Fubk-Gst 203 Lecture Note (2022-2023)

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY BIRNIN KEBBI
DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES
GST 203
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
2 UNITS
2015/2016 session
© DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY BIRNIN KEBBI-NIGERIA
GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 1
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Definition of Science
2. History of Science
3. Description of Science
4. Evolution of Modern Science
5. Branches of Science
6. Characteristics of Science
7. Philosophy of Science
8. Types of Philosophies of Science
9. Philosophical Positions of Philosophy of Science
10. How Science Progress
11. Man, His origin and Nature
12. Man and His Environment
13. Scientific Method
14. Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
15. Man and His Energy Resources

DEFINITION OF SCIENCE
Scientist, educationalist and researchers individually contributed in giving one definition
or another at different times, it is therefore necessary to study some of these definitions
and make meaning out of them. Here are the condensations of some of their definitions:
 According to Einstein (1940), Science is the attempt to make the chaotic

diversity of our sense experience corresponding to a logically uniform
system of thought.
 Bajah (1977) sees Science as a discovering process that revealed
relationship existing in nature.
 Abdullahi (1982) defined Science as activities culminating into testable,
falsifiable and verifiable body of knowledge.
 Oguniyi (1984) defined Science as an attempt by human beings to
organize their experiences about nature into meaningful system of
explanations.
 Science is universally regarded as an organized study of natural
phenomena. It is now acknowledged that the view which regards science
in terms of its methods or products or in relation to what scientist do is
regarded as the dynamic view (Gilbert, Osborne, Ferisham, Bajah &
Okebulola, 1984).
 To sum it all, according to Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Standard
(2005) the word Scientia i.e. Science originated from a Latin word Scire
which means “to know”, the term is used in its broadest sense to denote
systematized knowledge in any field but usually applied to the
organization of objectively verified sense experience. The pursuit of
knowledge in this context is known as pure science, to distinguish it from
applied science which is the search for practical uses of scientific
knowledge, and from technology through which applications are realized.
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
The different kinds of knowledge acquired by primitive man were not at first classified
rather they were blended into a common culture. Science then was at the observational
and descriptive stage as man’s concern was in acquiring material for tools and equipment
for hunting and gathering food, which were his preoccupation. Also important for the
primitive man was knowledge of the heavenly bodies as well as features of the landscape,
which were thought to have something to do with the abundance of food. This was the
Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic period. During this period, the basis of mechanics had
been established in the making and use of the necessary implements for the survival of
humanity. Also developed was the foundation of chemistry and biology in the making
and use of fire and in the knowledge of available plants and animals in limited habitats
which made him vulnerable to extinction as a result of changes in conditions that
determine the abundance of such animals, either due to climate changes or due to over-
hunting by man himself. This forced him into an intensive search for new kinds of food
such as roots and seeds of wild grasses. This eventually led to the invention of the
techniques of agriculture which is one of the momentous inventions in human history.
The growing of crops and the domestication of animals were thought to have evolved
simultaneously, with the former being a more far-reaching invention than the latter,
because without a stable supply of fodder, it is impossible to keep an adequate number of
animals in a restricted area. This was the Neolithic or agriculture era of human
history. The most revolutionary effect of this period was that it was possible for people
to live together in larger numbers thereby establishing villages and cities. The major
technical achievement of this era was the discovery and use of metals, particularly copper
and its alloy, bronze for the production of far more effective and durable implements,
utensils and weapons. The vanity of these metals however restricted their use to the
making of luxury articles and weapons while agricultural implements were still made of
stone. Nonetheless, this paved way for other occupations such as carpentry and masonry
on a large scale.
AIMS OF SCIENCE
Why do you think people involve themselves in scientific activities? Right from the
dawn of history, man has tried to understand himself and the nature that surrounds
him. He has seen the world around him, which evidently has remained the same
world, and yet is full of change, motion and of variety. There are dawns and sunsets,
births and deaths, the solid earth and the ever-restless seas. There are various kinds of
things in the world like minerals, plants, and men. Thus, we can say that science aims
at enabling man to explain how the world, events and objects around him originate,
develop, operate or function. It also helps him to predict how they will behave in
future and thus enables him to control the behaviour of the things around him, once he
is able to develop the appropriate instruments for such control (Nwala: 1997).
Thus, the aim of science is to equip man with theoretical knowledge about the world
and such knowledge is usually summarized using concepts, laws and theories which
help us to express and systematize our understanding of objects and phenomena.
Science also equips us with practical knowledge in terms of the various ways,
mechanisms and instruments which enable us to control objects and phenomena.
Science is, therefore, not only a source of knowledge; it is also a source of power.
THE DESCRIPTION OF SCIENCE

Science attained an independent status only in the 17 th century AD, and had since then
undergone rapid changes both in its meaning and scope that any formal definition might
only express certain aspects of its growth. However, it could be understood through its
various descriptions given by different scholars.
According to Wasagu (2004) in the past, attempts were made to define the word science.
And so far, there is no single definition that is acceptable to all. It is therefore much
easier to state and describe aspects of science. The following are some of the aspects of
science.
i. It is a body of knowledge
ii. It is a process (as a method)
iii. It is dynamic (open to change)
iv. It is an institution
Bernal (1971) identified five different aspects of science that distinguish it from other
field of human Endeavour these are:
i. Science as an institution (profession)
ii. Science as a method
iii. Science as a cumulative tradition of knowledge
iv. Science as a factor of production
v. Science as a source of ideas
i. Science as an institution (profession)

Although the institutionalization of science into a profession is a recent development, it
has already acquired so many characteristics of a profession that it is easier to recognize
who a scientist is. As a professional, the scientist worked in close association with 3
groups of people, namely; his public who collectively and severally determine what he
does. The patron who provides the funds while the scientist’s colleagues provide the
recognition and acceptance he needs. Eventually, it is the general public that gives
meaning and value to the work of the scientists.
ii. Science as a Method
It is often argued that science is the process of making discoveries rather than the
discoveries themselves. Although this process is not one fixed way of finding the truth,
some formal procedure lies behind the work of scientists. The first essential step in the
process is observation. Through observations, the scientist tries to find out things and
relations that are as far as possible independent of his sentiments. Hypotheses (i.e.
Definite ideas) are then formulated in the light of information gathered from these
observations. Next, Experiments are designed and performed to test the hypotheses.
Next is the Conclusion is reached and finally a Theory is formulated. A well-designed
experiment always adds to knowledge even if it leaves some questions unanswered or
suggests new ones, in which case it enable one to think more about the problem in
different perspectives. The process then continues rather indefinitely, with observations
and hypotheses improved after each cycle, leading to progressively more reliable
knowledge, which is the best available for practical purposes, at the point in time. The
procedure constitutes what is otherwise known as the tactics of scientific advancement.
On the other hand, here is also what is called the strategy of scientific advancement. This
had to do with determining the choice and sequence of problem to solve. Sometimes the
problems are set by the socio-economic realities of the times or arise from the application
of earlier scientific ideas. At other times, the problems arise from intrinsic interest of
scientist.
iii. Science as a Cumulative Tradition of Knowledge
The cumulative nature of science distinguishes it from other aspects of man’s social
achievements. The methods of science would be of little use to the scientist it he does not
have at his disposal an immense stock of previous knowledge and experience. Although

not all of these are correct, they provide the working scientist with bases on which to
support his future progress. To know what is already known is not enough, to be a
scientist, one needs to add something of his own to the existing body of scientific
knowledge. Although other human institution like law, religion, philosophy and art have
histories and traditions which are in some cases older than those of science, they are still
not cumulative. They are either concerned with preserving Eternal truths (as in religion)
or with individual performance (as in arts). The scientist on the other hand is striving to
change accepted truths, while his work (an individual performance) is soon assimilated,
superseded and lost, while great work of arts, music and literature are preserved in the
original results of scientific work are incorporated in current science.
Iv. Science as a Factor of Production
Man’s control over his environment is placed in stages (variously called the Stone Age,
Bronze Age, Steam Age, Atomic Age etc) each marked by the appearance of some new
material and techniques. Important as they are, materials have to be fashioned by man
before they can be of any use to him. It was in ways of extracting and fashioning
materials so that they could be used as tools to satisfy the prime needs of man that
techniques arouse first, and then later became science. Science is thus the technical factor
of production. The other factors being material and economic
v. Science as a Source of Ideas
The conventional view of science describes its law and theories as legitimate or even
logical deductions from experimentally established facts. Contrary to this however,
Bernal (1971) argued that scientific laws, hypotheses and theories have wider bearing,
then the objective facts they claimed to explain. Most of them necessarily explain in large
part, the general non-scientific intellectual atmosphere of the time by which the
individual scientists is inevitably conditioned. These forms of thought can either lead to
valid scientific advances or become conditioned. These forms of thought can either lead
to valid scientific advances or become obstacle of scientific progress. The greatest
difficulty to discovery then is not so much to make the necessary observations, but to
break away from established traditional ideas in interpreting the observations. The
struggle between science and religion over Darwinian evolution for instance is not
essentially a scientific or even a philosophical one but a reflection of political struggle in
scientific terms. This notwithstanding, the progress of science depends on the existence
of a continuous traditional picture or working model (paradigm) of the universe. Such
paradigms are continually and often violently broken down from time to time and remade
in the light of new experiments in the material and social worlds.
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN SCIENCE
A question that is often asked by science teachers is ‘when did science begin?’
No one has provided a satisfactory answer to this question because science was being
practice before whewell defined it in 1840 as “the activities of people who work in
obscure and inaccessible laboratories with strange apparatus and using language which
only their colleagues understand” (Bernal, 1971). Early man observed natural phenomena
on its causes so as to find explanations for its formation in his primitive way. From pre-
historic to Greek times, man always wanted to understand the beggaries of nature: what is
the sun, moon, the stars, rocks, air and the living things on earth composed of? They
rationalized about the world around them. Nonetheless, between 4000 and 3000BC, the
‘ancient scientist’ were preoccupied with useful arts such as smelting, healing and
building. These arts were recorded in writing (Taylor, 1955).
However, since Greek philosophers began systematic reasoning, the beginning of
modern science is usually to the time of the Ancient Greeks, which began in the Greek
Ionian colonies about 600BC. The Greeks were taken as the pristine theoretical scientists.
Their studies were the processors of Biology, Chemistry Physics and Mathematics. The
Greek philosophers introduced the tradition of speculation which later formed the basis of
what would now call scientific theories.
Such speculations or theories about the universe and the material composing it
began with Thales (C. 640-546BC). It must be mentioned that the Greeks had neither
laboratories nor observations. The only instrument or equipment they had was their brain.
And as there was always question about the material from which the universe was made
from, Thales proposed that water was the fundamental substance of all things. The
earth according to him was a disc which floated on the water below, and the water above
was the source of the rains. Thales theory that there was a primary substance of which all
things were formed received considerable acceptance.
A student of Thales called Anaximander (C, 611-547BC) proposed an opposing
theory by believing in a primary substance that was not identifiable with a known
substance. However, while another Greek philosopher Anaximenes (C.585-525BC)
considered air to be the primary substance from which all matters was derive,
Empedocles (C. 495-435BC) based his cosmology on four elements, namely earth, air,
fire and water. Any two or more combination of these elements might account for the
various materials present in the universe.
Socrates pupils, Plato (C. 428-347BC) introduced logic in his attempt to explain
and understand nature. He viewed the universe as having a geometric existence.
Therefore, he considered all the four elements propounded by Empedocles – air,
water; fire and earth-to compose of solid figures that were derived from triangles. He
assigned cube to earth, the tetrahedron to fire, the octahedron to air, and the
eicosahedron to water. He speculated on the fifth element the material forming the
heavens, which he assigned dodecahedron. Plato’s theory is the basis for modern
chemistry as the regular solid are utilized in chemistry today in the form of tetrahedral
representations of carbon and silicon atoms, in the representations of structure of
coordination compounds, and in the crystallography technique.
As one science historian believes, about eighty years after the death of Thales
around 465BC the philosopher Democritus (C. 470-380BC) was born. Democritus
had been called the ‘father of the atom’ because he was the first to conceive of the
concept. He developed a comprehensive atomic theory and demonstrated a clear
foresight of many details facts, which were later, discovers by modern science.
Democritus was credited to be the first to use the word ‘atom’ which he derived

from the Greek word atomnos meaning something that cannot be further divided. He
also postulated that everything in the differed in size, shape and perhaps weight
Plato’s successors departed from his views of the universe.
Aristole (C. 384-322BC) viewed all things below the sphere of the moon as
composed of earth, fire, water and air. The four elements are qualities or properties
rather than substances. One element can be converted into another by the combination
of two opposite properties. Thus, there were four combinations: The quality or
property of the earth is dry-cold; of water is wet-cold, fire is dry-hot and air is
wet-hot. Through appropriate combinations of qualities, Earth, Water, Fire and Air
are interchangeable. The heavens according to Aristotle were composed of the fifth
element quintessence.
Greek philosophers were merely reasoning about the universe, and trying to discover
reasons why the world was as they conceived it. During this period of theoretical science,
there was not much of observing, or experimenting on ideas. Consequently, too often, the
Greek philosophers based beautiful theories on unsound data’ Between 60BC to
1600AD., conceptual science was Greek science because from all available records the
Romans, the Arabs and the men of mediaeval Europe did not more than to preserve and
enlarge on Greek ideals.
The demise of Greek science was brought about in the fifteenth, sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries when it was discovered that observations and predictions could not
be based on Greek theories, this meant that Greek science could not be used to explain or
predict natural phenomena. The scientists of the centuries starting from 1650 the present
day have been preoccupied with providing.
1. Extensive and intensive descriptions of phenomena which occur in the universe
2. Explanation for these phenomena by establishing relationship which exist
between them and
3. Establishing principles and theories for the predictions of these events.
The efficacy of the kind of science practices today is to seen in our ability to control
events that occur within our environment and our understanding of the natural forces.
Modern scientists developed thermometer, barometer, microscope, telescope, air pump
and other applied science products in order to make the study of science more effective
and to improve upon the reliability of information gathered. Thus, modern scientists were
mainly experimentalists and their results were used in the industrial development of the
advanced nations. By 1750 in academic discipline of science had become
institutionalized and transcended national boundaries.
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Science can be divided into two main branches with some sub-branches as described by
Wasagu (2004). The branches are Pure Science (formal and empirical) and Applied
Science (medical and technological).

1. Pure Science (Factual): - This is concerned with psychological pursuit of
theoretical knowledge, which is formal and deductive. Having sub-branches as
a) Formal Science: which is, classified as physical Science e.g. Mathematics,
theoretical physics, statistic, algebra and geometry.
b) Empirical Science: classified as natural science e.g Biology, Chemistry. Physics,
any and Zoology.
2. Applied Science (Professional): This is concerned with control, planning,
technological progress and utilization of the forces of nature for practical purpose.
a) Medical Sciences: This is characterized as medicine and applied pharmaceutical
science.
b) Technological Science: This is characterized as Engineering (e.g. chemical,
mechanical and electrical engineering) and Agricultural sciences (e.g. Agric
mechanization and engineering).
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE
According to Wasagu (2004), for any study to be termed science, it must possess the
following fundamental characteristics.
i. Objectivity and Testability: This refers to unbiased and very possibility of being
check-up by anyone.
ii. Reliability through verification: This refers to consistency of results over time.
Thus, whenever tested, it turns out to be true.
iii. Definiteness and precision: This means that it must be free from vagueness and
ambiguity with the help of measuring instruments and techniques.
iv. Systematic and coherence in character: This means that it must be logical, step-
by-step and free from contradiction.
v. Comprehensiveness in scope: This means that it must be complete
(completeness) in its explanatory power.
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
According to Wasagu (2004) philosophy of science is a phrase rather than a word; it is
therefore very difficult to define. In specific terms, philosophy of science is a field of
study that attempts to understand the meanings, methods, logic and methodological
analysis of the aims and objectives, methods, criteria, concepts, laws and theories of
science. Philosophy of science is also concerned with pausing and attempting to answer
questions about the nature, validity and structure of scientific knowledge. It ask and
attempts to answer such questions as:
i. What is science?
ii. What is the nature of science?
iii. How does scientific knowledge differ from other forms of knowledge?
iv. How do we arrive at scientific truth?
The answers to these questions were already attempted.
It has been argued that the growth in the study and practice of science and the emergence
of diversification in the study of natural phenomenon gave rise to the vast area of
knowledge called the philosophy of science (Jegede, 1990). The development and growth
of this field were traced from Bacon to Hudson (1988) through Lakatos (1970). Kuhn

(1970) and Popper (1973) they all indicated that philosophy of science as a field
concerned itself basically with unraveling the reasons (whys) behind human action and it
focuses on three major issues. Namely:
i. Asking critical questions about what represent adequate scientific worldview,
ii. Analyzing science concepts in order to discover the logic and structure of science.
iii. Describing what scientist does (Jegede, 1994).
TYPES OF PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE

There are basically two types of philosophies of science namely:
a) Standard philosophy of Science
b) New (Contemporary) philosophy of Science
According to Jegede (1994), the standard and the "New" philosophies of science have got
distinctive characteristics which distinguish them into two categories as a result of
dynamism.
STANDARD PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophers such as Bacon, Hampal, Louise, Kant and Hume are the practitioners of
this philosophy of science. They are concerned with the analysis of configuration
relations which hold between a scientific law and the observation statement which
confirmed or disconfirmed the law. The practitioners of standard philosophy of science
claim that.
i. Knowledge is additive and have bottom-up approach
ii. Observation remain the same, during scientific revolutions and
iii. The logical structure of the product of scientific research is very important.
iv. Objective criteria are therefore necessary for the validation of science discoveries.
THE NEW (CONTEMPORARY) PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophers such as Lakatos, Kuhn and Popper discountenance formal logic as the main
tool for scientific analysis. They rely heavily on the use of history and sociology of
science for its analysis and holds discoveries as tentative while still encouraging
further search for more valid results. The practitioners of new or contemporary
philosophy of science claim that:
i. There is a reliance on a detailed study of science for the analysis of science while
resting on the scientific community on the ultimate decision to resolve any
controversial scientific issue.
ii. Science is characterized by two distinct phases; normal science which provide
areas of work for scientists who shape the belief of prevailing paradigm and
revolutionary science which leads to changes in paradigm which unseat incorrect
ones in revolutionary terms.
iii. Observations do not remain the same during scientific revolution; they are
generally governed by changes in paradigm.
iv. Continuing research and attendant criticism rather than accepted results and the
core of Science
PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The theory of knowledge always consists of concepts and knowledge as well as the
degree of their relationship and how it affects the organization of the mind. These

situations lead to opposing philosophical positions like Empiricism, Rationalism and
Constructivism.
1. Empiricism: One of the views that all the five sensory organs are identified by
scientists are the sources of knowledge. And that, the knowledge is acquired as a
result of accumulation and reconstruction of experience (Wasagu, 2004).
 Sensationalism: The hypothesis that all knowledge is derived through sensory
experience (e.g. Eye, Nose, Ear, Skin and Tongue).
 Reductionalism as viewed by empiricists believes that all complex ideas are
built; up out of basic stock of simple ideas and that they are in turn reducible to
these basic elements.
 Associationism; The theory that mental elements or ideas are connected by
sequence of experience.
 Mechanism: The believe that the mind is characterized as a machine built out of
simple elements having ideas.
The above postulations are based on two assumptions
1. There should be memory images
2. Complex ideas are always formed by connecting one memory to another.
2. Rationalism: This philosophical cognition sees reasoning as the prime source of

knowledge, which affect believe and action. According to this position reasoning is the
source of acquiring knowledge.
3. Constructivism: The constructivists are of the view that people construct meanings of
what they do and recognize the importance of prior knowledge.
LOGIC, METHOD AND EPISTEMOLOGY

Philosophy of science is not only about the nature of science, but it is also about
methodology of science. It formulates and establishes principles of valid reasoning.
LOGIC: refers to human reasoning or thought. It is equally concerned with the
authenticity of the inference and conclusion, which we make in our arguments. It is also
the major tool of philosophical reasoning, as well as reasoning in any area of knowledge.
Reasons deal with argument, judgment and inferences at the end.
It will therefore be correct to infer from a statement that says “all mothers are
caring, Zainab is a mother, and therefore Zainab is caring. We cannot validly infer that
Zainab is not caring.
Aristotle formulated three laws of thought that are acceptable for reasoning, these are:
i. Law of contradiction; dealing with correct proposition; example
a. All dogs have one tail
b. My dog freedom has one tail
ii. Law of excluded middle; each proposition is either true or false; example
a. All dogs have six legs
b. My dog freedom has four legs
One statement is true, .one untrue.
Law of identity; each proposition implies itself; example;
a. All dogs have six legs
b. My dog has six legs
Both statements are false if (a) were true (b) would be.
METHODS: (Induction versus deductions). In scientific methods, reasoning could either
be inferred inductively or deductively. Reasoning is simply the process of arguing from
singular proposition to general proposition e.g. from observation that revealed several
oranges to be sweet led to conclusion that all oranges are sweet. On the other hand,
deductive reasoning is the reverse process of arguing from universal or general
propositions to singular or particular propositions. Conclusions from hypothesis are
deductive in nature, hence logically sound and reliable.
EPISTEMOLOGY: Means theory of knowledge. It concerned itself with the definition,
nature and the structure of knowledge. Epistemology is important in the process of
discovery and research. Epistemology is also concerned with sources of knowledge
namely:
 Revealed Knowledge (through revelations)
 Empirical Knowledge (through human senses)
 Rational Knowledge (through reason)
 Intuitive Knowledge (through human intuition and instinct)
 Authority Knowledge (through books and the works of scholars)
HOW SCIENCE PROGRESS (generation of knowledge in science)

Kuhn has identified a number of stages through which science passes (two of the
stages, normal science and revolutionary science are considered to be the most
important).
These stages are nearly reformulated by Mark Richardson below:
1. Pre-scientific stage (Pre-Paradigm Periods

This stage is characterized by the co-existence of many different theories all attempting
to explain the phenomenon resulting in a variety of different explanations of the
phenomenon and related facts. Research in this period is unguided, full of uncertainly,
and no coordination every view is on its own.
2. Emergence of Paradigm (Paradigm Period)

Eventually a theory or group of theories emerges as being successful than the rest
having the following characteristics.
a. Its achievement must be great enough to attract competing practitioners.
b. It must be open-ended enough to leave all sorts of problems be solved
c. It must lead to a research tradition, by providing a working model, of how to do
science.
Within the period, dominant theories emerged and consensus as reached.
3. Normal Science
This stage is described by Kuhn as working within a paradigm. It ends the fruitless debate
between competing theories and permits the establishment of an agreed set of standards
and procedures as well as agreement on the meaning of terms,
4. Crisis and Extra Ordinary Science
A feeling of crisis begins to be experienced that leads to a period of extraordinary
science, which in many ways resembles the pre-scientific stage. Competing theories
arises again and the consensus that existed before disappears. Everything is questioned
and meaningful debate between the raw competing theories becomes difficult if not
impossible, because different approaches, concepts and ideas are used by the competing
theories. But eventually new paradigm begins to emerge.
5. Revolutionary Science Stage.

. This stage is characterized by the emergence of the new paradigm. The concept of
revolution is central to Kuhn’s idea. The old system is considered to have failed, but the
emergence of the new one is resisted. Polarization takes place between the old paradigm
and the new. Paradigm with each side talking its own languages and unable to
communicate with the other.
SCIENTIFIC FACTS
It is important to note that there is a difference between scientific facts and
everyday facts. It is clear that there is more to seeing than meets the eyeball; to see is to
interpret. Seeing is not passive reception; it is an active exercise in problem solving.
What we regard as the fact in science depends upon the expectation and sensory
apparatus contributed to our conceptual patterns of organization.
One can say without any fear of contradiction that the concept of 'Fact' is problematic;
therefore facts can be summarized as follows:
i. A statement of fact is dependent on the instrument of observation
ii. Facts are subjective statements that depend on sense perception.
iii. Facts exist only to the degree of the perception of the individual and phenomenon
in which it is discussed.
iv. Facts are statements which relate theories and particular events and which may
include certain-conventions.
v. Facts are subject to modification, to say they are tentative statements in science.
vi. Facts are not simply accumulative as science instead they change or evolve or
may disappear to be replaced by others.
SCIENTIFIC LAWS (are generalization that are based on particular events)

Scientific laws are generalizations, which sums up all facts established. Therefore
the best law is due to the quality of the facts. As soon as the facts fail the laws may flop.
Scientific laws are not ultimate truths, which have been discovered in nature but instead
are idealization created by scientists to describe approximately patterns discerned in the
environment. However, scientific laws are not more firmly established than the facts.
They generalize and in a number of respects are less certain than facts (Richardson). This
uncertainty in laws arises out of their claim to be applicable to the unknown.
SCIENTIFIC THEORIES
According to Richardson, Scientific theories are usually considered to provide an
explanation of particular facts and laws. It should also enable new facts to be predicted,
and give a sense of understanding of the facts and laws it explains. The issue of where
theories come from always attracts the attention of Science Education Students.
Abdullahi (1981) states that theories are human creations and unlike other theories have
to survive a detailed confrontation with experiments".
However, evidences from the History of Science imply that theories are arrived at
quite differently. Many theories are usually attributed to imaginative in sights which are
then developed by careful conscious thought. A number of scientists have described how
they arrived at their theories in just such terms. Among them is Kekule who claimed that
he arrived at his idea of a ring structure for the benzene molecule when dozing in front of
a fire. Also professor Gabor said that the crucial idea that lead to his discovery of
holography came, while he was watching a game of tennis.
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

The issue surrounding how life originated has been a point of controversy among
different categories of individuals who are interested in the subject. Traditionally, the
study of history of life has been fraught with allegations of indoctrination.
Indoctrination may be defined as a conscious attempt to inculcate unshakable
commitment to a belief or doctrine. Such approaches are not only unscientific but also
intellectually dishonest. Much of the evidences on which range of opinions on the subject
are based is metaphysical. This implies that it is impossible to repeat the exact events of
the origin of life in any demonstrable way. This is true of both scientific and religious
accounts. However, evolution is the only theory concerning the origin of life that appears
scientific. This is because it is made up of a collection of scientific hypotheses that are
capable of being tested. Subsequently, we shall see some of these theories and evidences
as presented by different individual scientists, who have contributed to the subject.
Theories of the Origin of Life

Theories dealing with the origin of life on the Earth (on which man lives) and indeed the
entire universe are diverse and uncertain. There have been divergent views about the
origin of life. The argument had been between the scientists and theologians, Science,
contrary to popular belief, can not contradict the divine origin of life. Nor theological
view necessarily dismisses the scientific hypothesis, that during the origin of life, life
acquired those characteristics which are explained by the laws of science. The major
theories that have been put forth accounting for the origin of life on Earth include;
a. Special creation: - (i.e. life was created by a natural being at a particular time)
b. Spontaneous generation: - (i.e. life originated from non-living matter)
c. Steady state theory (i.e. life has no origin)
d. Cosmozoans theory (i.e. life moved on to these planet, Earth, from elsewhere.
e. Biochemical evolution theory (i.e. life arose according to chemical and physical
laws.
a. Theory Of Special Creation

This theory is supported by most of the world’s major religions (especially, Islam and
Christianity) and civilizations. It attributes the origin of life and indeed man to a
supernatural event at a particular time in the past. According to this, theory, God created
man in his own image. In other words, the diversity of forms as seen among and within
organisms are not as a result of either convergent or divergent gradual changes from an
earlier structure or form; rather they were created spontaneously, just as we find them.
For instance, archbishop Usher of Armagh in support of this theory, calculated in 1650 A.
D. that God created the world in 4004 B. C, beginning on October 1 and finishing with
Man at 9.00 a. m. on October, 23rd . He achieved this figure by adding up the ages of all
the people in the biblical genealogies from Adam to Christ. Though the arithmetic is
sound, he placed Adam to have lived at a time when Archaeological evidence suggests
that there was already a well established civilization in the Middle East. The traditional
Judo – Christian account of creation given in Genesis 1:1-26 has attracted and still
continues to attract controversy. The view about special creation as presented in this
theory to scientists lacks empirical basis because it cannot be subjected to any form of
testing.
b. Theory Of Spontaneous Generation

This theory was prevalent in ancient Chinese, Babylonian and Egyptian thought as an
alternative to special creation. Aristotle (684-322 B. C) believed that life arose
spontaneously. His hypothesis of spontaneous generation assumed that certain particles
of matter contained ‘an active’ principle’ which could produce living organism under
suitable condition. His active principle includes the fertilized egg. With the coming of
Christianity, the spontaneous theory became less acceptable except those who believed in
magic and devil worship, though it remained a basic idea for a long period afterwards. A
number of people, through series of experimentation and observation, disproved the
theory of spontaneous generation. Instead they based the origin of
c. Steady State Theory
This theory asserts that, the Earth had no origin, has always been able to support life, and
has changed a little and that species had no origin. The theory proposes that species, too
never originated, the only alternatives are for its numbers to vary or for it to become
extinct. The theory does not accept the palaeontological evidence that the presence or
absence of a fossil indicates the origin of extinction of species. The paloeontological
evidence presented in support of the steady state theory describes the fossils appearance
in ecological terms. For example, the
steady state theory believed that, fossilization is only favoured in an increased population
or movement of the organism into an area that favoured fossilization.
d. Cosmozoan Theory
This theory does not offer a mechanism or account for the origin of life but favours the
idea that, it could have had an extra terrestrial origin. It does not therefore constitute a
theory of origin as such, but merely shifts the problem to elsewhere in the universe. The

theory states that life could have arisen once or several times in various parts of our
Galaxy or the universe. Repeated sightings of café drawings, of rockets-like objects and
specimen provide some evidence for this theory.
e. Biochemical Evolution
This theory has its root in the belief of astronomers, geologists and biologists that the
Earth is about 4.5-5.0 thousand million years old. Many biologists believe that the
original state of the Earth bore little resemblance to its present day form and had the
problem of appearance. It was hot (about 4000-80000C)
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The concept of evolution did not start with Darwin, when he published “the origin of
species” rather it had been a point of discourse among several philosophers. The
historical background of the theory of evolution reveals that the concept of continuity or
gradual development of more complex species from pre-existing simpler forms had
occurred to several philosophers and natural historians before the declaration of
evolutionary hypotheses were put forward in the early 19th century. Let us now examine
two of these theories as proposed by Lamarck and Darwin.
LAMARCKIAN EVOLUTION
Lamarck, a French biologist proposed hypotheses to account for the mechanism of
evolution based on two conditions. These are,
i. The use and disuse of parts and
ii. The inheritance of acquired characteristics.
According to him, changes in the environment may bring about changes in behaviours
and this may lead to changed patterns of behaviour which can bring about use or disuse
of certain organs or structures. Extensive use would lead to increase in size and/or
efficiency (e.g. the body of an athlete as compared to the body of an individual who
does no exercise). While disuse will lead to degeneracy and atrophy. These traits that
are considered heritable can be transmitted to the next generation. In order to explain this
theory, Lamarck said the long neck and legs of the modern giraffe was due to the short
necked and legged ancestors feeding on leaves of tall trees. The long neck and legs were
then passed on to subsequent generations. He also explained the webbed toes of aquatic
birds to constant use of the toes ﴾legs﴿ for swimming and extended the skin in between
the digits. Similarly, the characteristics were passed on progressively to successive
generations. Lamarck’s theory provided basis for the acceptance of concept of evolution
but his mechanism of change was not widely accepted. Lamarck’s emphasis on the role
of environment in producing phenotypic changes in individuals was correct. For instance,
body building exercises will increase the size of muscles, but this trait cannot be
transmitted to the next generation because it is not genetic. To show this, Weismann cut
off the tail of mice over many successive generations. According to Lamarck, this would
have led to the production of progeny ﴾offspring﴿ with smaller tails. These were not the
case. Weismann then postulated that, body acquired characteristics (resulting in
phenotypic changes) did not directly affect gamete and cannot be terminated to the next
generation.

DARWIN AND WALLACE ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
Guided by the publication of reverend Thomas Malthus on principles of population
(which highlighted the consequences of reproductive potential of humans), Darwin
observed that under intensive competition of numbers in a population, any variation
that favoured survival would increase that individuals ability to reproduce and lead
to fertile offspring. Less favourable variation would lead to decreased number of such
individuals in the population. This provided Darwin the framework to formulate a theory
of evolution by “natural selection”. Wallace another naturalist like Darwin working
almost at the same time wrote on the same subject matter which was sent to Darwin,
which led to their joint presentation in 1858. A year later, Darwin published his work on
“origin of species by means of natural selection”.
Theory of Natural Selection
Darwin and Wallace proposed that natural selection is the mechanism by which new
species arise from pre-existing species. This theory hypothesis is based on three main
observations which may be summarized as follows:
 Individuals within a population produce averagely more off springs than are
needed to replace them.
 The number of individuals in a population remains approximately constant. This
means that many individuals fail to survive or reproduce. Hence, there is a
“struggle for existence’ within a population.
 Variation exists within all populations. This means that in the “struggle for
existence” those individuals showing variations best adapted to their environment
have a “reproductive advantage” and produce more offspring than less well-
adapted organisms.
Struggle for existence or the hypothesis called natural selection provides the mechanism
accounting for evolution. According to Darwin favourable variations will be inherited by
the next generation. Unfavorable variations are selected out ‘or “selected against”, the
presence conferring a selective disadvantage on that organism. In this connection, natural
selection leads to increased vigour within the species and ensures the survival of that
species.
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Many misconceptions have grown up around the theory of evolution as outlined by
Darwin; these misconceptions may be summarized as follows:
i. Darwin made no attempt to describe how life originated on earth. His major
concern was on how new species might arise from pre-existing species.
ii. Natural selection is not simply a negative, destructive force but can be a positive
means of change in a population. The struggle for existence was characterized by
unhealthy terms like ‘survival of the fittest’ and elimination of the unfit” by the
philosopher Herbert Spencer and the press of the day.
iii. The misconception that humans (man) evolved from the ‘apes’ by some linear
progression was over sensationalized by the press and offended both the religious
and secular communities. The former saw this as an insult on their belief that
“man’ was created in the “image of God” while the latter were unhappy by the

apparent undermining of the ‘superior position’ of humans (man) within the
animal kingdom.
iv. The apparent contradiction between the Genesis six-day creation account and the
progressive origin of species viz-a-viz Darwin’s conclusions in the origin of
species. The claims and counter-claims between the theologists and scientists
started long ago and still continue till date. The unfortunate controversy has
continued as the Genesis versus Evolution debate which professor R. J. Berry
summarized as:
a) Those who are awed by scientific belief that the Bible has been disproved.
b) Those that cling to the inspiration of scripture and their interpretations of it and
shut their eyes to the fact that God’s work can be studied by scientific methods.
ORIGIN OF MAN
HUMAN PHYLOGENY
As stated earlier on in this unit, human being (man) belongs to an order of mammals
called primate. Other primates include tarsiers, lorisers, lemurs, monkeys and apes
(gorilla, Chimpanzee). Many of the features of this order are adaptations to life in a forest
environment. Within this order primates are three groups of animals called
anthropoids. These include the new world monkeys (marmosets and spider monkeys)
the old world monkeys (baboons and prohoscis monkeys) and hominoids (apes and
humans) humans and their ancestors are more closely related to apes than other
anthropoids.
Man belongs to the family hominidae (the fossil forms and modern human). Recent
evidence, based on comparative biochemistry has suggested that gorillas and
chimpanzees may have diverged from human stock as recently as 5 million years ago. Of
particular significance in the evolution of man is the development of an upright posture
and increase in brain size. Freedom of the hands from locomotion enabled them to be
used for carrying objects and manipulating the environment all ritual activities. In
addition an upright posture which gave the hominids increased height and ranges of
vision have some advantages for the primates In addition to their ability to stand erect on
two legs, they enjoy the advantage of increasing brain size. This enables control and
coordination to be exercised as in special abicularities, such as hunting, tool-making and
speech. The course of human evolution is remarkable in that gradual transmissions in
physical features (skeleton development, out) were supported by an accelerating
development in social behaviour. This process of becoming human is called hominization
which is believed to be influenced by:
i. The development of manipulative skill and speech.
ii. Changes in sexual behaviour allowing pair bonding and increased parental
supervision of children.
iii. The establishment of communal organization and social responsibility, arising
from the principle of food sharing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ORDER PRIMATES
Below are the features of the members of primate:
i. Possession of opposable thumb with grip for power and precision.
ii. Ability to rotate hand (fore limp) through 1800

iii. Eyes close together on face with parallel optical axis. (i.e. eyes are located in the
front part of the head).
iv. Possession of increased number of rods/ cones with own nerve cells.
v. Possession of reduced snout allowing flatter face.
vi. Possession of expanded area for cerebrum, ventral foramen magnum (i.e. enlarged
skull).
vii. Possession of increased sensory/motor areas, deeply fission.
AFRICAN CONCEPTION ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN

The issue of the origin of man in line with the origin of life still remains a controversial
issue among different groups of people. This is because there are a number of rival
propositions and counterclaims on how man actually originated. For instance the Yoruba
in Nigeria believe that God is the original creator of heavens and the earth with all that
dwell in them. It is on the basis of this belief that the whole superstructure of the Yoruba
believes rests. According to the Hausa and Yoruba tradition, as documented by Idiom
(1962), some creatures that form the nucleus of the human occupation of the earth had
been in existence even earlier than the earth. He further said that traditionally, Yoruba
also believe in “Olodumare”, “Orisa-nla” “Orunmila” e.t.c. Orisa-nla was regarded as
the minister in charge of creation of the earth and later created humans from the clay or
dust of the earth. The duty of Orisa-nla was to create a life-less human, while God will
breathe in to the creative and thus, complete the creation of human being. The office of
the creator gave the Orisa-nla the freedom of creating at will, human figures, perfect or
defective, or whatever colour he wants them to be. Thus, the hunch-back, the cripple, the
albino, all are special works of his prerogative or more often than not displeasure. Thus,
to Yoruba, variation among human beings was due to the pleasure or displeasure of
Orisa-nla.
Other people from different parts of the world have their own way of looking at the origin
of man. The Memphis in Egypt, the shilluck of the upper Nile, the people of Rwanda
kingdom in Central Africa, from the republic of Benin believe in God (whom they call
different names) mould clay into human beings. Abaluyia of karimido in the world in
stages. According to them, the creation took six days, God rested on the seventh day.
Chinese legends gave the name of the first man created by God as Panku. He was as big
as four ordinary men put together. It was this creature who separated the heaven from the
earth with stone. He carved out spaces for the moon, sun, stars. He dug valleys and made
mountains on earth. When he died, his remains formed five mountainsin China. His
breath became wind, his voice became thunder, his bone became metal. Lastly, insects
which stuck to his body became human beings.
The theory of the special creation approached the origin of man from the religious points
of view. The holy Qur’an and the holy Bible share the same view about the origin of
man. The main point of the two religions has to do with spontaneous creation by God as
we see them.
CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING THE THEORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

The theory of organic evolution as discussed in the previous units opposes the theory of
special creation which was proposed by spontaneous creation. With all the evidences

discussed in favour of theory of organic evolution, the proposition of the special creation
may not hold water. For example if man were created in God’s image what is God’s
image. Is God black or a white or mulatto? Is he a cripple man or hunch-back? Is he tall
or short? The controversy about the theory of Evolution as it relates to origin of man had
been on for a long time. For example it was Charles Darwin’s work on the origin of
species that sparked off the controversy in the year 1859. The issue had been that of
belief versus hypotheses. For example, white (1960) in assessing the reason for
religion/science conflict over Darwin’s work noted that:
i) Darwin’s theory casts serious aspersion upon the creation story in the book of genesis.
ii) Its logical consequences threatened the belief that man was made in God’s image.
iii) Its acceptance rendered the doctrine of the fall of man unacceptable.
SPECIAL FEATURES OF MAN

Human beings enjoy some of the following advantages over and above other primates.
i. Humans alone have developed spoken and written languages which are used to
communicate information not just about the physical world but to formulate
abstract concepts of arts, science, philosophy and religion.
ii. Development of social behaviour to a greater extent than any other species. This
was intimately linked with the development of culture categorized by:
a) Establishment of the family (one partner or many wives)
b) Prolonged childhood during which time children could acquire the prevailing
culture.
c) Increased use of speech for communication.
d) Development of the concepts of a home base and food sharing.
e) Increased cooperation in food-gathering enterprises
f) Division of labour by age and sex with older males hunting in bands to increase
efficiency of hunting and women staying together to ‘educate’ children and gain
protection from danger.
g) Stabilization of a broader social structure where the dominance hierarchy was
placed by kinship and prohibition incest.
h) Use of simple tools and eventually the manufacture of complex tools.
i) Use of fire for cracking rocks, hardening wood, cooking food, and defence against
animals.
j) Development of folk wisdom, art, religion, philosophy, science and technology.
iii. While humans share many aspects of behaviour with other primates and non-
primates, they are very unique in terms of art, religion and free-will Humans are
known for carving of wood, ivory, painting. Religiously, it is only humans that
have religion and free-will to do things accordingly.
MAN AND NATURE

Human beings live in the realm of nature; they are constantly surrounded by it and
interact with it. The most intimate part of nature in relation to man is the biosphere, the
thin envelope embracing the earth, its soil cover, and everything else that is alive. Our
environment, although outside us, has within us not only its image, as something both
actually and imaginatively reflected, but also its material energy and information
channels and processes. This presence of nature in an ideal, materialized, energy and
information form in man's Self is so organic that when these external natural principles
disappear, man himself disappears from life. If we lose nature's image, we lose our life.
MAN'S INFLUENCE ON NATURE.

Man's influence on nature. Man is not only a dweller in nature, he also transforms it.
From the very beginning of his existence, and with increasing intensity human society
has adapted environing nature and made all kinds of incursions into it. An enormous
amount of human labour has been spent on transforming nature. Humanity converts
nature's wealth into the means of the cultural, historical life of society. Man has subdued
and disciplined electricity and compelled it to serve the interests of society. Not only has
man transferred various species of plants and animals to different climatic conditions; he
has also changed the shape and climate of his habitation and transformed plants and
animals. If we were to strip the geographical environment of the properties created by the
labour of many generations, contemporary society would be unable to exist in such
primeval conditions.
MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

Our body is a fragment of the cosmos, arranged in a very special way, but obeying the
same laws as the rest of the world. It is made up of the same elements as its physical
ambience. Moreover man is functionally related to his environment. Each is adjusted to
the other in such a way that one could say the environment is the lock and man the key.
The surface of the earth presents a set of physical and chemical conditions which are
exceptional in the universe and eminently suited to our existence. Our planet retains
about it an atmosphere dense enough for living creatures to breathe the oxygen they need
even on high mountains. This same atmosphere protects plants and animals from cold and
from the harmful rays of the sun. And the attraction the earth exercises on all bodies
makes us adhere to its soil in the degree necessary to our mode of life.
Our environment is facing a lot of challenges in the area of degradation in the name of
development. As the population is rapidly increasing, so also the need for additional food
and shelter. Today, trees, rocks and other natural artifacts are destroyed to pave way for
buildings and other developmental projects thus changing the ecological balance of the
environment. Cutting of the trees promote desert encroachment and reduction in the
supply of oxygen (obtained from the trees) which humans and other animals need for
breathing and survival generally. The trees that are cut serve as fuel in some of our towns
and villages for cooking and for the cottage industries. Burning of the wood causes the
emission of dense smoke which wafts into the atmosphere thereby weakening the ozone
layer which in turn causes global warming. Another example of environmental
degradation is the increase in the number of vehicles in our towns and villages. People
and vehicles are competing for space. The vehicles emit carbon monoxide as waste
product. Carbon monoxide is very poisonous to humans and also harmful to the
environment. Many of our industries emits large volume of this gas and together with that
obtained from the vehicles contributes to global warming which is currently a global
phenomenon.
Environmental degradation is also responsible for climate change. For example, in the
arctic region where the people live in ice logged areas, the ice is rapidly melting thereby
changing the ecology of the region. The ice that melts finds its way to the oceans, seas,
rivers etc. thereby causing mass flooding in areas close to them example was the
devastating flooding of River Rima in Sokoto State of Nigeria in 2010. One of the effects
of global warming is the “drying” of the rivers, seas etc. for example, the famous Lake
Chad is drying rapidly thereby endangering the habitat and also depriving the people of
the area their main source of income, as many of them are fishermen who rely solely on
the lake. It therefore become a collective responsibility for all to join hands in saving the
environment from further dangers if we plan to live in it for a long time to come.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor
to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of
the world. Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions
and our interpretations of natural phenomena, we aim through the use of standard
procedures and criteria to minimize those influences when developing a theory. As a
famous scientist once said, "Smart people (like smart lawyers) can come up with very
good explanations for mistaken points of view." In summary, the scientific method
attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing a
hypothesis or a theory.
Steps in scientific method
1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

2. Problem definition from the observed phenomenon
3. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. Use of the hypothesis to
predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results
of new observations. In physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal
mechanism or a mathematical relation.
4. Experimentation: Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.
5. Conclusion: testing or experiments conducted help the scientist to either accept or
reject the stated hypothesis.
6. Theory formulation: a theory is formulated when the hypothesis is supported by
convincing evidences.
Note that: If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a
theory or law of nature (more on the concepts of hypothesis, model, theory and law
below). If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified.
What is key in the description of the scientific method just given is the predictive power
(the ability to get more out of the theory than you put in; see Barrow, 1991) of the
hypothesis or theory, as tested by experiment. It is often said in science that theories can
never be proved; only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation or
a new experiment will conflict with a long-standing theory.
Common Mistakes in Applying the Scientific Method
As stated earlier, the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the
scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. That is, when testing an hypothesis or a
theory, the scientist may have a preference for one outcome or another, and it is
important that this preference not bias the results or their interpretation.
1. The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of

a phenomenon, without performing experimental tests. Sometimes "common
sense" and "logic" tempt us into believing that no test is needed. There are
numerous examples of this, dating from the Greek philosophers to the present
day.
2. Another common mistake is to ignore or rule out data which do not support
the hypothesis. Ideally, the experimenter is open to the possibility that the
hypothesis is correct or incorrect. Sometimes, however, a scientist may have a
strong belief that the hypothesis is true (or false), or feels internal or external
pressure to get a specific result. In that case, there may be a psychological
tendency to find "something wrong", such as systematic effects, with data which
do not support the scientist's expectations, while data which do agree with those
expectations may not be checked as carefully. The lesson is that all data must be
handled in the same way.
3. Another common mistake arises from the failure to estimate quantitatively
systematic errors (and all errors). There are many examples of discoveries
which were missed by experimenters whose data contained a new phenomenon,
but who explained it away as a systematic background. Conversely, there are
many examples of alleged "new discoveries" which later proved to be due to
systematic errors not accounted for by the "discoverers."
In a field where there is active experimentation and open communication among

members of the scientific community, the biases of individuals or groups may cancel out,
because experimental tests are repeated by different scientists who may have different
biases. In addition, different types of experimental setups have different sources of
systematic errors. Over a period spanning a variety of experimental tests (usually at least
several years), a consensus develops in the community as to which experimental results
have stood the test of time.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCE
A non-renewable resource is made up of mostly dead animal skin. The skin then turns
into a resource such as oil. Also considered non-renewable are resources that are
consumed much faster than nature can create them. Fossil fuels (such as coal, petroleum,
and natural gas), nuclear power (uranium) and certain aquifers are examples. Metal ores
are prime examples of non-renewable resources. In contrast, resources such as timber
(when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are
considered renewable re Natural resources, called renewable resources, are replaced by
natural processes and forces persistent in the natural environment. There are intermittent
and reoccurring renewable, and recyclable materials, which are utilized during a cycle
across a certain amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.
The production of goods and services by manufacturing products in economic systems

creates many types of waste during production and after the consumer has made use of it.
The material is then incinerated, buried in a landfill or recycled for reuse. Recycling turns
materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
The natural environment with soil, water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable
resources, as long as they are adequately monitored, protected and conserved. Sustainable
agriculture is the cultivation of plant materials in a manner that preserves plant and
animal ecosystems over the long term. The overfishing of the oceans is one example of
where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger species and
possibly even determine whether or not a fishery is sustainable for use by humans. An
unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete resource depletion.[12]
The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are
based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water
(hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal
heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically
infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely
to run out if not used sparingly.
The potential wave energy on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric
power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide
1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times
over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone. Solar currently supplies
only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity's
needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted
only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that
more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable
energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable
resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and
accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government
support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy,
enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace
obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.
Fossil fuel
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of
years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed.
Eventually fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will
need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy. These resources are yet to be named.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels. Since
the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and
other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional
infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain
prominent throughout the globe. The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is
believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change
Radioactive fuel
The use of nuclear technology requires a radioactive fuel. Uranium ore is present in the
ground at relatively low concentrations and mined in 19 countries. This mined uranium is
used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium-238 which
generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity. Nuclear
power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.
The expense of the nuclear industry remains predominantly reliant on subsidies and
indirect insurance subsidies to continue. Nuclear energy production is associated with
potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements. In
particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and
intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW)
(including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide. The use of nuclear fuel
and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates is highly hazardous to
people and wildlife. Radiocontaminants in the environment can enter the food chain and
become bioaccumulated. Internal or external exposure can cause mutagenic DNA
breakage producing teratogenic generational birth defects, cancers and other damage. The
United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation
exposure includes 0.01 mSv (milli-Sievert) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear
testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from
natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location.
Some radioisotopes in nuclear waste emit harmful radiation for the prolonged period of
4.5 billion years or more, and storage has risks of containment. The storage of waste,
health implications and dangers of radioactive fuel continue to be a topic of debate,
resulting in a controversial and unresolved industry.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Natural resources, called renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes and
forces persistent in the natural environment. There are intermittent and reoccurring
renewables, and recyclable materials, which are utilized during a cycle across a certain
amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles. The production of goods
and services by manufacturing products in economic systems creates many types of waste
during production and after the consumer has made use of it. The material is then
incinerated, buried in a landfill or recycled for reuse. Recycling turns materials of value
that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
The natural environment, with soil, water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable
resources, as long as they are adequately monitored, protected and conserved. Sustainable
agriculture is the cultivation of plant materials in a manner that preserves plant and
animal ecosystems over the long term. The overfishing of the oceans is one example of
where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger species and
possibly even determine whether or not a fishery is sustainable for use by humans. An
unregulated industry practice or method can lead to complete resource depletion.
The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are
based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water
(hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal
heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically
infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely
to run out if not used sparingly. The potential wave energy on coastlines can provide 1/5
of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs.
Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough
wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs
alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough
out there to power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy
demand by 2050.
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted
only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that
more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable
energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable
resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and
accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government
support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy,
enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace
obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.
THE CONCEPT OF ENERGY

Energy is defined as the ability or capacity to do work. We can also define energy as the
potential or capacity to move matter. To a scientist, this definition means that the energy
of anything is related to its ability to move an object some distance. All forms of energy
are capable of doing work (that is of exerting a force over a distance). Energy is divided
into potential i.e. energy due to position, and kinetic (energy produced by a moving
object). The most obvious form of energy is kinetic energy (or energy of matter in
motions). There are other forms of energy, though, where there is no obvious motion, but
where there is a potential for motion.
Forms of energy
As stated earlier on, energy exists in different forms. The two main forms of energy are
potential energy and kinetic energy. Energy may also be electric, chemical, radiant,
nuclear or other forms. A battery is essentially a store of energy because it has chemical
substances with the potential to move matter. Imagine an electric car which has a battery
pack that drives the car. The battery in the pack contains chemical substances that can
react to produce electric current, which goes into the electric motor. The electric motor
moves the car. A car in motion has energy as a result of that, motion. A battery is said to
contain ‘chemical energy’ because the chemical substances in it has the potential to move
matter, irrespective of their being used for this purpose or not. Heat is another form of
energy. When heat passes into a substance such as air, bits of matter (air molecules)
begin to move faster. The motion is not that of ordinary-size pieces of matter, rather that
of extremely small bits of matter or molecules. Heat is the kinetic energy of moving
molecules. Light is another form of energy. When a material absorbs light, it becomes
hotter. The hotness is due to extremely small bits of matter (molecules of the material)
moving faster than they were before the material absorbed the light. Light then has the
potential to move
matter and is a form of energy. This indicates that all forms of energy are associated with
motion. In summary, energy comes in various forms including chemical, heat and light. It
is possible to change one form of energy into another.
Different forms of energy have been mentioned. Below are the explanations of
different forms of energy:
i) Radiant energy: - This comes from the sun (solar energy) and is earth’s primary
energy source. Solar energy heats the atmosphere and earth’s surface; stimulates the
growth of regulation through the process of photosynthesis, and influences global climate
patterns.
ii) Thermal energy: - This is the energy associated with the random motion of atoms and
molecules. The more vigorous the motion of the atoms and molecules in a sample of
matter, the hotter the sample the greater is its thermal energy. Generally, thermal energy
can be calculated from temperature measurements.
iii) Chemical energy: - This is stored within the structural units of chemical substances.
Its quaintly is determined by the type and arrangement of atoms in the substance being
considered. When substances participate in chemical reactions, chemical energy is
released, stores or converted to other forms of energy.
iv) Energy is also available by virtue of an object’s position: - This form energy is called
potential energy. For example by virtue of its altitude, a rock at the top of a hill has more

potential energy and will make a bigger splash in the water below than a similar rock
located pathway down. Hence, potential energy can also be expressed in terms of the
energy possessed by an object in an elevated position. Chemical energy can be regarded
as a form of potential energy because it is associated with the relative positions and
arrangements of atoms within a substance.
MAN’S ENERGY NEEDS AND RESOURCES.

The ultimate source of energy on earth to man is the sun, (solar energy). The sun is
constantly radiating light on the earth surface. A portion of this light energy falls on
earth, and some of it is used by plant to convert carbon dioxide and water into various
energy storing compounds, via a process known as photosynthesis. During this process
water and carbon dioxide (from air) combined using energy to producer glucose and
oxygen. When such plants are eaten, the chemical energy stored in them (glucose) is
transferred into and used by man for his daily activities to produce energy thus reversing
the above process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide + water + energy glucose + oxygen
(sunlight). Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy.
The chemical energy stored in the food eaten by man is converted into heat energy after
being subjected to series of physiological processes in man’s body. The energy is made
available in its various forms depending on man’s need at any given point in time. Much
of the energy available on earth has been collected by plants during photosynthesis. Man
and indeed all animals ultimately rely on plants for food energy. Ultimately, the plants
and the sun provide man with the food energy we need. Having examined man’s basic
source of energy the next question is why
do man need energy? In the next section of this unit, you will learn about basic reasons
for man’s quest for energy.
Uses of Energy to Man

Some common examples of the use of energy by man include
1. Synthesis of materials for growth and repairs for instance protein synthesis.
2. Active transport of materials in and out of cells against diffusion gradients, for
example the sodium-potassium pump.
3. Electrical transmission of nerve impulses
4. Heat energy released from respiration is used to maintain constant body
temperature in man.
5. Mechanical contraction and relaxation of muscles.
However, human civilization consumes more than food energy. We use energy to heat
our homes, to power our cars, and to drive technology. Commerce, industries, computers
are other vital areas where energy has been found very useful.
Energy on Earth
As stated earlier on in section 3.0, the sun provides the basic and ultimate source of
energy to man. However the three largest sources of the energy consumed by man are
petroleum, coal and natural gas. These are all “fossil fuels’. The fossil fuels were formed
million years ago, when aquatic plants and animals were buried and compressed by layers
of sediments at the bottom of swamps and seas. Here again we can trace the origin of
energy back to plants, and therefore the sun. Another large source of energy is
hydroelectric to plant but can be traced back to the sun. Hydroelectric power is electric
power generated by river water flowing through a turbine. This energy of the river comes
from the sun. The sun’s warmth evaporates water and this water vapour later condenses
as rain which later flows to the rivers. Nuclear energy another source of energy on earth
does not originate from the sun. Uranium which is the source of nuclear energy has been
present on earth since the solar system first formed about five million years ago.
Sources of Energy
There are a number of sources from which man obtains energy to provide heat, light, and
power. These sources can be categorized as:
i) Basic or natural source
ii) Other sources/non-renewable sources.
Let us now look at these two sources of man’s energy needs in more details.
BASIC SOURCE OF ENERGY

Substantial amount of energy is obtained from such natural sources as wood, water, wind
and tide. In this section, you will learn about how some of those natural products have
provided man with useful means of obtaining energy.
i) Wood: - provides a major source of energy today in different parts of the world where
other fuels are not available or their prices is unaffordable. For instance, in Brazil, wood
still provides a greater percentage of the nation’s non-fuel energy. Nigeria however is not
an exception to this, especially nowadays that the prices of kerosene and other fuels are
almost out-of-reach of common man. Wood is commonly used for cooking and other
domestic purposes as a means of obtaining energy in Nigeria in both rural and urban
cities in Nigeria.
ii) Water: - water is a good source of energy, though; attention is being directed at it
presently, as it is estimated to provide less than five percent of the worlds energy
requirements. Among the
limitations placed on water power are; the fact that food from river valleys is more
valuable than power obtained from damming the valley as a reservoir in arid lands. Water
is essential for farming; examples are the lower Ogun irrigation scheme at Iseyin and a
number of other river basin development authorities scattered all over Nigeria.
iii) Wind: - The wind contains tremendous amount of energy, but it is intermittent and
diffuse. Wind mills are usually more expensive relative to the energy delivered. Interest
in energy from water, wood and wind mill increases as fossil fuel costs rise and storage is
improved. It is used in countries like France. This form of energy is yet to be developed
in Nigeria.
iv) Geothermal energy: - This flows from the hot interior part of the earth to the surface
where it is lost by radiation into space. Studies have been carried out on how this could
be tapped as useful source of energy. This has been used very successfully in some parts
of the world to generate energy and power. This form of energy is in use in places such as
Netherlands, Empire and North America (for guiding grams in pumping water). In the
West Indies it is used for grinding sugar cane. Other nations where this form energy has
been successfully utilized include Italy, Iceland, and California and so on.

v) Tidal energy: - There is a great amount of energy in the tides, but the oceans have
been a difficult energy source to harness. This energy comes from the energy of rotation
of the earth. Even though only a small fraction of the tidal power can be tapped, this
source of energy is expected to be put in greater use in the near future. All these energy
sources are classified as recurring energy sources, because they are continuously being
created from primary sources.
REFERENCES

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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY BIRNIN KEBBI

DIVISION OF GENERAL STUDIES

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

4. Evolution of Modern Science

8. Types of Philosophies of Science

9. Philosophical Positions of Philosophy of Science

10. How Science Progress

11. Man, His origin and Nature

12. Man and His Environment

13. Scientific Method

14. Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

15. Man and His Energy Resources

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 2

 According to Einstein (1940), Science is the attempt to make the chaotic

THE DESCRIPTION OF SCIENCE

i. Science as an institution (profession)

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 5

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 7

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 8

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 9

TYPES OF PHILOSOPHIES OF SCIENCE

PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 10

2. Rationalism: This philosophical cognition sees reasoning as the prime source of

LOGIC, METHOD AND EPISTEMOLOGY

HOW SCIENCE PROGRESS (generation of knowledge in science)

1. Pre-scientific stage (Pre-Paradigm Periods

2. Emergence of Paradigm (Paradigm Period)

5. Revolutionary Science Stage.

SCIENTIFIC LAWS (are generalization that are based on particular events)

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Theories of the Origin of Life

a. Theory Of Special Creation

b. Theory Of Spontaneous Generation

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 15

THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 16

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT DARWIN’S THEORY OF EVOLUTION

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 17

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 18

AFRICAN CONCEPTION ON THE ORIGIN OF MAN

CONTROVERSY SURROUNDING THE THEORY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 19

SPECIAL FEATURES OF MAN

MAN AND NATURE

MAN'S INFLUENCE ON NATURE.

MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

Steps in scientific method

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

Common Mistakes in Applying the Scientific Method

1. The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of

In a field where there is active experimentation and open communication among

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 23

The production of goods and services by manufacturing products in economic systems

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 25

THE CONCEPT OF ENERGY

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 26

GST 213: History and Philosophy of Science Page 27