Environment 4 ForumIAS KING R QUEEN P

PRRC 2024
Ecology #Env001
Ecology
The term ecology - German biologist Ernst Haeckel.

Greek words, ‘oikos’,-> home or estate + ‘logos’ meaning study
Levels in Ecology -
A large community unit, characterized by a major vegetation type

and associated fauna, found in a specific climatic region is a biome
Habitat -
Habitat is the physical environment - ‘address’
Multiple organisms - share same habitat
Niche
Functional characteristics of a species in Habitat
Profession - activities and responsibilities
Same niche - for two species - Not possible, if same -> Competition
++
● Niche elements -
○ Animals - Food + Shelter
○ Plants - moisture + Nutrients
Species -
Similar genetic makeup + interbreeding = fertile offsprings
1. Keystone species
Disproportionately large effect on Ecosystem
Disappearance -> impacts whole Ecosystem
Eg . - Top predators, elephants, corals, insects and bees etc
2. Indicator species -
Presence, abundance or absence - indicates certain
environmental conditions
Sensitive to envt. → sentinel species
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PRRC 2024
Ecology #Env001
Eg. - frog - Freshwater conditions

Lichen - acid rain
Top predators
3. Endemic species -
Found only in an specific area -> not anywhere else
Eg - lion tailed macaque - nilgiri
Nilgiri tahr
4. Invasive alien species
Species entering in non native area - intentionally or
unintentionally
Faster propagation → no natural predator
Invasive → Colonize the area
Eg. Lantana camara, prosopis juliflora, congress Grass etc
Note - IUCN maintains Global Invasive Species database
● Second most common threat associated with

species that have gone completely extinct
since 1500. (A 2016 study published in the
journal Biological Letter)
5. Flagship species -
Celebrity of region
Eg - MP tigers
Used in advertisements
6. Umbrella species - important from conservation point of

view
Conservation of one umbrella species → may be
beneficial for others species too

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Env#002
Habitat –
• The address / Home of species
• Same for 2 species – YES
Niche -
• Basic functional role and Position of Species
• Profession
• For 2 species – Not common
If same -> competition -> elimination of one
Helpful -> conservation
Deep ecology – considers human as any other organism

Concept – Arnies naess – 1972
Ecosophy – philosophy of ecological balance and harmony
Ecosystem
• Basic structural & functional unit
• Interaction b/w living and Non-Living (biotic & abiotic)
Interaction – Community, Energy and Nutrient flow
Some of all organisms + Physical environment = Ecosystem
Structured, Organized, balanced (until disturbed), Open ended,

Solar energy – Main energy source
Types of ecosystems -
Structure of Ecosystem -
1. Abiotic components – Non -living
Sunlight , Minerals etc.
2. Biotic – Living comprise Trophic structure

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Env#002
a. Autotroph – self nourishing, producers

i. Phototrophs – Uses light + simple chemicals ->
Complex chemicals (Starch, sugar etc) , plants,
algae and phytoplanktons
ii. Chemotroph – hydrogen + Simple chemical – Complex
b. Heterotroph - consumers
i. Macrophages -
1. Herbivores – eat green plants
2. Carnivores – on herbivores
3. Omnivores – Plants + Organisms
4. Scavengers – dead organisms – Vulture, Hyena
5. Detrevores – ingest fragments of dead and
decaying tissue , Eg. Earthworm and
Shrimp
ii. Micro – saprophages (to decompose)

bacteria, fungi & protozoa
complex organic compounds of dead material -------------> nutrients

released
Detrevores Decomposers
Eat detritus (organic litter, debris Digest & Breakdown dead organic
&Dung ) material
Bacteria, Fungi & protozoa Earthworm, snail, crabs, carpenter
ants etc

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Ecosystem Env#003
Concepts -
Carrying capacity – capacity of earth to regenerate the resources
• The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population
size of a biological species that can be sustained by that specific
environment, given the food, habitat, water and other resources
available.
Planetary boundaries – safe operating limits for humanity

Decided based on – Carrying capacity and ecological footprints
Ecological footprints -
Adds up all the biologically productive areas for which a population, a person
or a product competes.
Counted by –
Global ecological footprint network – Non- profit Organization
• if a population’s Ecological Footprint© exceeds the region’s
biocapacity, that region runs a biocapacity deficit.
• Earth Overshoot Day
o Earth Overshoot Day marks the date when humanity has
exhausted nature’s budget for the year.
o For the rest of the year, we are maintaining our ecological
deficit.
o In 2023, Earth Overshoot Day falls on August 2.
Functions of ecosystem -
1. Ecological succession
2. Energy flow
3. Nutrients cycling
4. Homeostasis
Ecological succession -
The process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area
are replaced or changed into another over a period of time is known as
ecological succession.
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Ecosystem Env#003
Primary succession
Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas such as
rocks outcrop, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano
islands and lava flows- where no community has existed previously.
The plants that invade first bare land, where soil is initially absent are
called pioneer species.
Pioneer species - show high growth rate but short life span
1. Primary succession
~ Difficult to observe as there are relatively very few places on earth
that do not already have communities of organisms.
Takes a very long time
Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during

succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community
The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other,

during the course of succession is termed sere
The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the community which is called
as climax community.
A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long lasting.
2. Secondary succession -
Occurs when a community is removed, disturbed or destroyed by a natural
event like hurricane or forest fire or by human related events like tilling or
harvesting land.
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Ecosystem Env#003
A secondary succession is relatively fast as, the soil has the necessary
nutrients with it
With each succession -

• Biodiversity ++
• Productivity ++
• Complexity ++
Ecological succession
1. Autogenic – if brought by internal communities itself
2. Allogenic – by external agents – fire, flood etc
Factors affecting succession -

1. Climate – sunlight, rainfall temperature
2. Soil type
3. Biotic factors
4. Physiographic – hills, plain areas etc.
5. Fire factor – growth is checked by fire Eg. Jhum cultivation, Savana
grass lands
Note – human affects secondary succession mostly
2. Energy flow -
Trophic levels -
Levels through which food energy passes from one group of organisms to
the other group are called trophic levels.
Number of trophic levels depend on – transmission of energy from one
trophic level to the another
Some ecological rules -

1. 10% rule – Energy transfer from one trophic level to other – 10%
Hence, 4 to 5 trophich levels – in terrestrial ecosystems
2. The total biomass tends to decrease progressively from the base of
the upper trophic level
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Ecosystem Env#003
Ecological productivity -
Growth of organic matter or energy per unit time
1. Primary productivity – Radiant energy --> chemical compounds

sugsr and starch
a. Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total rate of
photosynthesis, including the organic matter used up in
respiration
b. Net primary productivity (NPP) is the rate of storage of organic
matter in plant tissues that exceeds the respiratory
NPP= GPP - R
2. Secondary productivity - Rates of energy storage at consumer levels

Note :
Because consumers use only food materials already produced, with
appropriate respiratory losses, and convert this food energy to different
tissues by one overall process – there is no concept of gross and Net
productivity
Tropical rainforest, swamps and marshes and estuaries are 2000 dry
grams/m2/year in each case.
High productivity -
1. Tropical rainforests / swamps and marshes / algal beds and
Estuaries – 2000
2. Temperate forests – 1300
3. Boreal forests – 800
4. Tropical Savana - 700
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Ecosystem Env#003
5. Woodland and Shrub –600

6. Temperate grasslands – 500
Very low net primary productivity -

1. Extreme desert, rock and ice (3 dry grams/m7/ year),
2. Desert scrub (70 dry gram m7/year),
3. Open ocean (125 dry grams/m /year) and
4. Tundra and Alpine ecosystems (140 dry grams/m-/year).
Food chains -
- Sequence of energy transfer from the lower trophic levels to the
upper or higher trophic levels.
Food chain does not remain simple and linear rather it is also complicated
by several inter-
A simpler food chain represents an unstable ecosystem and poor

biodiversity.
There are two types of food chains:

(i) Grazing food chains: which start from the green plants
(ii) Detritus food chain - start from the dead organic matter to the
detrivore organisms
1. Plants --› herbivorous -›carnivorous animals -›carnivores/omnivores

(secondary carnivores).
2. Grass ->sheep ->wolves
3. Grass->insects->frogs->snake- > hawk-> leopard.
Aquatic food chains. -

• Trophic level can be 6 to 7 or more also
1. Diatoms --> Baraccle larva --> Arrow Worm --> Herring Fish
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Ecosystem Env#003
Number of species, the total biomass and energy availability decrease with
successive higher trophic levels in the food Chain in such a way that the
shape becomes like a pyramid. This is called the ecological pyramid.
There are three types of Ecological pyramids

(i) the Pyramids of numbers,
(ii) Biomass Pyramid, and
(ili) Energy pyramid.
1. Number pyramids include only the number of species and not their sizes
Generally -
The pyramid of number means progressive decrease in the number of
species with successive higher trophic levels
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Ecosystem Env#003
Exception -
1. Inverted, i.e herbivores are more than primary producers
Eg. caterpillars and insects feed on a single tree
2. Spindle shape -
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Ecosystem Env#003
Note – Numbers pyramid

Always upright – grass chains
Inverted or spindle shape – forest or tree
2. Biomass Pyramid
Pyramids of biomass include the biomass
Terrestrial – Upright
Aquatic – always inverted
Biomass pyramid does not give any idea of the rate of ecological/ecosystem
production.
3. Energy pyramids
The energy pyramids are constructed, thus, on the basis of the total
amount of energy used at each trophic level per unit area per unit
time.
This pyramid is used in comparative study of ecological productivity
of various ecosystems.
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Biogeochemical cycles #ENV004
Biogeochemical cycles
Nitrogen cycles -
Some of the nitrogen ends up as ammonium and nitrate,
the forms most readily used by green plants.
The atmosphere --> 78 percent nitrogen, is the greatest

reservoir
Nitrogen-fixing -
1. Natural – Bacteria (Bio fixation), lightening
2. Artificial - Industrial process - Haber- Bosch method
Short cycle of nitrogen in the living biosphere, in which

heterotrophic organisms break down proteins enzymatically
and excrete the excess nitrogen as urea, uric acid, or
ammonium.
All three -ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate- may be used as

basic nitrogen sources by plants. (Ammonium is preferred
one)
* Free-living bacteria:
Azotobacter, Benji Mikia (aerobic)
Clostridium and Rhodospirillum (anaerobic).
• Symbiotic nodule bacteria on legume plants: Rhizobium.

• Cyanobacteria: Anabaena, Nostoc
All bacteria's fixing nitrogen – Biofertilizers

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Biofertilizers - Natural or organic substances containing

living microorganisms that enhance the nutrient availability
and overall fertility of the soil
Rhizobium: Used for leguminous crops like beans,

peas, and lentils to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Azotobacter
Azospirillum: Enhances nitrogen uptake
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria: e. Mycorrhizal
fungi
Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria)
Nitrification -
Ammonia -----------
----------------->>
Nitrite----------------
----------->>
Nitrates
By Nitro Monas
Nitrobactor
Nitro coccus
Denitrification -
Organic waste -----------------------------------------
->> Ammonia
Urea and Uric acid By Denitrifying
Released back into the
bacterias Atmosphere
Pseudomonas &
Theobasicus
Sources of Nitrogen -
• Fossil burning, Biomass burning, vehicular
emissions, Fertilizers, Waste, Aviation etc
Excess nitrogen
• Acid rain
• Eutrophication
• Global warming
• PCS smog
• Ozone depletion

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2. Carbon Cycle
Instant and efficient cycle
Carbon – basic element of Life

Carbon pool – Atmosphere, fossils and Oceans
Carbon – Co2, CO and CH4 forms

• CO (monoxides) - incomplete combustion of fossils
o Deadly toxic gas
• CH4 – colorless flammable gas
o By decomposition of organic matter by
Anaerobic bacteria
o Sources – wetlands, paddy fields, Ruminants
and termites, fossils
Sources of carbon -
Man made -
• Transportation
• Agriculture – deep tillage, heavy machinery use,
jhoom, deforestation, monoculture etc
• Construction and mining
• Animal husbandry – ruminants – CH4
Natural -
• Respiration – terrestrial and marine
• Lime making organisms – Corals
• Decay of organisms

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• Decomposition
• Volcanic activities
• Weathering – carbonate rocks etc.
Phosphorus cycle
Major component of genetic material
Structural component –Shell, bones and teeth
Energy carrier of cell – Energy Coin
Reservoir – sedimentary mainly – Rocks, atmospheric dust

and Aerosol
Ultimately enters the sea
Inorganic form --> plants ---> Organic forms -----> Enters in

food chain
…--> dead organism + Excreta –>> Phosphate returns to
soil
From sea – birds and fishes – guano deposits by birds,

Rookeries
Mining of phosphate and processing of phosphate for

fertilizer
The excess of dissolved phosphate in aquatic systems

resulting from this increased input of urban-industrial and
agricultural runoff is a concern at present.

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Excessive Phosphate -
• Eutrophication
o Solution – Nitrogen budgeting and Precision
farming
Cycling of Sulfur
In form of Sulfate (SO4) is reduced by autotrophs
An essential constituent of certain amino acids.
Organic – Plants, coal, fossils etc.

Inorganic – Sulphates and sulphides
Sources -
• Weathering of rocks – Land and oceans
• Volcanic eruption, hot springs and geysers
• Decomposition – H2S
• Fossils burning, mining, drilling, construction etc.
Excessive sulphur -
Air pollution
Acid rainfall
SMOG formation
Impairs Photosynthesis activity

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Note -
Excess use of Phosphate and Nitrates --> Eutrophication
Eutrophication -
• Excessive plant and algal growth due to the
increased availability of one or more limiting growth
factors needed for photosynthesis (Schindler
2006), such as sunlight, carbon dioxide, and nutrient
fertilizers.
Types of Interaction Between Two Species
Theoretically, populations of two species may interact in

basic ways that correspond to combinations of neutral,
positive, and negative (0, +, and -) as follows-
1. neutralism, in which neither population is affected by

association with the other;
2. competition, direct interference type, in which both
populations actively inhibit each other;
3. competition, resource use type, in which each
population adversely affects the other indirectly in the
struggle for resources in short supply;

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4. amensalism, in which one population is inhibited and the

other not affected;
5. commensalism, in which one population is benefited,
but the other is not affected;
6. parasitism; and
7. predation, in which one population adversely affects the
other by direct attack but nevertheless depends on the
other;
8. protocooperation (also frequently referred to as
facultative cooperation), in which both populations benefit
by the association but their relations are not obliga-tory; and
9. mutualism, in which the growth and survival of both
populations is benefited, and neither can survive under
natural conditions without the other
Three trends in the occurrence of these relationships are

especially worthy of
Emphasis:
Interaction Species Species Nature of

1 2 interaction
Neutralism 0 0
Competition - - - Negative for

direct both
Competition - • • Indirect
resource type inhibition
Ammensalism • 0
Commensalism + •
Parasitism • • tick, Lice
Predation • •
Protocooperation • •
Species depend

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on each other
and can exist
without the other
one
Mutualism • •
Ecotone -
zone where two or more different ecosystems meet.
Mangrove forests, for example, are an ecotone between
the marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Grassland,
estuary, and riverbank are some other examples
Characteristics of Ecotone
• transitional quite narrow or relatively wide zone of
tension.
• It is linear -m gradual increase in the species
composition or gradual decrease
• contains species that are completely distinct from
those found in the surrounding groups.
o In this zone, the number of species and
population density of some species can be
higher than in either community. This is known
as the edge effect.
• Edge species are organisms that are found

predominantly or most abundantly in this zone. The
edge effect is particularly relevant to birds in
terrestrial habitats.
• Bird density is higher in the mixed habitat of the
ecotone between the forest and the desert

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Ecocline-
• Broad transition b/w two different ecosystems of
mainly plant communities
• Represents a gradient along which biotic
communities and biotic conditions change
Ecological Stability or Homeostasis

Normal ecosystems attain its steady state through in-built
self-regulating mechanism – Homeostasis
communities

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BIODIVERSITY #Env005
Biodiversity
 It is the variety of life on Earth. It includes all organisms, species and populations, the genetic variations
and the complex assemblage of communities and ecosystems.
 Levels of Biodiversity
o Genetic Diversity – Variation in genes within a particular species
o Species Diversity – Variety of living organisms on earth
 One species population/Total number of organisms
 0 = Infinite diversity
 1 = Only one species present
o Ecosystem Diversity – Different types of habitats
 Measurement of Biodiversity
o Species Richness – Measure of the number of species
 Alpha diversity – Diversity within a particular ecosystem
 Beta diversity – Comparison of diversity of species between ecosystems
 Gamma diversity – Comparison of overall diversity between ecosystems
o Species Evenness – Measures the proportion of species at a given site.
 Low evenness indicates few species dominate
 Modes of Conservation
o Ex-Situ – Conserving biodiversity outside the areas where they naturally occur
 Zoological Parks
 Botanical Gardens
o In-Situ – Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats
 National Parks
 Sanctuaries
 Biosphere Reserves
 Reserved Forests
 Protected Forests
 Red Data Book
o Published by IUCN
o Pink Pages – Critically endangered species
o Green Pages – Species that were formally endangered.
 IUCN Classification of Conservation Purity
o Extinct – The last individual has died.
o Extinct in the wild – Only known to survive in captivity
o Critically Endangered
 Reduction in population >90% over the last 10 years
 Population size < 50
 The probability of extinction in wild is at least 50% in the coming 10 years
o Endangered
 Reduction in population – 70% in last 10 years
 The population size of fewer than 250 individuals
 The probability of extinction in wild – at least 20% within 20 years
o Vulnerable
 Reduction in population - >50% over the last 10 years
 The population size of fewer than 10,000 individuals
 The probability of extinction in wild is at least 10% within 100 years.
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Indian Biodiversity
 Mega-diverse country
o Mega-diverse countries are all the countries on our planet that house a large number of endemic
species.
o The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) of the United Nations Environment Program
has identified a total of 17 mega-diverse countries.
 The conjunction of two bio-geographical realms
o Palearctic realm
o Indo-Malayan realm
 Biodiversity Hotspots
o Coined by Norman Myers
o Conservation International (Non-Profit Organization) – protect these incredible places.
o Around the world, 36 areas qualify as hotspots.
o To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must meet two strict criteria:
 It must have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics
 It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be
threatened.
o Conservation International is an investor in the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund.
o CEPF is an alliance of leading conservation donors that provides grants to nonprofit and private-
sector organizations that are working to protect biodiversity hotspots and improve human well-
being.
 FAUNA
o Vertebrates
 Backbones and spinal cords
 Fishes – Cold-blooded, lay eggs, use gills and not lungs, etc.
 Amphibians – Cold-blooded, webbed feet, breathe with lungs, lay eggs, etc.
 Reptiles – Cold-blooded, dry skin, etc.
 Aves – warm-blooded, lay eggs
 Mammals – warm-blooded, etc.
 Egg-laying monotremes – Echidna, Platypus, etc.
 Marsupials
 Placentals.
o Invertebrates
 More than 98% of animal species are invertebrates.
 Don’t have an internal skeleton made up of bones.
 Annelids – Divided into segments, well-developed internal organs, don’t have any limbs –
earthworms, leeches, etc.
 Molluscs – Hard outside shell – snail, oyster, octopus
 Echinoderms – Marine animals that live in oceans have arms that radiate from the centre
of the body – sea stars, sea urchins, etc.
 Protozoa – single-celled animals, the smallest of all the animals, they breathe and
reproduce – amoebas, flagellates
 Arthropods – Have limbs with joints, and also have an exoskeleton
 Crustaceans – Hard external shell – crab, lobster
 Insects – consist of three body parts – beetle, butterfly, moth, dragonfly, etc.
 Arachnids – Do not have antennae – spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites.
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 Floral Diversity
o India has 11% of the world’s known floral diversity
o Algae – Green non-differentiated plants that possess chlorophyll – manufacture their own food.
o Fungi – Absence of chlorophyll – moulds and mushrooms – highest diversity is in the Western
Ghats followed by Eastern Himalayas (Both saprophytes and parasites)
o Bacteria – Non-chlorophyllous microorganisms, soil-borne (Both saprophytes and parasites)
o Lichens –
 The symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi
 Algae manufacture food and fungus keeps the algae moist by absorbing water.
 They are not found in groundwater.
o Bryophytes – small stems and simple leaves but true roots are absent, grows in moist places –
liverworts and mosses, the second largest group of green plants in India.
o Pteridophytes – Well-differentiated plant bodies – consist of root, stem and leaves
o Gymnosperms – Naked seeded plants and naturally there is no fruit
o Angiosperms – close-seeded plants
 Floral Endemism Order
o Peninsular India (Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats)
o Eastern Himalayas
o North Western Himalayas
o Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Wildlife Protection Act (1972)

o Constitutional Provisions related to Wildlife
o 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 - Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and Birds was transferred
from State to Concurrent List.
o Article 51 A (g) - Fundamental duty of every citizen is to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests and Wildlife.
o Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State Policy – The state shall e3ndeavour to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
o The Act was enacted for the protection of plants and animal species.
o It extends to the whole of India.
Protection of Wildlife Species

Schedules of the Act as per the recent Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act 2022
o Initially, there were 6 schedules
o Now there are 4 schedules
o Schedule I - Animal species that will enjoy the highest level of protection
o Schedule II - Animal species that will be subject to a lesser degree of protection
o Schedule III - Protected Plant species
 Their cultivation is restricted and requires prior permission from the Chief Wildlife
Warden.
 Their collection, extraction and trade are prohibited.
o Schedule IV - Specimens listed in the Appendices under CITES (scheduled specimens)
o A wild animal listed under these schedules can be hunted/ killed only after getting permission from the
Chief Wildlife Warden (CWLW) of the state if:
o It becomes dangerous to human life or to property (including standing crops on any land).
o It is disabled or suffering from a disease that is beyond recovery.
o It provides for captive breeding programmes for endangered species.
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Appointment of Authorities
o The Central Government appoints the Director of Wildlife Preservation and assistant directors and other
officers subordinate to the Director.
o The State Governments appoint a Chief Wildlife Warden (CWLW) who heads the Wildlife Wing of the
department and exercises complete administrative control over Protected Areas (PAs) within a state.
o The Wildlife Protection (Amendment) Act 2022 entrusts the Chief Wildlife Warden to control, manage and
maintain all sanctuaries in a state.
o The state governments are also entitled to appoint Wildlife Wardens in each district.
Institutional Bodies Created

o National Board for Wildlife (NBWL)
o The central government of India shall constitute the National Board for Wildlife (NBWL).
o It serves as an apex body for the review of all wildlife-related matters and for the approval of
projects in and around national parks and sanctuaries.
o The NBWL is chaired by the Prime Minister
o The Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is the Vice-Chairperson of the board.
o The board is ‘advisory’ in nature and can only advise the Government policy-making for the
conservation of wildlife.
o Standing Committee of NBWL:
o The NBWL constitutes a Standing Committee for the purpose of approving all the projects falling
within protected wildlife areas or within 10 km of them.
o The committee is chaired by the Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
o State Board for Wildlife (SBWL):
o The state governments are responsible for the constitution of the state board of wildlife.
o The Chief Minister of the state/UT is the chairperson of the board.
o The board advises the state government in:
 The selection and management of areas to be declared as protected areas.
 The formulation of the policy for the protection and conservation of the wild life
 Any matter relating to the amendment of any Schedule.
o Central Zoo Authority:
o The act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority consisting of a total 10 members
including the Chairperson and a Member-Secretary.
o The Environment Minister is the chairperson.
o The authority provides recognition to zoos and is also tasked with regulating the zoos across the
country.
o It lays down guidelines and prescribes rules under which animals may be transferred among zoos
nationally and internationally.
o National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):
o Following the recommendations of the Tiger Task Force, the National Tiger Conservation
Authority (NTCA) was constituted in 2005 for strengthening tiger conservation.
o The Union Environment Minister is the Chairperson of NTCA and the State Environment Minister
is the Vice-Chairperson.
o The Central Government on the recommendations of NTCA declares an area as a Tiger Reserve.
o More than 50 wildlife sanctuaries in India have been designated as Tiger Reserves and are
protected areas under the Wildlife Protection Act, of 1972.
o Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB):
o The act provided for the constitution of the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) to combat
organized wildlife crime in the country.
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o The Bureau has its headquarters in New Delhi.

o It is mandated to:
 Collect and collate intelligence related to organized wildlife crime activities and
disseminate the same to the State to apprehend the criminals.
 Establish a centralized wildlife crime data bank.
 Assist State Governments to ensure success in prosecutions related to wildlife crimes.
 Advise the Government of India on issues relating to wildlife crimes having national and
international ramifications, relevant policies and laws.
 Creation of Protected Areas
Creation of Protected Areas

 Wildlife Sanctuaries
o Sanctuaries are naturally occurring areas that are meant to protect endangered species from
hunting, poaching and predation.
o The goal of wildlife sanctuaries is usually to provide safe havens where animals can receive the
best possible care that the sanctuaries can provide.
o Wildlife sanctuaries are where wild animals are bred and protected for the rest of their lives until
they die naturally.
o There is no trading of animals in wildlife sanctuaries, and they are not used in animal experiments.
o Both the Central and State governments can declare Wildlife Sanctuaries.
o In wildlife sanctuaries, only very limited human activity is permitted.
o Animal hunting and poaching are strictly prohibited, and trees and plants may not be cut down
for agriculture or any other purpose.
o Wildlife sanctuaries have been designated as Category IV protected areas by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
o Wildlife sanctuaries have fewer restrictions than national parks.
o A wildlife sanctuary does not require official permission to visit.
o Wildlife sanctuaries have no defined boundaries
o In wildlife sanctuaries, human activities are permitted to some extent.
 National Parks
o National parks are areas that aim to protect the natural environment.
o In a national park, the landscapes and their flora and fauna are present in their natural state.
o National parks not only conserve wildlife, but they also provide enjoyment of the ecological and
scenic heritage
o National parks have been classified as Category II protected areas by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
o National parks can be declared both by the Central Government and State governments.
o No alteration of the boundaries of a national park shall be made except on a resolution passed by
the State Legislature.
o The boundaries can be altered only with prior consultation and approval with the National Board
of Wildlife.
o National parks are heavily restricted areas that are only accessible to a select group of people.
o To visit a national park, you must first obtain official permission from the appropriate authorities.
o National parks have clearly defined boundaries.
o In national parks, human activities are strictly prohibited by the authorities.
 Tiger Reserves
o The State Government shall, on the recommendation of the Tiger Conservation Authority, notify
an area as a tiger reserve.
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o The limit of the Tiger Reserve may not be changed without the National Board for Wild Life’s
approval and the National Tiger Conservation Authority’s suggestion.
o Unless it is in the public interest and with the consent of the National Board for Wild Life and the
National Tiger Conservation Authority, no State Government may de-notify a tiger reserve.
o Critical tiger habitats (CTH) are designated under the Wild Life Protection Act (WLPA), which is
also known as the core of tiger reserves.
o There are 53 Tiger Reserves in India which are governed by Project Tiger under the jurisdiction of
the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
o Guru Ghasi Das National Park and Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary have joined together to create
Guru Ghasi Das Tiger Reserve as the 53rd one.
o Tiger Population
 MP>Karnataka>Uttarakhand
 In North East – Assam
o Highest Tiger Density
 Jim Corbett>Nagarhole>Bandipur Tiger Reserve
o Pench Tiger Reserve – Straddle across two states – MP and Maharashtra
o With 2,967 tigers, India, four years in advance, has achieved the target set in the 2010 St Petersburg
Declaration of doubling the tiger population by 2022.
o There are currently 13 tiger range countries - India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.
o Out of 53 tiger reserves in the country, three reserves - Mizoram’s Dampa reserve, Bengal’s Buxa
reserve and Jharkhand’s Palamau reserve - have no tigers left.
o The “M-STrIPES” has been designed to addresses this void.It is a platform where modern
technology is used to assist effective patrolling, assess ecological status and mitigate human-
wildlife conflict in and around tiger reserves.
 Conservation Reserves
o Conservation reserve includes the reserve and restricted land occupied by the government to
protect wild animals.
o Both Central and State governments can declare land as conservation reserves.
o They typically act as buffer zones to connectors and migration corridors between established
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.
 Community Reserves
o It can be defined as privately owned land either by an individual or the entire community which
includes wildlife resources.
o They typically act as buffer zones to connectors and migration corridors between established
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.
Other provisions of the Amendment Act 2022

 It implements the provisions of the CITES.
 The central government can designate a Management Authority, which grants export or import permits
for the trade of specimens.
 Central Government can regulate or prohibit the import, trade, possession or proliferation of invasive
alien species.
 The central government may also notify a conservation reserve ( typically act as buffer zones to or
connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, and wildlife sanctuaries)
 States can declare areas adjacent to National parks and Sanctuaries as Conservation Reserve, for
protecting flora and fauna, and their habitat.
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 Registration certificate for live specimens of scheduled animals: People possessing live specimens of
scheduled animals must obtain a registration certificate from the Management Authority.
 Voluntary surrender of captive animals: The Act provides for any person to voluntarily surrender any
captive animals, without any compensation and consequent authority over the animal.
 Exception for ‘live elephant’: The Act allows for Commercial Trade in Live Elephants. The Act, therefore,
allows for commercial trade in elephants.
o This is contrary to the previous act (Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972) which specifically prohibits
trade in Wild Animals including captive and wild elephants.
Environment Protection Act 1986

 The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the protection
and improvement of the environment.
 It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and tackling specific environmental problems that are peculiar to
different parts of the country.
 The Central government is also empowered to:
o Plan and execute a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
o Lay down standards for the quality of the environment in its various aspects.
o Lay down standards for the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources.
o The restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall/ shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
 Ecologically sensitive areas
o Eco-sensitive zones are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries.
o The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” in the protected areas
by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
o Declared under EPA.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002

 Enacted for the conservation of biological diversity and fair, equitable sharing of the monetary benefits
from the commercial use of biological resources and traditional knowledge.
 The main intent of this legislation is to protect India’s rich biodiversity and associated knowledge against
their use by foreign individuals.
 It seeks to check biopiracy, and protect biological diversity and local growers through a three-tier
structure of central and state boards and local committees.
 The Act provides for the setting up of a National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards
(SBBs) and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) in local bodies.
 The NBA will enjoy the power of a civil court.
 Powers and Functions of National Biodiversity Authority (NBA).
o Regulate activities and by regulations issue guidelines for access to biological resources and for
fair and equitable benefit sharing.
o Grant approval for undertaking any activity.
o Advise the Central Government on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable
use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological
resources.
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o Advise the State Governments in the selection of areas of biodiversity importance to be notified
as heritage sites and measures for the management of such heritage sites.
o Perform such other functions as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act.
o On behalf of the Central Government, take any measures necessary to oppose the grant of
intellectual property rights in any country outside India on any biological resource obtained from
India or knowledge associated with such biological resource which is derived from India.
 Powers and Functions of State Biodiversity Authority
o The SBBs are established by the State Governments in accordance with Section 22 of the Act.
o All the members of the SBB are appointed by the respective State Governments.
o Advise the State Government, subject to any guidelines issued by the Central Government, on
matters relating to the conservation, sustainable use or sharing of equitable benefits.
o Regulate by granting approvals or otherwise requests for commercial utilization or bio-survey and
bio-utilization of any biological resource by people.
o This power of the State Biodiversity Boards which is applicable only on Indian citizens or
organizations.
o There are no State Biodiversity Boards constituted for Union territories.
 Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)
o According to Section 41 of the Act, every local body shall constitute the BMC within its area for
the purpose of promoting conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity
including.
o The main function of the BMC is to prepare the People’s Biodiversity Register in consultation with
the local people.
o The register shall contain comprehensive information on the availability and knowledge of local
biological resources, their medicinal or any other use or any other.
 The Biodiversity Act provides for payment of a prescribed fee to the Biodiversity Management Committees
established at the Municipal or Panchayat level under “Access and Benefit Sharing “by companies who are
using biological resources or use traditionally available knowledge.
 Any grievances relating to the determination of benefit sharing or order of the National Biodiversity
Authority or a State Biodiversity Board under this Act shall be taken to the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

 Legally binding convention
 Main goals
o Conservation of biodiversity
o Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity
o Sharing the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources in a
fair and equitable way.
 Cartagena Protocol
o To protect human health and the environment from the possible adverse effects of the products
of modern technology.
o Recognizes twin aspects
 Access to transfer of technologies
 Appropriate procedures to enhance the safety of biotechnologies.
o It establishes procedures for regulating the import and export of LMOs (Living modified organism)
from one country to another.
o Advance Informed Agreement – A country intending to export an LMO for intentional release in
the environment must notify the party of import in writing.
 Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol
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o It is in liability and redress.

o It specifies response measures to be taken in the event of damage to biodiversity resulting from
LMOs.
o India has ratified it.
o Entered into force in 2018.
 Nagoya Protocol
o It is on Access to genetic resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their
utilization.
o Establishes clear rules and procedures for Prior Informed Consent and mutually agreed terms.
o It addresses traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources.
 The Biodiversity targets
o Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
o At Nagoya, 2010 – Aichi biodiversity targets were adopted for 2011-2020.
 15th Conference of Parties (COP15) to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity “Kunming-Montreal
Global Biodiversity Framework” (GBF) was adopted.
o The framework has 23 targets that the world needs to achieve by 2030.
o The countries will monitor and report every five years or less on a large set of indicators related
to progress.
o The Global Environment Facility has been requested to establish a Special Trust Fund to support
the implementation of the Global Biodiversity Framework (“GBF Fund”).
o Key targets
 30x30 Deal:
 Restore 30% of degraded ecosystems globally (on land and sea) by 2030

Conserve and manage 30% of areas (terrestrial, inland water, and coastal and
marine) by 2030.
 Stop the extinction of known species, and by 2050 reduce tenfold the extinction risk and
rate of all species (including unknown)
 Reduce risk from pesticides by at least 50% by 2030.
o Money for nature:
 Signatories aim to ensure $200 billion per year is channelled to conservation initiatives,
from public and private sources.
o Pollution and pesticides:
 One of the deal’s more controversial targets sought to reduce the use of pesticides by up
to two-thirds.
o Harmful subsidies:
 Countries committed to identifying subsidies that deplete biodiversity by 2025, and then
eliminating, phase out or reforming them.
Ramsar Convention
 Legally binding
 Adopted in 1971
 Only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem.
 It is not affiliated to United Nations.
 Montreux Record
o Register of wetland sites where changes in ecological character have occurred.
 Keoladeo
 Loktak
 India not a founding member.
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 Five global NGOs have been associated with the treaty

o Birdlife International
o IUCN
o International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
o Wetland Internationals
o World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
CITES
 Legally binding.
 India is a member.
 The inter-governmental agreement that entered into 1975 and became the only treaty that international
trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival in the wild.
 It does not take the place of national laws.
 Administered by UNEP.
 Appendices
o Appendix I – Species threatened with extinction and provides greatest level of protection.
o Appendix II – Currently not threatened but may become without trade controls. So, it should be
regulated.
o Appendix III – Species for which a range country has asked other parties to help in controlling
international trade.
 Held every three years.
 CoP 19 Panama City – 2022
 India submitted three proposals to CITES COP19 for stricter protection of its native species
o The Jeypore Indian gecko
o The red-crowned roofed turtle
o Leith’s softshell turtle.
 India hosted CoP (3rd) in 1981.
 India’s proposal for transferring Leith’s Softshell Turtle (Nilssonia leithi) and red-crowned roofed turtle
(Batagur Kachua) from Appendix Ⅱ to Appendix Ⅰ has been adopted.
 India’s proposal to add a gecko (Cyrtodactylus jeyporensis) to Appendix Ⅱ which would imply that
international trade will require permits, has also been adopted.
 The Jeypore Indian gecko is endangered. The wild reptile species are found in the Eastern Ghats and are
known to be present in four locations including southern Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh.
 Nilssonia has been categorized as critically endangered by the IUCN. It is a large fresh-water, soft-shelled
turtle which is endemic to peninsular India and inhabits rivers and reservoirs.
 In CITES COP17 held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2016, all species of Genus Dalbergia were included
in Appendix II.
 Two songbirds from South and Southeast Asia – the White Rumped Shama (found from Southern India to
Indonesia) were added to Appendix Ⅱ and the straw-headed bulbul was moved from Appendix Ⅱ to
Appendix Ⅰ.
TRAFFIC: The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network

 WWF + IUCN
 World’s largest wildlife trade monitoring network of both plants and animals.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS – Bonn Convention)

 It aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range.
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 1979
 The intergovernmental treaty concluded under UNEP
 Only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration
routes.
 Appendices
o Appendix I – Threatened with extinction
o Appendix II – Species that would significantly benefit from international cooperation.
 The agreements may range from legally binding to less formal instruments.
 India signed Raptor MoU
o Conservation of Migratory Species of Prey in Africa and Eurasia.
o Not legally binding.
Coalition against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)

 Aims to focus public and political attention and resources on ending the illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife
products.
 Voluntary public-private participation.
 India is a partner.
The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)

 Intergovernmental organization
 Under UNCTD
 Preserve tropical forest resources.
United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF)

 ECOSOC of the United Nations in 2000
 Management and sustainable development of all types of forests.
The Global Tiger Forum

 Intergovernmental organization to save five species of tigers in the wild distributed over 14 range
countries.
 Formed in 1994
 Secretariat – New Delhi
 Meet once in three years.
Global Tiger Initiative

 Launched in 2008
 It is led by 13 Tiger Range countries.
 St. Petersburg Declaration 2010 – Endorsed the implementation mechanism called the Global Tiger
Recovery Programme.
o The goal was to double wild tigers by 2022 (WWF is driving it forward).
 Bishkek Declaration – Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP, 2013)
Stockholm Convention on PoP

 It is on elimination and restriction on the production and use of the Persistent Organic Pollutants
 Entered into force in 2004.
 PoPs are organic chemicals that are carbon-based.
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o Remain for a long period of time

o Widely distributed throughout the environment.
o Accumulate in fatty tissues.
o Toxic to both humans and wildlife.
 Dirty Dozen – List of pesticides and industrial chemicals.
 Secretariat – UNEP.
Basel Convention
 For control of transboundary movements of Hazardous waste.
 It includes household waste.
 It has Prior Informed Consent
 2019- Plastics have been included.
 Does not cover radioactive waste materials.
Rotterdam Convention
 Legally binding.
 International trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment
from potential harm
International Whaling Commission

 The intergovernmental body charged with the conservation of management of whales.
 Headquarter – UK
Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems

 FAO
 Agricultural heritage sites of the world
 India
o Kuttanad – Kerala – Below Sea level Farming System
o Koraput – Odisha – High genetic repository
o Pampore Karewas – Saffron heritage of Kashmir.
o The Man and Biosphere (MAB)
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International Conventions #Env006
UNFCCC – A framework convention  To reduce GHGs
Kyoto protocol
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997, entered into force on 16 February 2005.
Target
 During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and economies in transition and the
European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels.
During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 percent
below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020
One important element of the Kyoto Protocol was the establishment of flexible market mechanisms, which are
based on the trade of emissions permits.
Doha Amendment- 2012 – II phase of Kyoto
In meantime,
1. CoP 15 – Copenhagen – Copenhagen Accord  GCF fund 2009
Developing countries also voluntarily agreed on GHGs reductions
2. CoP 16 – Cancun , 2010
GCF launched @ Incheon, S. Korea
GCF – to assist developing countries in Mitigation and adaptation to counter climate change
Mainly – Climate Finance
Governed by GCF Board & World bank was chosen as temporary trustee
Goal of raising 100$bn per year by 2020
Three market-based mechanisms:

 International Emissions Trading
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
 Joint implementation (JI)
Annex System –
Annex I  List of industrialized countries and economies in transition

 pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year
2000.
Forum Learning Centre:Delhi - 2nd Floor, IAPL House, 19 Pusa Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi - 110005 | Patna - 2nd floor, AG Palace, E Boring Canal
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Annex II  A sub-group of Annex 1 Countries,

 these Annex II countries are required to give financial assistance and
technology
to the developing countries (non-Annex countries).
Non Annex  Developing countries like India, Brazil, China.

 Non-binding for them
Annex A list of 6 Green House gases

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2);
2. Methane (CH4);
3. Nitrous oxide (N2O);
4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs);
5. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs); and
6. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Annex B  This gives the Annex I countries (Developed countries)

 compulsory binding targets to reduce greenhouse gas emission.
Emissions Trading
 Greenhouse gas emissions a new commodity
 Emissions trading, as set out in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol, allows countries that have emission units
to spare - emissions permitted them but not "used" - to sell this excess capacity to countries
 Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon
is now tracked and traded like any other commodity. This is known as the "carbon market."
 Other trading units in the carbon market
 More than actual emissions units can be traded and sold under the Kyoto Protocols emissions trading
scheme.
Joint implementation
 (Annex B Party) to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from an emission-reduction or emission
removal project in another Annex B Party, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted
towards meeting its Kyoto target.
 Joint implementation offers Parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part of their Kyoto
commitments while the host Party benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer
Annex B ----------- Annex B
The Clean Development Mechanism

 Allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto
Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries. Such
projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of
CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets
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 It is the first global, environmental investment and credit scheme of its kind, providing a standardized
emissions offset instrument, CERs.
 Example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more energy-efficient
boilers.
Annex B ----------- Non Annex countries
Adaptation fund - 2001

To assist countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the development and
deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the impacts of climate change.
The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries
that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project
activities.
In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment period, international emissions trading and
joint implementation would also provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
GCF fund
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a fund established within the framework of the UNFCCC as an operating
entity of the Financial Mechanism to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to
counter climate change.
HQ: The GCF is based in Incheon, S.Korea
It is governed by a Board of 24 members
The Copenhagen Accord, 2009 - "Copenhagen Green Climate Fund".
Formally established during Cancun summit as a fund within the UNFCCC framework.
Paris Deal
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
Adopted – 2015 @CoP 21
Enforced – 2016
Its overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above
pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial
levels.”
To limit global warming to 1.5°C, greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline
43% by 2030.
The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a
binding agreement brings all nations together to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
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How does the Paris Agreement work?
 Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires economic and social transformation, based on the
best available science.
 The Paris Agreement works on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action -- or,
ratcheting up -- carried out by countries.
 Since 2020, countries have been submitting their national climate action plans, known as nationally
determined contributions (NDCs). Each successive NDC is meant to reflect an increasingly higher
degree of ambition compared to the previous version.
Recognizing that accelerated action is required to limit global warming to 1.5°C, the COP27 cover
decision requests Parties to revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their NDCs to align with the
Paris Agreement temperature goal by the end of 2023, taking into account different national
circumstances.
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

 In their NDCs, countries communicate actions they will take to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions in order to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement.
 Countries also communicate in their NDCs actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the
impacts of climate change.
 Long-Term Strategies
 To better frame the efforts towards the long-term goal, the Paris Agreement invites countries to
formulate and submit long-term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies (LT-LEDS).
LT-LEDS provide the long-term horizon to the NDCs. Unlike NDCs, they are not mandatory.
Nevertheless, they place the NDCs into the context of countries’ long-term planning and development
priorities, providing a vision and direction for future development.
 How are countries supporting one another?
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The Paris Agreement provides a framework for financial, technical and capacity building support to those
countries who need it.
1. Finance
The Paris Agreement reaffirms that developed countries should take the lead in providing financial assistance
to countries that are less endowed and more vulnerable, while for the first time also encouraging voluntary
contributions by other Parties.
Climate finance is needed for mitigation, because large-scale investments are required to significantly reduce
emissions. Climate finance is equally important for adaptation, as significant financial resources are needed to
adapt to the adverse effects and reduce the impacts of a changing climate.
2. Technology
 The Paris Agreement speaks of the vision of fully realizing technology development and transfer for
both improving resilience to climate change and reducing GHG emissions.
 It establishes a technology framework to provide overarching guidance to the well-functioning
Technology Mechanism. The mechanism is accelerating technology development and transfer through
its policy and implementation arms.
3. Capacity-Building
 Not all developing countries have sufficient capacities to deal with many of the challenges brought by
climate change. As a result, the Paris Agreement places great emphasis on climate-related capacity-
building for developing countries and requests all developed countries to enhance support for capacity-
building actions in developing countries.
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How are we tracking progress?
With the Paris Agreement, countries established an Enhanced transparency framework (ETF).
 Under ETF, starting in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress in
climate change mitigation, adaptation measures and support provided or received.
 It also provides for international procedures for the review of the submitted reports.
 The information gathered through the ETF will feed into the Global stocktake which will assess the
collective progress towards the long-term climate goals.
 This will lead to recommendations for countries to set more ambitious plans in the next round.
INDCs of India
Targets for 2030
1. Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP- By 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level.
Revised - 45% by 2030 from 2005 level.
2. Power installed capacity from non-fossil - 40%
Revised - About 50%
3. Create an additional carbon sink through additional forest and tree cover.
2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of Co2 equivalent
Not Revised
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CoP 23 Bonn, 2019

 We are In
 Powering past coal Alliance – UK + Canada – phasing out of Coal
 Gender Action Plan – Role of women and impact on them
 Local Communities and Indigenous people’s platform- strengthen their role
 Ocean pathway partnership – Oceans to be included in UNFCCC talks
 Talanoa dialogue – discussions without confrontation
KJWA
 Improved soil carbon, soil health and soil fertility under grassland and cropland as well as integrated
systems, including water management;
 Improved nutrient use and manure management towards sustainable and resilient agricultural systems;
 Improved livestock management systems;
 Socioeconomic and food security dimensions of climate change in the agricultural sector.
KJWA is the only programme to focus on agriculture and food security under UNFCCC.
CoP 24 Kattowice,
 Paris rule book was agreed upon by the countries
CoP 26 Glassgow
 Panchamrit strategy by india
 Global Methane pledge – US and EU, 30% by 2030 reductions
 Glassgow financial alliance for Net zero (GFANZ) – Net zero by 2050
CoP 27 – Sharm -al-sheikh

1. Mangrove alliance for Climate
 Global cause for Mangroves
 Knowledge sharing and collaboration
2. Koronivia Joint Work for Agriculture (KJWA) given another four-year lease
3. First Movers Coalition
 The FMC is a coalition of companies using their purchasing power to create early markets for
innovative clean technologies across eight hard to abate sectors.
 These in-scope sectors are responsible for 30% of global emissions–a proportion expected to rise to
over 50% by mid-century without urgent progress on clean technology innovation.
 Commitments for the first four sectors (Aviation, Shipping, Steel and Trucking) were launched in
November 2021, at COP26 in Glasgow.
The Aluminum and Carbon Dioxide Removal sectors were launched at the May 2022 World Economic Forum
Annual Meeting in Davos, and the Cement & Concrete sector was launched at COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh.
4. LeadIT (Leadership for Industry Transition) Summit 2022
 Hosted by India and Sweden
 focuses on low carbon transition of the hard to abate industrial sector.
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 It was launched - UN Climate Action Summit in September 2019 and is supported by the World
Economic Forum.
5. Methane Alert and Response System (MARS)
 UNEP’s International Methane Emissions Observatory.
 Aim: To accelerate implementation of the Global Methane Pledge by transparently scaling up global
efforts to detect and act on major methane emissions sources.
 It is satellite-based system that will alert governments, companies and operators about large methane
sources to foster rapid mitigation action.
6. Global Shield against Climate Risk

By- G7 and V20 (‘the Vulnerable Twenty’)
 V20 is a dedicated cooperation initiative of economies systemically vulnerable to climate change.
 It was established in 2015 at Lima, Peru. o V20 Group membership stands at 58 economies
Climate Risk Insurance
World bank - Global Shield Financing Facility to support the initiative
Global Financial agreement pact
This was not a ‘pledging’ conference, but some announcements were unveiled, perhaps in an effort to address
the thorny trust erosion issue.
1. MDBs: Multilateral Development Banks”
Additional lending capacity of $200 billion would be unlocked for emerging economies.
The World Bank announced disaster clauses for debt deals, that would suspend debt payment in the case of
extreme weather events
2. Special Drawing Rights: 100 billion in SDRs for vulnerable countries
3. A new JETP: A new 2.5 billion Euro JETP deal was announced for Senegal, with a consortium of countries
comprising of Germany, France, Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom, with the goal of increasing
the share of renewable energy in installed capacity to 40 per cent of Senegal’s electricity mix by 2030.
4. Polluter taxes: Momentum on polluter taxes accelerated at the Summit, with many groups supporting a tax
on shipping emissions.
5. Debt: It was announced that Zambia reached a $6.3 billion debt restructuring deal and decarbonise their
economies”.
6. Carbon markets: The EU unveiled a call to action on ‘Paris Aligned Carbon Markets’ with the goal of covering
at least 60 per cent of global emissions with carbon pricing mechanisms (compared to four per cent today)
and allocating a proportion of the revenues to climate finance.
Ursula von der Leyen, EU Commission President called it “one of the most effective tools to cut emissions”
7. Climate finance goal: It was suggested that the long overdue $100 billion climate finance goal will be
delivered this year,
PRRC 2024
Ramsar sites #Env007
Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.
RAMSAR WETLANDS SITES

Criterias-
Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it contains a representative, rare, or unique
example of a natural or near-natural wetland type found within the appropriate biogeographic region. Group B of the
Criteria. Sites of international importance for conserving biological diversity Criteria based on species and ecological
communities
Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports vulnerable, endangered, or
critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities.
Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports populations of plant and/or
animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports plant and/or animal species at a
critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions. Specific criteria based on waterbirds
Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 20,000 or more
waterbirds.
Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in
a population of one species or subspecies of waterbird. Specific criteria based on fish
Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it supports a significant proportion of
indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages, species interactions and/or populations that are
representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it is an important source of food for fishes,
spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere,
depend. Specific criteria based on other taxa
Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered internationally important if it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in
a population of one species or subspecies of wetland-dependent non-
S. No. State Location Name of Site Date of Declaration Area
1 Andhra Pradesh Kolleru Lake 19.8.2002 901.00
2 Assam Deepor Beel 19.8.2002 40.00
3 Bihar Kabartal Wetland 21.07.2020 26.20
4 Goa Nanda Lake 06.08.2022 0.42
5 Gujarat Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary 13.04.2021 5.12
6 Gujarat Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary 24.09.2012 120.00
7 Gujarat Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary 05.04.2021 6.99

PRRC 2024
8 Gujarat Wadhvana Wetland 05.04.2021 6.30
9 Haryana Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary 25.05.2021 4.12
10 Haryana Sultanpur National Park 25.05.2021 1.43
11 Himachal Pradesh Chandertal Wetland 8.11.2005 0.49
12 Himachal Pradesh Pong Dam Lake 19.8.2002 156.62
13 Himachal Pradesh Renuka Wetland 8.11.2005 0.20
14 Jammu and Kashmir Hokera Wetland 8.11.2005 13.75
15 Jammu and Kashmir Hygam Wetland Conservation 13.08.2022 8.02

Reserve
16 Jammu and Kashmir Shallbugh Wetland Conservation 13.08.2022 16.75

Reserve
17 Jammu and Kashmir Surinsar-Mansar Lakes 8.11.2005 3.50
18 Jammu and Kashmir Wular Lake 23.3.1990 189.00
19 Karnataka Ranganathittu Bird Sanctuary 15.02.2022 5.18
20 Kerala Asthamudi Wetland 19.8.2002 61.40
21 Kerala Sasthamkotta Lake 19.8.2002 3.73
22 Kerala Vembanad Kol Wetland 19.8.2002 1512.50
23 Ladakh Tso Kar Wetland Complex 17.11.2020 95.77
24 Ladakh Tsomoriri Lake 19.8.2002 120.00
25 Madhya Pradesh Bhoj Wetlands 19.8.2002 32.01
26 Madhya Pradesh Sakhya Sagar 01.07.2022 2.48
27 Madhya Pradesh Sirpur Wetland 01.07.2022 1.61
28 Madhya Pradesh Yashwant Sagar 13.08.2022 8.23
29 Maharashtra Lonar Lake 22.7.2020 4.27
30 Maharashtra Nandur Madhameshwar 21.6.2019 14.37
31 Maharashtra Thane Creek 13.08.2022 65.21

PRRC 2024
32 Manipur Loktak Lake 23.3.1990 266.00
33 Mizoram Pala Wetland 31.08.2021 18.50
34 Odisha Ansupa Lake 13.08.2022 2.31
35 Odisha Bhitarkanika Mangroves 19.8.2002 650.00
36 Odisha Chilka Lake 1.10.1981 1165.00
37 Odisha Hirakud Reservoir 13.08.2022 654.00
38 Odisha Satkosia Gorge 10.12.2021 981.97
39 Odisha Tampara Lake 13.08.2022 3.00
40 Punjab Beas Conservation Reserve 26.9.2019 64.29
41 Punjab Harike Lake 23.3.1990 41.00
42 Punjab Kanjli Lake 22.1.2002 1.83
43 Punjab Keshopur-Miani Community 26.9.2019 3.44

Reserve
44 Punjab Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary 26.9.2019 1.16
45 Punjab Ropar Lake 22.1.2002 13.65
46 Rajasthan Keoladeo Ghana NP 1.10.1981 28.73
47 Rajasthan Sambhar Lake 23.3.1990 240.00
48 Tamil Nadu Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary 13.08.2022 2.60
49 Tamil Nadu Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere 04.08.2022 526.72

Reserve
50 Tamil Nadu Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary 13.08.2022 0.97
51 Tamil Nadu Karikili Bird Sanctuary 04.08.2022 0.58
52 Tamil Nadu Koonthankulam Bird Sanctuary 11.08.2021 0.72

PRRC 2024
53 Tamil Nadu Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest 04.08.2022 12.48
54 Tamil Nadu Pichavaram Mangrove 04.08.2022 14.79
55 Tamil Nadu Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird 19.8.2002 385.00

Sanctuary
56 Tamil Nadu Suchindram Theroor Wetland 13.08.2022 0.94

Complex
57 Tamil Nadu Udhayamarthandapuram Bird 04.08.2022 0.44

Sanctuary
58 Tamil Nadu Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary 13.08.2022 1.13
59 Tamil Nadu Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary 04.08.2022 0.40
60 Tamil Nadu Vellode Bird Sanctuary 04.08.2022 0.77
61 Tamil Nadu Vembannur Wetland Complex 04.08.2022 0.20
62 Tripura Rudrasagar Lake 8.11.2005 2.40
63 Uttar Pradesh Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary 29.06.2021 28.94
64 Uttar Pradesh Haiderpur Wetland 8.12.2021 69.08
65 Uttar Pradesh Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary 19.9.2019 2.25
66 Uttar Pradesh Parvati Agra Bird Sanctuary 2.12.2019 7.22
67 Uttar Pradesh Saman Bird Sanctuary 2.12.2019 5.26
68 Uttar Pradesh Samaspur Bird Sanctuary 3.10.2019 7.99
69 Uttar Pradesh Sandi Bird Sanctuary 26.9.2019 3.09

PRRC 2024
70 Uttar Pradesh Sarsai Nawar Jheel 19.9.2019 1.61
71 Uttar Pradesh Sur Sarovar 21.8.2020 4.31
72 Uttar Pradesh Upper Ganga River 8.11.2005 265.90
73 Uttarakhand Asan Conservation Reserve 21.7.2020 4.44
74 West Bengal East Kolkata Wetlands 19.8.2002 125.00
75 West Bengal Sunderbans Wetland 30.1.2019 4230.00

was established in 1936. After Independence the political parties continue to be affiliated with student
organizations . The All India Students Congress and later on the National Students Union of India (NSUI) are
affiliated to the Congress Party. The All India Students Federation and Students Federation PRRC
of 2024
India (SFI), are
#Env008
controlled by Communist Party of India. The Radical Students Union, Democratic Students Union, Akhil Bharatiya
Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) etc. are all affiliated to different political parties. They try to pressurise governmental
policy on various crucial issues, their activities are not just confined to educational issues. Like the students
organizations we also have teachers' associations.
Community Associations
Apart from these there are various community associations in India. These community groups are organised on
the basis of caste, class and religion. Some examples of caste organizations are Scheduled Caste Federation,
Backward Caste Federation, etc. Amongst other organizations there are some like Vishwa Hindu Parishad,
Northern and Southern India Christian Conference, etc. which represent interests that are supposed to safeguard
their respective religions.
affiliated to the Congress Party. The All India Students Federation and Students Federation of India (SFI), are
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PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
"Undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil. which affect human
life'
The substances or factors that cause pollution are known as pollutants.
Types of Pollutants.
A. Based on the nature of decomposition:
1. Biodegradable, or decomposable or non-persistent pollutants: The substances that can be easily broken
down by biological or microbial agents.
Example: Domestic sewage
2. Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: These are pollutants that remain in the environment for several
years as it is in the unchanged condition and takes longer time to degrade.
Example: DDT (pesticides) and most plastics.
3. Bio-non-degradable, or non-decompos-able pollutants:
 Cannot be degraded by any natural processes.
 These pollutants are accumulated in the environment over period of time.
Example: Heavy metals like lead or mercury, nuclear waste, aluminium.
B. Based on Physical Properties:

1. Solid:
2. Liquid:
3. Gaseous
C. Based on the form of the pollutants in which they exist in the environment:
1. Primary Pollutants: Released or emitted directly from known source are known as primary pollutants.
Example: Nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide.
2. Secondary Pollutants (subsequent pollutants): The substances generated from the chemical reaction of the
primary pollutants after being released into the atmosphere are known as secondary pollutants.
Example: PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate)
D. Based on the existence in nature of pollutants:

1. Qualitative pollutants: do not occur in nature but are generated by man.
Example: DDT, pesticides, etc.
2. Quantitative pollutants: The substances that are present in nature and pollute the environment beyond
certain levels are known as threshold levels.
Example: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
E. Based on the origin of the pollutants:

1. Natural: The pollution occurring due to nature or natural processes.
Example: Natural fires, some plants release some pollutants naturally
2. Anthropogenic: The pollution caused by humans.
Example: Pollution of air. water, and land.

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
Major pollutant
Primary -
1. Gaseous Pollutants: The chief gaseous pollutants
 Sulphur compounds - SO3,SO2 H2S
 Carbon compounds - CO, CO2
 Nitrogen compounds - NO3, NO2, NH3,
 Halogen compounds - HF, HCI
Inorganic Gasses
1. Sulphur dioxide Source Chlorosis ( loss of chlorophyll) and necrosis

• Residence time 4 Burning of fossil fiels-Smelting of (death of tissues) - phytotoxic pollutants.
days metallic ores (iron, copper, zine,
lend, and nickel) - Thermal plants • Irritation of eyes and damages respiratory tract
causing asthma, bronchitis
• Discoloration of buildings, fabric, paper and
leather, corrosion of metals like iron, acid rains.
2 Carbon monoxide Automobiles (80%) and cigarette Combines with hemoglobin and forms carboxy
• Trace gas - 0.12 smoking - indoor heating system hemoglobin and impairs the oxygen-carrying
ppm capacity of blood - headache, dizziness, blurred
• Residence time _ vision and breathlessness, unconsciousness and
3 years death - lethal to humans in high concentration.
3 Carbon dioxide • Greenhouse effect in air concentrations by heat

•Troposphere Combustion of fossil fuels burning of trap
* Greenhouse gas forests - global warming - climate change - stimulates
• Residence time 2 4 plant growth - impairs reflexes
years
4 Oxides of nitrogen Automobiles, electric power Nitrogenous acid rains - Necrosis, defoliation
plants chiefly produce NO2, and and death of plants - irritation of eyes and
microbes of soil produce respiratory problems in human beings - depletion
of ozone layer in stratosphere - NO, reacts with
the hydrocarbons of automobile exhaust and
forms peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Organic Gases
HCs Benzene from cigarettes, petroleum

Contributes to photochemical smog,
refineries, petrochemical plants,
paints and toxic to plants and

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
animals, causes lung solvents, and

combustion of fossil fuels.
Aldehydes (acrolein Incomplete combustion of fossil These are the precursors of very harmful
and formaldehyde) fuels - substances such as Peroxy acyl Nitrates
interaction of hydrocarbons and in (PAN) and peroxy benzoyl nitrates (PBN).

hydrogen substances such as peroxy atmosphere.
acyl nitrates oxides in the presence which act as photochemical oxidants.
of sunlight
2. Particulate pollutants: The atmospheric substances that are not gases are referred to as particulates. These are
the suspended droplets, or solid particles or mixture of the two
Aerosols airborne suspensions that are either liquid or solid, which are Vehicular exhaust, factory
smaller than 1 um. smoke.
Smoke These are the fine particles of the size ranging from 0.01 to 1 um. They Oil smoke, tobacco smoke and
may be liquid or solid, which are formed by the combustion of fossils smoke from garbage burning.
Dust Grinding and crushing

Solid particles Of rocks
Grit Small loose particles of stone
Soot Fine carbon powder
Fume Fine solid particles - Fume of zinc
Secondary pollutants -
1. Ozone -
Formed by Oxygen in presence of Sunlight
Effects - Warming, affects Photosynthesis, respiration etc
2. SMOG
a. Photochemical or Los Angeles smog - PAN (Peroxyacetyl Nitrate + Peroxylbenzoyl Nitrate)
NOx + H.C.s —-----> in the presence of Sunlight —-----> PAN + PBN + Aldehydes and O3
Impacts - Corrosion of metals, reduces visibility, impairment of cardiopulmonary systems etc

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
3. Acid rain -
SOx + NOx + H2O = HNO3 + H2SO4
Impacts - Corrosion of metals, infra loss, B.D. loss, Building discoloration - Taj, impairs Photosynthesis
activity
Soil fertility reduction - by killing microorganisms, death of lakes
Minor pollutants
1. Lead - from Automobiles - neuro impacts
2. Cadmium - Mining, Metallurgy, cigarette and Plastic industry - heart and kidney
3. Nickle - Fossil fuels and alloy industry - lung cancer
4. Hg- Fossil, mining and smelting – minamata disease, kidney and nervous system
Occupational pollutants
1. Asbestos - Asbestos disease and lung cancer
2. Beryllium- ceramic industry, coal and rocket testings - berylliosis disease - breathlessness
3. Cotton dust - byssinosis - Lung tissues destruction
Air pollution
It is the introduction of substances in natural surroundings that create imbalance and distress to the ecosystem and
the living organisms therein. It can be in a chemical form, biological form or physical energy form
Radioactive Pollutants -
Radon, plutonium, Iodine- 131, strontium-90 —-> damage tissues → Cancer
Other pollutants -
 Benzopyrene - Cigarette - cancer
 METHANE - wetlands + Paddy + Anaerobic decomposition
 Pollen grains - Plants —-> Allergy
Pathogens - Airborne disease
Air pollution –
"undesirable change in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air which affect human life'
Some data on Air pollution -

 In 2019, 99% of the world’s population was living in places where the WHO air quality guidelines levels were
not met.
 The combined effects of ambient air pollution and household air pollution are associated with 6.7 million
premature deaths annually.
 Ambient (outdoor) air pollution is estimated to have caused 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019.
 Some 89% of those premature deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries, and the greatest
number in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions.

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
 Policies and investments supporting cleaner transport, energy efficient homes, power generation, industry
and better municipal waste management would reduce key sources of outdoor air pollution.
Sources of Air pollution
 Vehicles, industries, thermal power plants, etc. are the main sources of air pollution.
 To these may be added some living habits such as smoking, pesticides, insecticides, fuel for cooking food, and
crop burning in rural areas.
Main reasons -
 Vehicles
 Industries
 Thermal power plants
Following are the main reasons for high air pollution in India:
(i) Poor Quality of Fuel. Fuel used for industries and transport
(i) Uncontrolled Growth of Vehicle Population.

The number of vehicles in India has grown from an insignificant 306 thousand in
1950-51 to 182445 thousand in 2015-16.
(ii) Poor Vehicle Design. Poor vehicle design, especially, stroke two wheelers result in high emission of air pollutants.
(iv) Haphazard Growth of Industries. The haphazard growth of industries, particularly after Independence, has led
to large scale air pollution in India.
(v) Wrong location of Industries. Wrong location of industries especially close to residential areas result in people
getting affected due to air pollution.
(vi) Old Process Technology.
 Especially in small scale industries resulting in high emission of air pollutants.
(vii) No Pollution Control Step in Early Stage of Industrialisation.
(viii) No Pollution Prevention and Control System in Small/Medium Scale Industry.
(ix) Poor Compliance of Standards in Small Medium Scale Industries.
Some Important initiatives

Commission for air quality management , 2021
bans use of coal in Delhi and nearby cities from January 2023
The CAQM issued directions to ban the use of coal in industrial, domestic and other miscellaneous applications to
bring down GHG emission.
About Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)

 A statutory body established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region
and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.
 First established in 2020 through an Ordinance. •

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
 Headed by Chairperson with at least 15 years’ experience in the field of environment and pollution or 25 years
of administrative experience.
o Appeal of CAQM orders, directions etc.: National Green Tribunal.
Functions of CAQM
1. Coordinate actions - monitoring of air quality. O
2. Planning and executing plans
3. Conduct research and development through networking with technical institutions.
 Penalties: Contravention of provisions of the Ordinance, or orders and directions of the Commission will
be punishable with imprisonment of up to five years, or fine of up to one crore rupees, or both.
 All appeals against the Commission’s orders will be heard by the National Green Tribunal.
National Clean Air Program -2019

Target of a 40% reduction in particulate matter concentration in cities covered under the National Clean Air
Programme (NCAP) by 2026
(earlier goal of 20 to 30% reduction by 2024)
About NCAP • Launched in 2019 for reducing for comprehensive mitigation actions for prevention, control and
abatement of air pollution.
Key features:
1. Preparation of City-specific action plans which include measures for strengthening the air quality
monitoring network, reducing vehicular and industrial emissions, increasing public awareness, etc.
2. Implemented in 132 cities-
 123 Non-Attainment cities (NACs) identified under NCAP based on non-conforming to National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) consecutively for five years.
PRANA (Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in Non-Attainment cities) portal monitors the implementation of
NCAP.
NAAQS standards
1. Standards for ambient air quality with reference to various identified
2. Pollutant notified by the CPCB under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
List of pollutants under NAAQS:
 PM10, PM2.5, SO2, NO2, CO, NH3, Ozone, Lead, Benzene, Benzo-Pyrene, Arsenic and Nickel
The Air Quality Index- 2015

 Prepared by IIT kanpur
 measuring emissions of eight major pollutants present in the air:
o Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), Ozone (O3), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Lead (Pb) and Ammonia (NH3) emissions.

PRRC 2024
Pollution #Env009
National air Quality Monitoring -

Network of CBCB
Measures - So2, NO2, PM2.5 and PM10
WHO guidelines on Air quality

According to the World Health Organization, there are 7 million premature deaths every year due to the combined
effects of outdoor and household air pollution– with millions more people falling ill from breathing polluted air. More
than half of these deaths are recorded in developing countries.
WHO Suggestions
 for industry: clean technologies that reduce industrial smokestack emissions; improved management of
urban and agricultural waste, including capture of methane gas emitted from waste sites as an alternative to
incineration (for use as biogas);
 for energy: ensuring access to affordable clean household energy solutions for cooking, heating and lighting;
 for transport: shifting to clean modes of power generation; prioritizing rapid urban transit, walking and
cycling networks in cities as well as rail interurban freight and passenger travel; shifting to cleaner heavy-
duty diesel vehicles and low-emissions vehicles and fuels, including fuels with reduced sulfur content;
 for urban planning: improving the energy efficiency of buildings and making cities more green and compact,
and thus energy efficient;
 for power generation: increased use of low-emissions fuels and renewable combustion-free power sources
(like solar, wind or hydropower); co-generation of heat and power; and distributed energy generation (e.g.
mini-grids and rooftop solar power generation);
 for municipal and agricultural waste management: strategies for waste reduction, waste separation,
recycling and reuse or waste reprocessing, as well as improved methods of biological waste management such
as anaerobic waste digestion to produce biogas, are feasible, low-cost alternatives to the open incineration
of solid waste – where incineration is unavoidable, then combustion technologies with strict emission
controls are critical; and
 for health-care activities: putting health services on a low-carbon development path can support more
resilient and cost-efficient service delivery, along with reduced environmental health risks for patients, health
workers and the community. In supporting climate friendly policies, the health sector can display public
leadership while also improving health service delivery.

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PRRC 2024

The term ecology - German biologist Ernst Haeckel.

A large community unit, characterized by a major vegetation type

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Eg. - frog - Freshwater conditions

Note - IUCN maintains Global Invasive Species database

● Second most common threat associated with

6. Umbrella species - important from conservation point of

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Deep ecology – considers human as any other organism

Ecosophy – philosophy of ecological balance and harmony

Structured, Organized, balanced (until disturbed), Open ended,

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a. Autotroph – self nourishing, producers

ii. Micro – saprophages (to decompose)

complex organic compounds of dead material -------------> nutrients

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Planetary boundaries – safe operating limits for humanity

Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced during

The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other,

With each succession -

Factors affecting succession -

Some ecological rules -

1. Primary productivity – Radiant energy --> chemical compounds

2. Secondary productivity - Rates of energy storage at consumer levels

5. Woodland and Shrub –600

Very low net primary productivity -

A simpler food chain represents an unstable ecosystem and poor

There are two types of food chains:

1. Plants --› herbivorous -›carnivorous animals -›carnivores/omnivores

Aquatic food chains. -

There are three types of Ecological pyramids

Note – Numbers pyramid

The atmosphere --> 78 percent nitrogen, is the greatest

Short cycle of nitrogen in the living biosphere, in which

All three -ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate- may be used as

• Symbiotic nodule bacteria on legume plants: Rhizobium.

All bacteria's fixing nitrogen – Biofertilizers

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Biofertilizers - Natural or organic substances containing

Rhizobium: Used for leguminous crops like beans,

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Carbon – basic element of Life

Carbon – Co2, CO and CH4 forms

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Reservoir – sedimentary mainly – Rocks, atmospheric dust

Inorganic form --> plants ---> Organic forms -----> Enters in

From sea – birds and fishes – guano deposits by birds,

Mining of phosphate and processing of phosphate for

The excess of dissolved phosphate in aquatic systems

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Organic – Plants, coal, fossils etc.

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Types of Interaction Between Two Species

Theoretically, populations of two species may interact in

1. neutralism, in which neither population is affected by

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4. amensalism, in which one population is inhibited and the

Three trends in the occurrence of these relationships are

Interaction Species Species Nature of

Competition - - - Negative for

Parasitism • • tick, Lice

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