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Mathematics 5 Rlrtitdtditd
Mathematics 5 Rlrtitdtditd
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials) by
expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know
how to integrate. To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions 2兾共x ⫺ 1兲
and 1兾共x ⫹ 2兲 to a common denominator we obtain
2 1 2共x ⫹ 2兲 ⫺ 共x ⫺ 1兲 x⫹5
⫺ 苷 苷 2
x⫺1 x⫹2 共x ⫺ 1兲共x ⫹ 2兲 x ⫹x⫺2
If we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the function on the right side of
this equation:
yx 2
x⫹5
⫹x⫺2
dx 苷 y 冉 2
x⫺1
⫺
1
x⫹2
冊 dx
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
苷 2 ln x ⫺ 1 ⫺ ln x ⫹ 2 ⫹ C ⱍ
To see how the method of partial fractions works in general, let’s consider a rational
function
P共x兲
f 共x兲 苷
Q共x兲
where P and Q are polynomials. It’s possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions pro-
vided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. Such a rational function is called
proper. Recall that if
P共x兲 R共x兲
1 f 共x兲 苷 苷 S共x兲 ⫹
Q共x兲 Q共x兲
x3 ⫹ x
v EXAMPLE 1 Find y dx.
x⫺1
≈+x +2 SOLUTION Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denomina-
x-1 ) ˛ +x tor, we first perform the long division. This enables us to write
˛-≈
≈+x
≈-x
2x
y
x3 ⫹ x
x⫺1
dx 苷 y 冉x2 ⫹ x ⫹ 2 ⫹
2
x⫺1
冊 dx
2x-2
x3 x2
2 苷
3
⫹
2 ⱍ
⫹ 2x ⫹ 2 ln x ⫺ 1 ⫹ C ⱍ
1
The next step is to factor the denominator Q共x兲 as far as possible. It can be shown that
any polynomial Q can be factored as a product of linear factors (of the form ax ⫹ b兲
and irreducible quadratic factors (of the form ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c, where b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⬍ 0). For
instance, if Q共x兲 苷 x 4 ⫺ 16, we could factor it as
The third step is to express the proper rational function R共x兲兾Q共x兲 (from Equation 1) as a
sum of partial fractions of the form
A Ax ⫹ B
or
共ax ⫹ b兲 i 共ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c兲 j
A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this. We explain the details
for the four cases that occur.
Q共x兲 苷 共a 1 x ⫹ b1 兲共a 2 x ⫹ b 2 兲 ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 共a k x ⫹ bk 兲
where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another). In this case the
partial fraction theorem states that there exist constants A1, A2 , . . . , Ak such that
R共x兲 A1 A2 Ak
2 苷 ⫹ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ ⫹
Q共x兲 a 1 x ⫹ b1 a2 x ⫹ b2 a k x ⫹ bk
x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫺ 1
v EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate y 2x dx .
3
⫹ 3x 2 ⫺ 2x
SOLUTION Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator,
we don’t need to divide. We factor the denominator as
Since the denominator has three distinct linear factors, the partial fraction decomposition
of the integrand 2 has the form
x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫺ 1 A B C
3 苷 ⫹ ⫹
x共2x ⫺ 1兲共x ⫹ 2兲 x 2x ⫺ 1 x⫹2
Another method for finding A, B, and C is To determine the values of A, B, and C, we multiply both sides of this equation by the
given in the note after this example. product of the denominators, x共2x ⫺ 1兲共x ⫹ 2兲, obtaining
2
Expanding the right side of Equation 4 and writing it in the standard form for poly-
nomials, we get
The polynomials in Equation 5 are identical, so their coefficients must be equal. The
coefficient of x 2 on the right side, 2A ⫹ B ⫹ 2C, must equal the coefficient of x 2 on the
left side—namely, 1. Likewise, the coefficients of x are equal and the constant terms are
equal. This gives the following system of equations for A, B, and C:
2A ⫹ B ⫹ 2C 苷 1
3A ⫹ 2B ⫺ C 苷 2
⫺2A 苷 ⫺1
y
x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫺ 1
2x 3 ⫹ 3x 2 ⫺ 2x
dx 苷 y 冋 1 1
2 x
⫹
1 1
5 2x ⫺ 1
⫺
1 1
10 x ⫹ 2
册 dx
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
苷 2 ln x ⫹ 10 ln 2x ⫺ 1 ⫺ 10 ln x ⫹ 2 ⫹ K
1 1 1
ⱍ
In integrating the middle term we have made the mental substitution u 苷 2x ⫺ 1, which
gives du 苷 2 dx and dx 苷 2 du.
1
NOTE We can use an alternative method to find the coefficients A , B , and C in Exam-
ple 2. Equation 4 is an identity; it is true for every value of x . Let’s choose values of x that
simplify the equation. If we put x 苷 0 in Equation 4, then the second and third terms on the
right side vanish and the equation then becomes ⫺2A 苷 ⫺1, or A 苷 2 . Likewise, x 苷 2
1 1
gives 5B兾4 苷 4 and x 苷 ⫺2 gives 10C 苷 ⫺1, so B 苷 5 and C 苷 ⫺ 10 . (You may object
1 1 1
that Equation 3 is not valid for x 苷 0, 2 , or ⫺2, so why should Equation 4 be valid for those
1
values? In fact, Equation 4 is true for all values of x , even x 苷 0, 2 , and ⫺2. See Exercise 71
1
dx
EXAMPLE 3 Find y , where a 苷 0.
x2 ⫺ a2
SOLUTION The method of partial fractions gives
1 1 A B
苷 苷 ⫹
x2 ⫺ a2 共x ⫺ a兲共x ⫹ a兲 x⫺a x⫹a
and therefore
A共x ⫹ a兲 ⫹ B共x ⫺ a兲 苷 1
Using the method of the preceding note, we put x 苷 a in this equation and get
A共2a兲 苷 1, so A 苷 1兾共2a兲. If we put x 苷 ⫺a, we get B共⫺2a兲 苷 1, so B 苷 ⫺1兾共2a兲.
Thus
3
y
dx
x ⫺a
2 2 苷
1
2a y 冉 1
x⫺a
⫺
1
x⫹a
冊 dx
1
苷
2a ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
(ln x ⫺ a ⫺ ln x ⫹ a ⱍ) ⫹ C
Since ln x ⫺ ln y 苷 ln共x兾y兲, we can write the integral as
6 yx 2
dx
⫺a 2
苷
1
2a
ln 冟 冟
x⫺a
x⫹a
⫹C
A1 A2 Ar
7 ⫹ 2 ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ ⫹
a 1 x ⫹ b1 共a 1 x ⫹ b1 兲 共a 1 x ⫹ b1 兲r
x3 ⫺ x ⫹ 1 A B C D E
苷 ⫹ 2 ⫹ ⫹ ⫹
x 2共x ⫺ 1兲3 x x x⫺1 共x ⫺ 1兲2 共x ⫺ 1兲3
x 4 ⫺ 2x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 1
EXAMPLE 4 Find y x3 ⫺ x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1
dx.
x 4 ⫺ 2x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 1 4x
苷x⫹1⫹ 3
x3 ⫺ x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1 x ⫺ x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1
Since the linear factor x ⫺ 1 occurs twice, the partial fraction decomposition is
4x A B C
苷 ⫹ 2 ⫹
共x ⫺ 1兲 共x ⫹ 1兲
2
x⫺1 共x ⫺ 1兲 x⫹1
4
8 4x 苷 A共x ⫺ 1兲共x ⫹ 1兲 ⫹ B共x ⫹ 1兲 ⫹ C共x ⫺ 1兲2
苷 共A ⫹ C兲x 2 ⫹ 共B ⫺ 2C 兲x ⫹ 共⫺A ⫹ B ⫹ C兲
y
x 4 ⫺ 2x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 1
x3 ⫺ x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1
dx 苷 y 冋
x⫹1⫹
1
x⫺1
⫹
2
共x ⫺ 1兲2
⫺
1
x⫹1
册 dx
x2 2
苷
2 ⱍ
⫹ x ⫹ ln x ⫺ 1 ⫺ ⱍ
x⫺1 ⱍ
⫺ ln x ⫹ 1 ⫹ K ⱍ
苷
x2
2
⫹x⫺
2
x⫺1
⫹ ln
x⫺1
x⫹1
⫹K 冟 冟
CASE III Q共x兲 contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated.
If Q共x兲 has the factor ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c, where b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⬍ 0, then, in addition to the partial
fractions in Equations 2 and 7, the expression for R共x兲兾Q共x兲 will have a term of the form
Ax ⫹ B
9
ax ⫹ bx ⫹ c
2
where A and B are constants to be determined. For instance, the function given by
f 共x兲 苷 x兾关共x ⫺ 2兲共x 2 ⫹ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ 4兲兴 has a partial fraction decomposition of the form
x A Bx ⫹ C Dx ⫹ E
苷 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 2
共x ⫺ 2兲共x 2 ⫹ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ 4兲 x⫺2 x ⫹1 x ⫹4
The term given in 9 can be integrated by completing the square (if necessary) and using
the formula
10 y
dx
x ⫹a
2 2
1
苷 tan⫺1
a
x
a
冉冊 ⫹C
2x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 4
v EXAMPLE 5 Evaluate y dx.
x 3 ⫹ 4x
SOLUTION Since x 3 ⫹ 4x 苷 x共x 2 ⫹ 4兲 can’t be factored further, we write
2x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 4 A Bx ⫹ C
苷 ⫹ 2
x共x ⫹ 4兲
2
x x ⫹4
Multiplying by x共x 2 ⫹ 4兲, we have
2x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 4 苷 A共x 2 ⫹ 4兲 ⫹ 共Bx ⫹ C兲x
苷 共A ⫹ B兲x 2 ⫹ Cx ⫹ 4A
5
Equating coefficients, we obtain
A⫹B苷2 C 苷 ⫺1 4A 苷 4
Thus A 苷 1, B 苷 1, and C 苷 ⫺1 and so
y
2x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 4
x 3 ⫹ 4x
dx 苷 y 冉 1
x
x⫺1
⫹ 2
x ⫹4
冊 dx
2x 2 ⫺ x ⫹ 4 1 x 1
y dx 苷 y dx ⫹ y 2 dx ⫺ y 2 dx
x共x ⫹ 4兲
2
x x ⫹4 x ⫹4
ⱍ ⱍ
苷 ln x ⫹ 2 ln共x 2 ⫹ 4兲 ⫺ 2 tan⫺1共x兾2兲 ⫹ K
1 1
4x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2
EXAMPLE 6 Evaluate y 4x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3
dx.
SOLUTION Since the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the denomi-
nator, we first divide and obtain
4x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2 x⫺1
苷1⫹
4x ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3
2
4x ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3
2
y
4x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2
4x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3
dx 苷 y 冉 1⫹
x⫺1
4x ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3
2 冊 dx
1
共u ⫹ 1兲 ⫺ 1 u⫺1
苷 x ⫹ 12 y 2
du 苷 x ⫹ 14 y 2 du
u2 ⫹ 2 u ⫹2
u 1
苷 x ⫹ 14 y du ⫺ 14 y 2 du
u ⫹22
u ⫹2
苷 x ⫹ 18 ln共u 2 ⫹ 2兲 ⫺
1
ⴢ
4 s2
1
tan⫺1
u
s2
冉 冊 ⫹C
苷 x ⫹ 18 ln共4x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 3兲 ⫺
1
4 s2
tan⫺1 冉 冊
2x ⫺ 1
s2
⫹C
6
NOTE Example 6 illustrates the general procedure for integrating a partial fraction of
the form
Ax ⫹ B
where b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⬍ 0
ax ⫹ bx ⫹ c
2
We complete the square in the denominator and then make a substitution that brings the
integral into the form
Cu ⫹ D u 1
y du 苷 C y 2 du ⫹ D y 2 du
u2 ⫹ a2 u ⫹ a2 u ⫹ a2
Then the first integral is a logarithm and the second is expressed in terms of tan⫺1.
CASE IV Q共x兲 contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.
If Q共x兲 has the factor 共ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c兲 r , where b 2 ⫺ 4ac ⬍ 0, then instead of the single
partial fraction 9 , the sum
A1 x ⫹ B1 A2 x ⫹ B2 Ar x ⫹ Br
11 ⫹ ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈ ⫹
ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c 共ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c兲2 共ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c兲 r
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R共x兲兾Q共x兲. Each of the terms in 11 can be
integrated by using a substitution or by first completing the square if necessary.
It would be extremely tedious to work out by EXAMPLE 7 Write out the form of the partial fraction decomposition of the function
hand the numerical values of the coefficients
in Example 7. Most computer algebra systems,
x3 ⫹ x2 ⫹ 1
however, can find the numerical values very
quickly. For instance, the Maple command x 共x ⫺ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ x ⫹ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ 1兲3
convert共f, parfrac, x兲
SOLUTION
or the Mathematica command
Apart[f] x3 ⫹ x2 ⫹ 1
gives the following values: x 共x ⫺ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ x ⫹ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ 1兲3
A 苷 ⫺1, B 苷 18 , C 苷 D 苷 ⫺1,
A B Cx ⫹ D Ex ⫹ F Gx ⫹ H Ix ⫹ J
E苷 15
, F苷⫺ , 1
G 苷 H 苷 34 , 苷 ⫹ ⫹ 2 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 2
8 8
x x⫺1 x ⫹x⫹1 x ⫹1 共x ⫹ 1兲2 共x ⫹ 1兲3
I 苷 ⫺ 12 , J 苷 12
1 ⫺ x ⫹ 2x 2 ⫺ x 3
EXAMPLE 8 Evaluate y x共x 2 ⫹ 1兲2
dx.
1 ⫺ x ⫹ 2x 2 ⫺ x 3 A Bx ⫹ C Dx ⫹ E
苷 ⫹ 2 ⫹ 2
x 共x ⫹ 1兲
2 2
x x ⫹1 共x ⫹ 1兲2
7
A⫹B苷0 C 苷 ⫺1 2A ⫹ B ⫹ D 苷 2 C ⫹ E 苷 ⫺1 A苷1
y
1 ⫺ x ⫹ 2x 2 ⫺ x 3
x共x 2 ⫹ 1兲2
dx 苷 y 冉 1
x
x⫹1
⫺ 2
x ⫹1
⫹ 2
x
共x ⫹ 1兲2
冊 dx
dx x dx x dx
苷y ⫺y 2 dx ⫺ y 2 ⫹y 2
x x ⫹1 x ⫹1 共x ⫹ 1兲2
1
ⱍ ⱍ
苷 ln x ⫺ 12 ln共x 2 ⫹ 1兲 ⫺ tan⫺1x ⫺
2共x 2 ⫹ 1兲
⫹K
We note that sometimes partial fractions can be avoided when integrating a rational func-
tion. For instance, although the integral
x2 ⫹ 1
y x共x 2 ⫹ 3兲
dx
could be evaluated by the method of Case III, it’s much easier to observe that if
u 苷 x共x 2 ⫹ 3兲 苷 x 3 ⫹ 3x, then du 苷 共3x 2 ⫹ 3兲 dx and so
x2 ⫹ 1
y x共x 2 ⫹ 3兲
1
ⱍ
dx 苷 3 ln x 3 ⫹ 3x ⫹ C ⱍ
Exercises
x2 ⫹ 1 x 2 ⫺ 5x ⫹ 16
dx x 4 ⫹ 3x 2 ⫹ 1 19. y 共x ⫺ 3兲共x ⫺ 2兲 2
dx 20. y 共2x ⫹ 1兲共x ⫺ 2兲 2
dx
3. y x共x 2 ⫹ 4兲2
4. y x 5 ⫹ 5x 3 ⫹ 5x
dx
x3 ⫹ 4 ds
x 2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 7 x 3 ⫹ 2x 2 ⫹ 3x ⫺ 2 21. yx dx 22. y s 共s ⫺ 1兲
5. y dx 6. y dx
2
⫹4 2 2
共x 2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 6兲2 共x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 2兲2
x4 3t ⫺ 2 10 x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 6
7. y dx 8. y dt 23. y 共x ⫺ 1兲共x 2
⫹ 9兲
dx 24. y x 3 ⫹ 3x
dx
x⫺1 t⫹1
5x ⫹ 1 y 4x x2 ⫹ x ⫹ 1
9. y 共2x ⫹ 1兲共x ⫺ 1兲 dx 10. y 共 y ⫹ 4兲共2y ⫺ 1兲
dy 25. yx 3
⫹x ⫹x⫹1
2 dx 26. y 共x 2 ⫹ 1兲2
dx
1 2 1 x⫺4 x 3 ⫹ x 2 ⫹ 2x ⫹ 1 x 2 ⫺ 2x ⫺ 1
11. y 2x 2 ⫹ 3x ⫹ 1
dx 12. y x 2 ⫺ 5x ⫹ 6
dx 27. y dx 28. y 共x ⫺ 1兲 共x dx
0 0
共x 2 ⫹ 1兲共x 2 ⫹ 2兲 2 2
⫹ 1兲
ax 1 x⫹4 3x 2 ⫹ x ⫹ 4
13. yx 2
⫺ bx
dx 14. y 共x ⫹ a兲共x ⫹ b兲 dx 29. yx dx 30. yx dx
2
⫹ 2x ⫹ 5 4
⫹ 3x 2 ⫹ 2
4 x 3 ⫺ 2x 2 ⫺ 4 1 x 3 ⫺ 4x ⫺ 10 1 1 x
15. y
3 x 3 ⫺ 2x 2
dx 16. y
0 x2 ⫺ x ⫺ 6
dx 31. yx 3
⫺1
dx 32. y
0 x 2 ⫹ 4x ⫹ 13
dx