz13 14

arth even or m and r?are both odd. t+ t6 r7 >4 le 7+ X 22 23 >4 + % >7
. r 6. :
-
rr Forallintegersa,
b,andc,if a lbanda I c,thena X (b + c). Use the sieve of Eratosthenesto find all prime numbers less
Hint: To prove p --+ q v r, it suffices to prove either than 100.
? \ -q -+ r or p A -r -+ 4. See exercise 14 in Section
rrati.r-,: j1\ 31. Use the results of exercises28 and 30 to determine whether
the following numbers are prime.
f The following "proof" that every integer is rational is incor- a. 9,269 b. 9,103 c. 8,623 d. 7,917
:ect. Find the mistake.
"Proof (by contradiction): Supposenot. Supposeevery H + 32. Use proof by contradiction to show that every integer greater
than l l is a sum of two composite numbers.
nteger is irrational. Then the integer I is irrational. But
leastc,::

ution -,i
3.7 TwoClassicalTheorems
iposrll,rr How flat and dead would be a mind that saw nothing in a negation but an opaque
barrier! A live mind can see a window onto a world of possibilities.
: For; . - DouglasHofstadter, Gridel,EscherBach,1919
, intese:
[ehnitrr: This section contains proofs of two of the most famous theorems in mathemati cs: that A
substir.- is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Both proofs are examples
ecause_ of indirect arguments and were well known more than 2,000 years ago, but they remain
' t. an dr - exemplary models of mathematical argument to this day.
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 3.7 TwoClassical
Theorems 181

Theorem3.T.l Irrationality of rt
iansbel r/2 is irrational.
rtegers. :',Lry
: in the Proof:
lWe take the negation and supposeit to be trae.l Supposenot. That is, suppose1,4
is rational. Then there are integers m andn with no common factors such that

m
J' : n
3 .7 .1

lby dividing m and n by any common factors if necessary). [We must derive a
contradictionl Squaringboth sidesofequation (3.7.1)gives
t
m-
": ,rr.

Or, equivalently,

m2 : 2n2. 3. i. z
Note that equation (3.1.2) implies that mz is even (by definition of even). It follows
that m is even (by Proposition 3.6.4). We file this fact away for future referenceand
also deduce(by definition of even) that

m :2k for someintegerft.

Substitutingequation(3.7.3) into equation(3.1.2), we seethar

m2 : (2k)2:4k2 :2n2.
Dividing both sidesof the righrmost equation by 2 gives
I be rationd- n2:2k2.
3matlclan
|'er\' \\ a-i Consequently,n2 is even,and so n is even (by Proposition 3.6.4). But we also know
the porr er that m is even. fThis is thefact wefiled away.lHenceboth m and n have a common
factorof2. Butthiscontradictsthesuppositionthatmandnhavenocommonfactors.
rd is simi lHence the supposition is false and so the theorem is true.l
ratician
st six bcri\r
for more Now that you have seen the proof that Ji is inational, you can easily derive the
uould nor,r irrationality of certain other real numbers.

:ans that
mmon f Example3.7.1 Irrationality of | + 3rt
the n
t( 6.2t: Prove by contradiction that I * 3 O isirrational.
iactors.) Solution The essenceof the argument is the observationthat if I + 3J, could be written
l factors in as a fraction,then so colld But by Theorem3.1.1, we know that to be impossible.
"/2.
lommon
nteger is
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 The ideaof Euclid's proof is this: Supposethe setof prime numberswere linite. Then
you could take the productof all the prime numbersand add one. By Theorem3.3.2this
numbermustbe divisibleby someprime number.But by Proposition3.7.3,this numberis
not divisible by any of the prime numbersin the set. Hencetheremust be a prime number
that is not in the setof all prime numbers,which is impossible.
The followins formal proof fills in the detailsof this outline.
rn.l Thec

Theorem3.7.4Infinitude of the Primes

The setof primenumbersis infinite.

Proof (by contradiction):

Supposenot. Supposethe set of prime numbers is finite. lWe mLtstdeduce a
contradictionl Then all the prime numberscan be listed, say,in ascendingorder:
pt:2, pz:3, pt:5, p+ :J, ps:17,...,P ,.

Consider the integer

N: ptpzps" ' p" l l .

Then N > l, and so, by Theorem 3.3.2, N is divisible by some prime number p.
Also, since p is prime, p must equal one of the prime numbers Pt, Pz, Pt, . . . ,
p n . T h u spl (ptpzpt...p,). B yP roposi ti on3.l .3,p X @ rpzpt" ' P ,l l) , andso
p / N. Hence p I N and p I N, which is a contradiction. fHence the supposition is
false and the theoremis true.l
d products
nce l/2 i.
is rational The proof of Theorem3.7.4 showsthat if you form the product of all prime numbers
nal. lThis up to a certainpoint and add one,the result,N, is divisible by a prime numbernot on the
ional. list. The proof doesnot show that N is, itself, prime. In the exercisesat the end of this
section you are askedto find an example of an integer N constructedin this way that is
not prime.

s a product cr
Whento Uselndirect Proof
here a larges The examplesin this sectionand Section3.6 have not provideda definitiveanswerto the
t of all prire questionof when to prove a statementdirectly and when to prove it indirectly. Many
theoremscan be proved either way. Usually, however, when both types of proof are
d: If a prim possible,indirect proof is clumsier than direct proof. In the absenceof obvious clues
suggestingindirect argument,try first to prove a statementdirectly. Then,if that doesnot
succeed,look for a counterexample.If the searchfor a counterexampleis unsuccessful,
look for a proof by contradictionor contraposition.

in NumberTheory
OpenQuestions
In this sectionwe proved that there are infinitely many prime numbers. There is no known
formula for obtaining primes, but a few formulas have beenfound to be more successfulat
rber p such
producingthem than otherformulas. One suchis due to Marin Mersenne,a Frenchmonk
tegersr and
who lived from 1588-1648. Mersenneprimes have the form2l'- l, where p is prime.
ps -pr:
Not all numbersof this form are prime, but becauseof the greaterlikelihood of finding
divisors of
primesamongthem, thoseseekinglargeprime numbersoften test thesefor primality. As
;p < 1and
a result,many of the largestknown prime numbersare Mersenneprimes.
proposition
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 3] Theorems 185
TwoClassical

28. An alternative proof of the infinitude of the prime numbers

e primes. A5 ll. The quotient-remaindertheorem saysnot only that there ex-
ist quotients and remainders but also that the quotient and beginsas follows:
mathematical
)ne may ha\€ remainder of a division are unique' Prove the uniqueness' Proof: Supposethere are only finitely many prime num-
large number That is, prove that ifa and d are integers with d > 0 and if bers. Then one is the largest. Call it p. Let M : pl * I'
Qt' rt, 42, and12 areintegerssuchthat We will show that there is a prime number q such that q > p '
form22" + l-
dn, as ofnou- a: dqr * r t wher e0< r t < d ComPletethis Proof.
primes of the H *2g. Prove that if p r, Pz, . . . , ffid pn are distinct prime numbers
and
rrime number with p1 : 2 andn > 1' then Pt Pz "' p' * I can be written
a: dqz lr z wher e0 < r z <d , in the form 4k * 3 for some integer /r.
iecture, which
then t i< 30. Prove that for all integers n, rf n > 2 then there is a prime
rndp*2 .Ar number P such that n < P < nt.
qr : qz and rt : 12'
ood computer
( n ! : n ( n - 1 ) " '3 '2 'l )
ber, no matter Ul. Prove that rE is irrational.
H 31. a. Fermat's last theorem says that for all integers n > 2,
Jf. Provethat for any integera. 9 X @2 - 31.
only solutiont the equation x" + yn : z' has no positive integer solu-
rter than l, is ll. a. Use the unique factorization theorem to answer the fol- tion (solution for which x, y, and z arepositive integers)'
lowing question: If the prime factorization of an integer Prove the following: If for all prime numbers p > 2,
mber theorisr n contains/coccurrencesof aprime number p, how many xp I lp : zP has no positive integer solution, then for
wo ofx, y, or occunencesof p arecontainedin the prime factorization any integer n > 2Ihat is not a power of 2' xn I !' : zn
rand and then of n2? has no Positive integer solution.
b. An alternative proof of the irrationality of rD counts the b. Fermat proved that there are no integersx, y, and z such
ons exist. His
number of 2's on the two sidesof the equation2n2 : m2 that x4 * ya : za. Use this result to remove the restric-
:eof $100,000 and deducesa contradiction. Write a proof that usesthis tion in part (a) that n not be a power of 2' That is, prove
approach. that If n is a power of 2 and n > 4' then xn + y" : zn
theory. Man-r has no Positive integer solution.
'-. Use the proof techniqueillustrated in exercise2 1(b) to prove
m one cenfun
that if z is any integer that is not a perfect square' then tfi For exercises 32-35 note that to show there is a unique object
rre results are
is irrational. with a certain property, show that (1) there is an object with
the property and (2) if objects A and B have the property, then
al. Prove that A + .'6 is irrational.
A: B.
* l-t. Prove that logr(2) is irrational.
32. Prove that there exists a unique prime number of the form
ers is irrational. N l-i. Let N :2 .3 '5 '7 + 1. What remainderis obtainedwhen n2 - l, where r is an integer that is greater than or equal
N is divided by 2? 3? 5? 7? Is N prime? Justify your to 2.
.s irrational.
answer.
33. Prove that there exists a unique prime number of the form
re, then its cube
I X, Supposea is an integer and p is a prime number such that n2 +2n - 3, where n is apositive integer.
p I a andp | (a + 3). What can you deduceabout p? Why?
34. Prove that there is at most one real number a with the prop-
onal then is
"6and 11. LetPr, Pz, Pz,. '.bealistof allprimenumbersinascending erty that a + r : r for all real numbers r. (Such a number
etimes true
order. Here is a table of the first six: is called an additive identitY.)
)ur answer.
35. Prove that there is at most one real number b with the prop-
r then c is even. Pr Pz Pt Pq Ps Ps
erty that br : r fot all real numbers r. (Such a number is
2 5 "l ll t3 called a multiplicative identity.)
-)
rt for any inte-
h 34r * rr and ll a. For eac h i : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, let Ni : P t P z " 'P i 't I .
egers,0< 11 < CalculateNr, Nz, N3, N4' Ns, and No.
b. For eachi - |,2, 3,4, 5, 6, find the smallestprime num-
-remainder the- ber q; suchthat 4; divides N;.
It of part (a) to
ible by 3 then n

rrime and n2 is
bv d.