Op-amp applications

Vineeth
Waveform generators
• Oscillator generates repetitive waveform of fixed amplitude and frequency
without any external input signal.
• Uses of oscillators: Radio, TV, computers, communication

Oscillator principle
Oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed
back to the input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper
magnitude and phase, the circuit produces alternating currents or voltages.
The magnitude of feedback loop gain must be at least 1.
The total phase shift of the loop gains must be 0 or 360o.
 The magnitude of loop gain AvB must be at least 1.
The total phase shift of the loop gains must be 0 or 360o.

Frequency stability
The ability of the oscillator circuit to oscillate at one exact frequency is called frequency
stability.
Factors affecting: Temperature, stability of DC source

Figure of merit
Sinusoidal: Phase shift oscillator
Square wave generator
• Free running or astable multivibrator
Triangle wave generator?
Connecting
analog to
digital world
via op-amp
Comparators

• Compares the signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with a known

voltage called the reference voltage on the other input.
• Open-loop op-amp with two analog inputs and a digital output (+/-
saturation voltage).

Used in circuits such as digital interfacing, Schmitt triggers,

discriminators, voltage-level detectors and oscillators.
Comparator: Voltage-level detector
• Non-inverting comparator 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = +𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑣𝑒
Inverting comparator
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = +𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑣𝑒
Zero-crossing detector
• Sinewave-to-square wave converter.

Inverting zero-crossing detector

Issues
• With slow time varying signals/low frequency signals, the input takes
long time to cross zero. The output voltage may not switch quickly
from one saturation voltage to other.
• Noise voltages in the input may cause the output to fluctuate
between two saturation voltages.
Schmitt trigger
• Comparator circuit with hysteresis
implemented by positive feedback
to noninverting input of op-amp.
• Also called squaring circuit.
Inverting comparator as Schmitt trigger
 Sample and hold circuits

• Analog storage device

• Analog to Digital Converter Circuits (ADC)
Interfacing digital computer to analog world
Digital to analog converters
4-bit DAC

• Each digit A, B, C and D assumes value

0 or 1.
• For 4 bit input, there are 24 =16
possible combinations.
• For each input number, D/A outputs
unique value of voltage.

Analog output = K x Digital input

K is proportionality factor and is constant

for a given DAC.
4-bit DAC fed by 4-bit binary counter
 Parameters of DAC
Resolution or step size or the proportionality factor
Smallest change that occurs in the analog output as a result of a change in the digital input.
It is also the reciprocal of the number of discrete steps in the full-scale output of the DAC.

Resolution can be expressed as volts/step or as percentage (%).

% resolution = (step size/full-scale) x 100

%resolution = (1/total number of steps) x 100

For an N-bit DAC, the number of different levels will be 2N and the total number of steps will be 2N-1.
• Larger the number of bits, smaller will be the step size or finer will be the resolution.
Accuracy: Full-scale error and linearity
• The full-scale error is the maximum deviation of the DAC’s output from its
expected (ideal) value expressed in percentage of the full-scale.
• The linearity error is the maximum deviation of the analog output from the
ideal output.

Settling time
The operating speed of DAC: The total time between the instant when the
digital input changes and the time the output enters a specified error band
for the last time, usually + ½ LSB around the final value after the change in
digital input.

Offset voltage
Monotonicity
Implementation of DAC: R-2R ladder

Op-amp with ladder network of series and parallel combination of

resistors of values R and 2R at input end.

Op-amp is configured as voltage follower to prevent loading.

Case1: When input is 1000
Case2: When input is 0100
Case1: Input = 1000: Vout = E/2

Case2: Input = 0100: Vout = E/4

Case3: Input is 0010: Vout = E/8

Case4: Input is 0001: Vout = E/16

In general, for N-bit DAC

When Dn input is a 1 and all other inputs are 0. The output voltage is Vout = E/(2N-n)

To find the output voltage corresponding to any input combination, apply the principle of
superposition and simply add the voltages produced by the inputs where 1s are applied.

What are the output voltages caused by logic 1 at each bit position in an 8-bit ladder if the input level
is 0 for 0 V and 1 is +10 V.
DAC implementation 2: Weighted-Resistor type
Here op-amp is used to produce a weighted sum of the digital inputs.
The weights are proportional to the weights of the bit positions of inputs.
Op-amp is connected as inverting summer with each input is amplified by a factor
equal to the ratio of the feedback resistance divided by the input resistance to
which it is connected.
Analog to digital conversion
A/D converter or ADC produces a digital output that is proportional to
the value of the input analog signal.

Different types of implementations

• Counter-type A/D converter
• Flash-type A/D converter
Counter-type A/D converter: Digital ramp
ADC
• Resolution of ADC is equal to the resolution of DAC it contains.
• The resolution is basically the built-in error and is often called quantization error.
Resolution = FSR/2N
FSR : Full scale reading.
N is the number of bits in the counter.

Disadvantage:
Conversion time depends on the magnitude of the analog input at that instant.
The counter needs to be reset every time it reaches the analog input value. So it is quite slow.

The ADC must perform conversions at a rate equal to at least twice the frequency of the highest
component of the input
Tracking-type A/D converter
Flash-type A/D converter
• Simultaneous or parallel type 3-bit flash
• Fast operation ADC

• Parallel differential comparators that compare

reference voltage against analog input voltage.
• Priority encoder is used to produce digital output
corresponding to the input having the highest
priority, which in this case is the largest input.

• The reference voltage applied to the uppermost

comparator is (7R/(7R+R)*EREF)

• No clock
• Conversions takes place continuously.
8-bit flash ADC
8 bit conversion would take 255 (28-1) comparators. But can be
performed using two 4-bit flash converters employing 2*(24-1)=30
comparators only