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Cell : The unit of life

~All organisms are composed of cells
Single cell - Unicellular
Many cells - Multicellular

WHAT IS CELL ?
~Cell is the the fundamental , structural & functional unit
of all living organisms
~Anton von Leeuwenhoek first saw & described live a cell

Unicellular organisms are

Capable of
1. Independent existence
2. Performing the essential functions of
Life

CELL THEORY
~In 1838 Malthias Schleiden , Observed that all plants
are composed of different kinds of cells which form the
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tissues of the plant

~Different types of animal cells & reported that cells had a

thin outer layer which is today know as plasma membrane
Theodore Schwann (1839)
↓
~Presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant
cell , on the basis of this , schwann
The bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells &
product of cells

Schleiden & Schwann to together formulated cell theory

• Did not explain how new cells were formed

Rudolf virchow modified CELL THEORY

(1855) →→→

→Cell divided & new cells are formed form pre-existing

cells (umnis cellula-e cellula)
→Modified the hypothesis of schleiden & schwann
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→Give the cell theory a final shape

(1) All living organisms are composed of cells & products of

cells
(2) All cells arise from pre-existing cells

An Overview of cell
Membrane bound nucleic
↓ ↓
Present Absent
↓ ↓
Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

~The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in

both the plant & animal cells , Various chemical reactions
occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’

Membrane bound organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
The Golgi complex
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Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Microbodies
Vacuoles

Present → Eukaryotic
Absent → Prokaryotic

Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in

all cells both prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic
Found →Chloroplasts (in plants) & mitochondria &
Within on rough ER

~Animal cell contain another non-membrane bound

organelle called Centriole which helps in Cell division
~Cells differ greatly in size , shape & activities
(Figure-8.1). For example : Mycoplasmas , the smallest
cells , are only 0.3 um in length
~While bacteria could be 3 to 5 um . The largest isolated
single cell is the egg of an ostrich. Among multicellular
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organisms human red blood cells are about 7.0 um in

Diameter . Nerve cells are some of the longest cells

The shape of cell may vary with the function they perform

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
• lack membrane bound cell organelle
• Bacteria , blue green algae , mycoplasma & PPLO (pleuro
pneumonia like organisms )
• In addition to genomic DNA many bacteria bacteria have
small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA called
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PLASMIDS plamid DNA confers certain unique

phenotypic characters to such bacteria. One such
character is resistance to antibiotics. Plasmid DNA is
used to monitor bacterial transformation with foreign
DNA.
* A specialised differentiated form of cell membrane
Called Mesosome is the characteristic of prokaryotes.

Figure : 8.2
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CELL ENVELOPE & ITS MODIFICATION

~The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three
layered structure
→Thick & tough (capsule)
Outermost glycocalyx → A loose (Slime layer)
↓ Sheath
The cell wall → Prevent bacteria from brusting
↓ Or collapsing
Plasma membrane → Extension into the cell
↓
Mesosomes ← The form of vesicles tobules
Helps in Lamellae
↓
Cell wall formation
DNA replication
Distribution of daughter cells
Respiration
Secretion process
Increase the surface are of P.M
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~In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria , there are other

membranous extensions into the cytoplasm called
Chromatophores which contain pigments.

Bacteria
↓ ↓
Motile Non-motile
Thin filamentous extension
↓
Flagella
→Filament • Pili & fimbriae don not
→hook Play role in motility
→basal body Helps in
attach the bacteria to
Rocks in strems & also
to the host tissues

Gram Positive & Gram negative

~On the basis of difference in the cell envelopes & the
manner in which they respond to the staining
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procedure developed by gram

↓ ↓
Take up the gram stain Others that do not
↓ ↓
Gram positive Gram negative

RIBOSOMES
Prokaryotes Subunits
•Ribosomes are 70S →50S
→30S
~Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
~Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA to
form a chain called polyribosome or polysome
~The ribosome of a polysome translate mRNA into
proteins

INCLUSION BODIES
~Reserve material in prokaryotic cell are stored in the
cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies
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Eg : Phosphate granules , Cyanophycean

Granules , Glycogen granules
~Gas vacuoles are found in blue green & purple
green photosynthetic bacteria

EUKARYOTIC CELL
The eukaryotic includes all the protists , plants , animals &
fungi
• Organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope
• Variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal
structures
• Genetic material is organised into chromosomes
• Presence of membrane bound organelle.
All eukaryotes are not identical
• The eukaryote includes all the protists , plants , animals &
fungi. Plant cell have large vacuole , animal cell have
centriole which are almost absent in plant cells
• Ribosomes are of 80 S (in cytoplasm)
Small subunit is 40S & large 60S
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Plant cell
~The eukaryotes include all the protists , plants , animals &
fungi . Plant cell have large Vacoule
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Animal cell
~Animal cell have Centriole which are almost absent in
plant cells

CELL MEMBRANE
~ The cell membrane , especially in human Red Blood Cell
(RBCs) , Enabled the scientists to deduce possible
structure of plasma membrane
~Cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids &
proteins (mainly phospholipids)
↓ ↓
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Polar head (outwards) Non polar tail

(Hydrophobic)
Inner side
In human RBC 52% Proteins & 40% Lipids
The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of
phosphoglycerides
~Membrane protein can be Integral or peripheral

~The structure of cell membrane was proposed by

Singer & Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic
model.
~ The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables Lateral movement
of proteins within the overall bilayer.
This ability to move within the membrane is
measured as its fluidity.
~The fluid nature of membrane is important for
functions like cell growth, formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis,
cell division etc.
~Polar molecules cannot move through the non polar lipid
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bilayer.

~Membrane is Selectively permeable. Many

molecules can move across the
membrane without any requirement of energy
is called Passive transport.
~Movement of water by diffusion is called
osmosis. Many molecules require energy/ATP
for their transport called active transport,
e.g., Na+/K+ pump.

CELL WALL
~A non-living rigid structure called the Cell wall
forms an outer covering for the plasma
membrane of fungi and plants.
~Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and
protects the cell from mechanical damage and
Infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell
interaction and provides barrier to undesirable
macromolecules.
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~ Algae have cell wall made up of cellulose,

galactans, mannans, calcium carbonate.
~In plant it consists of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.

~The middle lamella is a layer mainly of

calcium pectate which holds or glues the
different neighbouring cells together.
~The cell wall and middle lamellae may be
traversed by plasmodesmata which connect
the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
membranous organelles are considered
together as an endomembrane system
because their functions are Coordinated.
endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
golgi complex,
lysosomes
vacuoles.
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functions of the mitochondria , chloroplast , peroxisomes

are not coordinated these are
not considered as part of the endomembrane

THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

~Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cell reveal
the presence of a network or reticulum of tiny tubular
structures scattered in the cytoplasm that is called
Endoplasmic reticulum
~Divides the intracellular space into two distinct
compartments :
1. Luminal (inside ER)
2. Extra luminal (cytoplasm)

Endoplasmic reticulum
↓ ↓
Rough endoplasmic Smooth endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) Reticulum (SER)
↓ ↓
The ER which has in absence of ribosomes
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Ribosomes on surface They appear smooth

↓ ↓
Involved in Protein Involved in lipid synthesis
Synthesis & secretion Like steroidal hormone
↓
Extensive & continuous
With the outer membrane
Of the nucleus

GOLGI APPARATUS
~Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained
reticular structure near the nucleus . These were later
named Golgi bodies after him
~They consist of Cisternae , which are concentrically
arrange near the nucleus with distinct convex Cis or the
forming face & concave trans or the maturing phase.
~Principally performs the function of packaging &
materials
~It is the important side for formation of Glycoproteins &
Glycolipids
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ER → Protein syn → Golgi body → Packed

↓
Cis to trans

LYSOSOMES
~These are membrane bound vesicular structures
formed by the process of packaging in the golgi
apparatus.
~They are rich in Hydrolytic enzyme (lipases , proteases ,
Carbohydrases) , Optimally active at acidic PH
~These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates ,
proteins , lipids & nucleic acids
~SUCIDES BAGS OF CELLS

VACUOLES
~The vacuoles is the membrane bound space found in the
cytoplasm. It contains water , sap , excretory products &
other materials not useful for the cell.
~The vacuoles is bound by a single membrane called
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Tonoplast. In plant cell the vacuoles can occupy up to 90%

of the volume of the cell.
~Tonoplast facilitates the transport of a
number of ions and other materials against
concentration gradients into the vacuole,
concentration is significantly higher in the
vacuole than in the cytoplasm.

~In amoeba the Contractile Vacuole is important for

excretion.
~In many cells , as in protists food vacuoles are formed by
englufing the food particles.

MITOCHONDRIA

~ Mitochondria unless specifically stained are

not easily visible under microscope
~ Number of mitochondria per cell is Variable depending
on the Physiological activity of the cells.
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~ It is sausage-shaped or cylindrical
~ Sites of aerobic respiration
~ ‘Power houses’ of the cell
~ Divide by fission

~Double membrane bound structure with the outer

membrane & the inner membrane dividing it's lumen
distinctly into two aqueous compartment i.e , The outmost
compartment & the inner compartment
↓
matrix
~The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting
boundary of the organelle & inner membrane forms Cristae
(Increase the surface area)
~The matrix also possess Single circular DNA molecule ,
a few RNA molecules , (Ribosomes 70S)
& The component required for the synthesis of proteins

PLASMIDS
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~Plasmids are found in all plant cells & in euglenoids.

Based on the pigment plamid can be classified into
Chloroplast , Chromoplast & Leucoplasts.
~The chloroplast contain Chlorophyll and Caretenoid
pigments which are responsible for trapping light energy
essential for photosynthesis
~The chloroplast fat soluble carotenoid pigment like
carotene , xanthophyllus & others are present
Store
Amyloplasts → carbohydrates (starch)
Elaioplasts → Oils & fats
Aleuroplasts → proteins

~Chloroplasts are Double membrane bound structure

which has membranous sac like structure called
thylakoids & the matrix called Stroma. It also contain
small , ds circular DNA & ribosomes
~Carotenoid is fat soluble pigment
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Eg : Carotene , xanthophyll
~The ribosomes of chloroplast (70s) are smaller than
cytoplasmic ribosomes
~Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular
- granum)
~Flat membranous tobules called the stroma lamellae
connecting thylokoids of different grana
~Stroma contain required enzyme for carbohydrates &
protein synthesis
~Chlorophyll pigments are also present in thylakoids

RIBOSOMES
~Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed
under the electron microscope as dense particles by
George palade (1953)
~Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) & proteins & are not
surrounded by any membrane
Eukaryotes 80S 60S & 40S
Prokaryotes 70S 50S & 30S
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‘S’ stands for Sedimentation coefficient

CYTOSKELETON
~An elaborate network of filamentous
proteinaceous structures present in the
cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton.
~The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in
many functions such as mechanical support,
motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell

CILIA & FLAGELLA

~Cilia & flagella are hair like outgrowths of plants the cell
membrane
~Flagella are comparatively Longer & responsible for cell
movement
Cilia Flagella
•Small structures which •Comparitively longer
work like oars , causing & responsible for
the movement of either movement
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the cell or the

surrounding fluid
~The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these
are structurally different from eukaryotic flagella
~The central core is called Axoneme & arrangement of
axonemal microtubules is referred to as 9+2array
~Both cilium & flagellum arise centriole like structure
called Basal bodies They are covered with plasma
membrane.

~The central tobules are connected by bridges & is also

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enclosed by a central sheath , which is connected to one

of the tobules of each peripheral doublets by a radial
spoke.
~The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by
linkers.

CENTROSOME & CENTRIOLES

~Centrosome is an organelle usually containing 2
cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are
surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials
and lie perpendicular to each other.
~The central part of the proximal region of the
centriole is proteinaceous called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral triplet
(nine) by radial spokes made of protein.
~The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or
flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to
spindle apparatus during cell division in
animal cells
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NUCLEUS
~Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described
by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the
material of the nucleus stained by the basic
dyes was given the name chromatin by
Flemming.
~Interphase nucleus has chromatin, nuclear
matrix and nucleolus. Nucleus has the
membranes and the space between two
membranes is Perinuclear Space.
~Outer membrane usually remains continuous
with the endoplasmic reticulum and also bears
ribosomes on it.

~The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains

nucleolus and chromatin.
~During different stages of cell division, cells
show structured chromosomes. Chromatin
contains DNA, some basic histones, some
non- histones and some RNA.
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~Every chromosome has a primary construction called

Centromere on the sides of which disc shaped structures
called Kinetochores are present.

~Based on the position of centromere, the

chromosome can be classified into four
types.
Metacentric - Centromere is in the middle
Sub Metacentric - Centromere slightly
away from the middle
Acrocentric - Centromere situated close
to one end
Telocentric - Centromere at terminal
Position
Sometimes a few chromosomes have non staining
secondary constrictions at a constant location. This gives
the appearance of a small fragment called the Satellite.

~Nuclelus is not a membrane bound structure

and it is site for active ribosomal synthesis
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Figure : 8.12
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Figure : 8.13

MICROBODIES
~Many membrane bound minute vesicles called
microbodies that contain various enzymes , are present in
both plants & animal cells.