Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material Chapter 1, 2

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

ENGINEERING
Target Program: Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering
Course: Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material
Instructor: Tenaw E. And Eyoel Y.
April, 2023
Dilla, Ethiopia
TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Irrigation
•Irrigation is defined as:
 The process of artificial application of water to the soil for the growth of agricultural
crop is termed as irrigation.
 It is particularly a science of planning and designing a water supply system for
agricultural land to protect the crops from bad effect of drought or low rainfall.
• It includes the following structures for the regular supply of water to the required command
area:
o the construction weir/barrage
o dam/reservoir
o canal system
1.2 Necessity of Irrigation

For the growth of plant/crops: adequate quantity and quality of water required in the root
zone of the plant. However, in actual condition during the whole period of plant growth
/partly there exists inadequacy of water to full fill the crop water requirements. Thus, the
following factors govern the necessity of irrigation:
a) Insufficient rainfall: when the seasonal rainfall is less than the minimum requirement
for the satisfactory growth of crops, the irrigation system is essential
b) Uneven distribution of rainfall: when the rainfall is not evenly distributed during the
crop period or throughout the cultivable area, the irrigation is extremely necessary.
c) Improvement of perennial crops yield: some crops such as sugarcane etc require
water throughout the major parts of the year but the rainfall fulfills the demand during
the rainy season only. Therefore, for remaining part of the year irrigation is necessary.
d) Development of agriculture in the desert areas: in the desert, area where the rainfall
is very scanty, irrigation is required for the development of agriculture.
e) Insurance of drought: irrigation may not required during the normal rainfall condition
and can be necessary during drought
1.3 Benefit and ill effect of Irrigation
A. Direct Benefit of irrigation
There are several benefits of irrigation and can be summarized as follows:
• Increase in crop yield
• Protection of famine
• Improvement of cash crops
• Elimination of mixed cropping
• prosperity of farmers

• source of revenue
• Overall development of the nation
B. Indirect Benefits of Irrigation
• Hydroelectric development
• flood control
• domestic and industrial water supply
• Development of fishery
• ground water recharges
•navigation
Ill-effects of Irrigation
The uses of irrigated agriculture have the following ill effects if not properly managed:
• Raising of water Table
• Formation of marshy area
• dampness of weather
• loss of soil fertility
• soil erosion
• production of harmful gases
• loss of valuable lands
1.4 System of Irrigation

The system of irrigation is classified as shown in the following charts
1.5 Method of Distribution of Irrigation Water

After an irrigation water is taken from the sources by any of the techniques (Diversion
from river or reservoir or pumped from the ground sources etc), it can be distributed to
the agricultural field by different methods as summarized in the following chart
schematically.
A. Surface Method of Irrigation

In this method, the irrigation method is distributed to the agricultural land through the
small channels, which flood the area up to the required depth. The following figures
show the schematic description of surface irrigation methods.

B. Sub-Surface Method of Irrigation
In this method of irrigation, the water is applied to the root zone of the crops by underground
network of pipes .The network consists of main pipe, sub main pipes and lateral perforated pipes.
The perforated pipe allows the water to drip out slowly and thus the soil below the root zone of
the crops absorbs water continuously. This method is also known as drip method or trickle
method of Irrigation as can be shown in the following figure.

C. Sprinkler Irrigation Method
In this method, the water is applied to the land in the form of spray like rain. The network of the
main pipes sub main pipes and laterals achieves the spraying of water. The lateral pipe may be
perforated at the top and side through which the water comes out in the form of spray and spread
over the crop in a particular area. Again, the lateral pipes may contain series of nozzles through
which the water comes out as fountain and spread over the crop in a particular area. The
following figure illustrates an overhead
method of Irrigation.
1.6 Feasibility study or Irrigation project surveying

The data to be investigated during the feasibility study of a given irrigation project varies on the
type of irrigation as well as its scope. Thus, any plan small or large, which ultimately aims at
satisfying the paramount need of adequate water provision for crop production, is an irrigation
project. Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation projects can be classified as:
a) Large scale
b) Medium scale
c) Small scale
Irrigation projects and their development costs
Note: In Ethiopia, Small-scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha, medium
scale 200-3000 ha and large scale >3000 ha.
With this respect, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area of about 3,637,000 ha. , which is
27.55% of the total cultivable area. From which
o For small-scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.
o For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha

1.6.1 Stages of investigations in the development of irrigation projects:
♦ The development of water resources for irrigation requires the conception, planning, design,
construction, and operation of various facilities to utilize and control water and to maintain
water quality.
♦ Investigations of the development of irrigation projects need multi-disciplinary approach.
Specialists of different disciplines, such as, Soil and water specialist, Engineers (Irrigation and
civil), Agronomist, Geologist, and Socio-economist required.
♦ Investigations of water resources development projects are essentially aimed at collection of
basic data and analysis thereof for formulation of an optimum project. The extent of data to be
collected depends on the magnitude of the project and on the stage of investigation.
The common procedures adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

1. Sites are located on the topographic-sheet.
2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of the possible alternatives and
estimates based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor) is fixed and construction
started.
Approaches of data collections:

Before coming to the actual data collection for the feasibility study of any irrigation project, the
following questions should be answered:
• What or which are the required data.

• How they can be collected?
• Why are they needed?
• Is the cost of their collection worthwhile?
Feasibility studies of irrigation projects
Through investigation of the following data are required during the feasibility study of an
irrigation projects.
• Necessity for irrigation in the region
o Normally Irrigation will be a necessity if there is inadequacy of rainfall, uneven distribution of
rainfall, etc. On the other hand, it will be of a paramount importance to alleviate food shortage
due to population growth.
• Availability of adequate water supply
• Topography of the area
• Cultural practices of the tract
• Adequacy of existing irrigation system it any
• Possibility of growing cash crops or other voluble crops after provision of irrigation
water

• Accessibility to the project site (transportation, Communications and other required
facilities) and construction materials.
• Economical justification for implementing the irrigation scheme.
When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after reconnaissance survey), the data to be
collected at the feasibility study stage are
1. Physical data: - location, size, physiographic (description of landform which includes
only physical aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data: Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment, water
quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: - land classification, crop water requirements, and types of crops
4. Geological data: - Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data: Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data: - Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data: - Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data: Water rights, land ownership and administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project: - Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion: - Opinions of different section of the society
12. Flood control data: Records of past flood, extent of damage caused by the flood, drainage
requirements etc
1.6.2 Land resources
An evaluation of the suitability of land for alternative kinds of use requires a survey to define
and map the land units together with the collection of descriptive data of land characteristics and
resources. Land suitability is the fitness of a land-mapping unit for a defined use (in this case
irrigation). Land mapping units represent parts of a study area (ex. for irrigation) which are more
or less homogeneous with respect to certain land characteristics i.e. slope, rainfall, soil texture,
soil type, etc).
Land suitability is the fitness of a land-mapping unit for a defined use (in this case irrigation).
Land mapping units represent parts of a study area (ex. for irrigation) which are more or less
homogeneous with respect to certain land characteristics i.e. slope, rainfall, soil texture, soil type,
etc).
Land evaluation provides information and recommendations for deciding ‘which crops to grow
where’ and related questions. Land evaluation is the selection of suitable land, and suitable
cropping, irrigation and management alternatives that are physically and financially practicable
and economically viable. The main product of land evaluation investigations is a land
classification that indicates the suitability of various kinds of land for specific land uses, usually
depicted on maps with accompanying reports.

The four basic features of land suitability for irrigated agriculture are
•Irrigable terrain (land forms)
• Potentially fertile soil
• A climate in which the crop can thrive (develop well and be healthy)
• A reliable source of water of consistent quality
The classification of the suitability of a particular land – mapping unit depends on the extent to
which its land qualities satisfy the land use requirements. Definite specification (for land use
requirements) is established for an irrigation project area prior to land classification. The land
suitability classification requires the following information to be identified.
Land capability maps are used to delineate arable and non-arable lands. Land use and Vegetation
maps of the catchments area are used to identify the present land use in terms of cover and
function.
Soil survey that includes:
• Identification of soil types
• Field observation of infiltration
• Field observation of hydraulic conductivity
• Water table depth and fluctuation
• Workability of the soil
• Absence or presence of soil salinity
Soil survey recognizes the relation between terrain or physiographic and soils. Examples of: the
minimum grade of a number of land qualities and land suitability ratings for irrigated rice.
Topographic Survey follows the soil survey and so is restricted mainly to the areas of irrigable
soils that have been delineated. Additional areas are included as necessary for the location of
reservoir, dams, head works, canals, buildings, roads, and hydraulic structures etc.
1.6.3 Water resources

Hydrological survey and Hydro-geological are undertaken to assess surface and subsurface water
resources of the catchments respectively. It may be carried out at national level, river basin level,
project development level and at farm level.
Data sources
 Surface water supply from long-term records of stream flows by stream gauging and
water quality.
 If the above data is not available, rainfall records for the catchments or stream flow
records of the neighboring rivers used.
 If the above two conditions did not exist, stream gauging and metrological stations are
set up as soon as possible on the principle that having short-term records for correlation
with homogenous gauged catchments which are better than none.
 For ground water supplies
 Short-term yield is assessed by drilling and testing trial wells
 Long-term yield is estimated by a detailed study of the aquifers
 Mathematical models, numerical models that simulate the non-steady
state, two dimensional, ground water flows are used for such purposes.)
1.6.4 Agricultural and Engineering aspects
A. Agricultural Aspects
 In feasibility study, the present state of Agriculture and agricultural society is assessed
and the future state, with irrigation, is predicted i.e. the ‘with’ and ‘without’ conditions of
irrigation.
Present farm practices
o The number of farms of different sizes
o Farming methods in use
o Land areas cultivated and irrigated
o Crop yield per hectare
o Total crop production and costs
o Labor available for farming operation
o Existing skill in irrigated farming and attitudes to change
o Assessment on the existing market & transport
o Presence of noxious weeds
Future situation of agriculture.

This assessment is much more difficult (numerous assumptions inevitably have to be
made). It
should be demonstrated that.
• The soils and the climate are suitable
• The rotation of crops is sound
• The water duties can be provided
• There will be accessible markets capable of absorbing the increased production at
economic prices.

• The advising and training facilities will be adequate, etc
B. Engineering aspects
The Engineering aspect mainly focuses on the development of a source of water for irrigation
and construction of various structures for storage, diversion, conveyance and application of
water. These includes investigations of :
♦ Site selection and Design of a reservoir & a dam
♦ Site selection & Design of diversion head – works at point off takes.
♦ Alignment for canal system (lay outs for canal)
♦ Alignment for field channels.
♦ Study of sub-surface conditions that affect the design and construction of proposed structures.
♦ Concentrated on the mechanical properties of the sub soil at foundation levels.
♦ Construction materials including, soil and sand, rock and aggregate, cement, lime stone steel,
etc.
♦ Tests should be carried out on the various construction materials.
♦ Any flood hazard so that provision of flood dyke protection is possible.
♦ If there is drainage requirements i.e. layouts of sub – surface drains.
♦ Other factors that have bearing effects upon the design of engineering works
1.6.5 Social and Economical aspects.

The attitude of the people to the introduction of irrigation in that area should be investigated
thoroughly. The Various items considered in benefit/cost relationships are.
a) Cost
o Capital cost of the project.
o Cost of preliminary and precise survey and investigation
o Cost of a equitation of land
o Cost of various structure
o Cost of earthwork and lining for canal system. Etc
o Allowance made for foreseen and unforeseen contingencies
o Interest on Capital
o Depreciation
o Operational and maintenance cost of project
b) Benefits
o Agricultural production in the project area before and after taking up the
project (irrigation)
o Cost of cultivation before and after irrigation (cost of inputs such as Seeds,
manure, labor, irrigation machines etc)

1.6.6 Other Aspects to be considered:
o Organization and management aspects.
o Further expansion potential of the project.
o Environmental Surveys (Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA)
1.7. Current Irrigation Development Plan in Ethiopia:
 Development 20,000ha at Kassem for expansion of Methara sugar
factory farm.
 Large scale project – 60,000ha of land at Tendhao underway
 Medium Scale project – Goga Irrigation project (Near Bahir Dar)
 Final Detail Design:
 Ziway Pressurized Irrigation project
(15500ha)
 Raya Pressurized Irrigation project
(18000ha)
 Final feasibility studies at:
 Gode for about 3000ha
 Dedessa for more than 10,000ha
 Humera for about 20,000 to 40,000ha
 Wolenchiti for about 15,000ha
 Bilate for more than 5000ha
 Gidabo for more than 5000ha
 Flower companies – Oromia, south
1.8 Problems in Irrigation Development
Irrigation plays a significant role in the agricultural development of the country
but there are still enormous constraints in its development.
Lack of mapping data:
 Mapping information not available at a scale suitable for detailed studies of
irrigation areas, dam sites, etc.
 Similarly, data related to soils are not found in sufficient detail to all potential
areas.
Lack of Hydrologic Data:
 The collection of hydro meteorological information are not adequate.
 River gauges are mostly available for major rivers and bigger tributaries.
Lack of resources:
 The level of skilled manpower available in the country is not adequate to carry
out the number of projects being demanded by the regions.
 Inadequacy in construction capability due to inadequate machinery, equipment
and spare parts.
Lack of Finance:
 Despite ambition plan of the government, sources of finance for implementing
the planned irrigation projects is expected from foreign aid and loans.
Inadequate research undertakings in the area:
So far, little emphasis for irrigation in agricultural research.
Operation and Maintenance:
Institutional water operation and management is in a very poor condition with regard to the
administration of supply, maintenance and repair of the networks due to lack of trained
manpower, sufficient maintenance tools and equipment.
1.9. Quality of Irrigation Water

Generally, irrigation water is not intended to provide any nutrient or trace element needed for the
growth of the plant. However, except rain water, which is nearer to pure water, the irrigation water
obtained by any other source contains some silt content, as well as certain salts dissolved in it. The
availability of some of these in gradients in irrigation water would supplement and even replenish the
nutrients taken by plants from the soil. However, some of the ingredients, which render the irrigation
water unsuitable for irrigation. As such the quality of irrigation water depends primarily on 1) it silt
content 2) salt constituents.
Effect of silt:
Its effect on the quality of irrigation water, depends on the nature of silt and characteristics of soil
receiving the water. If silt contains larger quantity of plant nutrients, it is quite beneficial, particularly for
virgin soils which has low content of plant nutrients and very low water holding capacity. Gradual
accumulation of silt on this type of soil through irrigation water, improve the soil characteristics
considerably. However in many cases, it may also be injurious, especially when silt is not rich in plant
nutrients. It is deposited on the surface of the fertile land and the silt accumulation may reduce the
permeability and make irrigation more difficult.
Effect of salts:
Whatever the source of irrigation water ( river, canal, tank, open well or tube well ), some soluble salts
are always dissolved in it. The nature & quantity of dissolved salts depend on the source of water. The
main soluble constituents in water are calcium, magnesium & sodium and sometimes potassium as
cations and chloride, sulphate & bicarbonate and carbonate as anions. However, ions of some other
elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine, copper, nickel, cobalt, fluorine, boron, manganese, lead,
molybdenum & selenium are present in minor quantities. These elements do not affect the quality of
irrigation water as far as total salt concentration is concerned. But some ions such as selenium,
molybdenum & fluorine, if absorbed by plants in excess amounts may prove harmful to animal life
when taken by them through feed.
Water Quality Criteria
The generally accepted criteria for judging the quality are
(i) Total salt concentration as measured by EC
(ii) Relative proportion of cations as expressed by Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) : SAR =
Na+ / √ ( Ca++ + Mg++ )/2 , in which ionic concentrations are expressed in meq/lit . [ SAR: A
ratio for soil extracts & irrigation waters used to express the relative activity of sodium ions
in exchange reaction with soil ]
(iii) Bicarbonate & Boron contents
The suitability of irrigation water (SIW), can be expressed as
SIW = f ( Q S P C D ), in which
Q = quality of irrigation water
S = soil type
P = salt tolerant characteristics of plants
C = climate

D = drainage characteristics of the soil
The above characteristics profoundly influence the suitability of a particular water for irrigation. A highly
saline water may be suitable in a well drained, light textured, fertile soil, while much less saline water
may be much harmful for the same crop grown on heavy textured soils with impeded drainage. It is the
actual salt concentration near the root zone, which determines the suitability of irrigation water rather than
the chemical properties of irrigation water alone.
Irrespective of ionic composition, the harmful effects of an irrigation water increase with its total salt
concentration as it increases the soil salinity significantly. Water of low salinity ( EC < 3 mmhos/cm )
are generally composed of higher proportion of Ca, Mg & bicarbonate ions. High saline waters ( EC >
10 mmhos/cm ) consist mostly sodium & chloride ions. Moderately saline waters ( EC = 3 to 9
mmhos/cm ) have varying ionic compositions. Waters containing high concentrations of sodium,
bicarbonate & carbonate ions have high PH
Any increase in SAR of irrigation water increases the SAR of solution. Ultimately increases the
exchangeable sodium of soil. Generally, there is a linear relationship between SAR & ESP levels, the
relationship tend to be curvilinear. In judging the suitability of irrigation water both salinity & SAR
should be kept in view along with the salinity & Sodicity developed during the cropping period. Salinity
increases the 0smotic stress.
Magnesium – Calcium Ratio
The soil Sodicity increases more if the water contains a higher proportion of magnesium to calcium. Thus,
it is desirable to analyze both calcium and magnesium in irrigation water separately in order to predict
soil Sodicity hazard more accurately. It is more important if the Mg : Ca ratio in irrigation water
happens to be more than 4
Bicarbonate
Irrigation waters rich in bicarbonate content tend to precipitate insoluble calcium & magnesium in the soil
as their carbonates
2 HCO3 + Ca CaCO3 ↓ + H2O + CO2 ↑
This leaves a higher proportion of sodium in the soil solution & increases the SAR. This bicarbonate –
induced increase in the SAR of the soil solution, ultimately results in higher adsorption of sodium
on the soil exchange complex
Boron
Though boron is an essential nutrient for plant growth, it becomes toxic beyond 2 ppm in irrigation water
for most of the field crops. It does not effect the physical & chemical properties of the soil, but at high
concentrations, it effects the metabolic activities of the plant.

Potassium & Nitrate
These two ions are often present in significant amounts in irrigation waters. Being essential nutrients, they
act favorably in reducing the harmful effect of saline water on crop growth by way of providing these
nutrients regularly, rather than by reducing soil salinity. The effect of nitrate ion has been found more
spectacular than potassium because, irrigated soils are themselves deficient in nitrogen status and
generally well supplied with potassium. Regular supply of nitrate form helps in mitigating the salt-
induced nitrogen deficiency and in increasing crop productivity.
Classification of Irrigation Waters

Several classifications of irrigation water have been proposed in India & abroad, on the basis of their
chemical characteristics & their effect on crop growth. Amongst these, the classification proposed by the
United States Soil Salinity Laboratory ( USSSL ) is widely used because it include both the factors of
salinity & sodium hazard.
(i) Based on salt content
Waters have been divided into four classes depending on their soluble salt content as expressed by
the E.C value
Classification of water E.C micromhos/cm at 250 C

C1 - Low salinity water 0 < E.C ≤ 250
C2 - Medium salinity water 250 < E.C ≤ 750
C3 - High salinity water 750 < E.C ≤ 2250
C4 - Very high salinity water 2250 < E.C ≤ 5000
In general, the irrigation water should have low concentration of dissolved salts or low salinity. High
concentration of dissolved salts may result in hydration of plants due to osmotic effect , hence not
suitable for irrigation
The suitability of irrigation water is also influenced by the constituents of soil which is to be irrigated and
crops to be grown .This is because, water with certain ingredients, may be harmful for irrigation on a
particular soil and the same water may be tolerable or even useful for irrigation on some other soil
Similarly, some crops are salt-sensitive, while others are salt tolerant. Thus, water s of low salinity can be
used for irrigating most of soil crops on most soils. High salinity water can be used only for salt-tolerant
crops.
Earlier studies on quality of water were based primarily on the estimates of total dissolved salts(TDS)
. However, this criterion is not reliable, because some salts may be more harmful to the plants than others.
Moreover, a high concentration of a particular salt in irrigation water may ultimately destroy the soil
structure due to continuous exchange of ions between salt content of irrigation water and soil. For
example, if sodium ions are predominate in irrigation water, they will tend to replace, calcium,
magnesium ions from the clay and organic matter in the soil. The presence of C a & Mg keeps the soil in
coagulated clod form. But the exchange of Ca and Mg ions by sodium, produces soluble sodium silicates

due to which cementing property of the soil is lost. The clods then crumble and fine silica grains are
released, which clog the soil, resulting reduction in permeability and destruction of soil structure.
Therefore, the quality of irrigation water, will depend on the amount of exchangeable sodium ions
available in the water.
The sodium hazard of water is thus assessed in terms of exchangeable sodium ions, the assessment
of which is made by Exchangeable Sodium Ratio (ESR). ESR is defined as " the concentration of
exchangeable sodium ions divided by the sum of the concentrations of exchangeable Ca , Mg and K ions
i.e
ESR = Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + K+ -------- (1)
The concentration of all the elements are expressed in meq/lit which is equal to ppm divided by
equivalent weight.
Characteristics of some major constituents in water
Constituent Atomic weight Valency Equivalent weight
Cations (+)
Ca 40.08 2 20.04
Mg 24.32 2 12.16
Na 23.00 1 23.00
K 39.10 1 39.10
Anions (-)
CO3 60.01 2 30.005
HCO3 62.02 1 61.02
SO4 96.06 2 48.03
NO3 62.01 1 62.01
Cl 35.46 1 35.46
F (Fluoride) 19.00 1 19.00
In most of the waters used for irrigation, the concentration of potassium (K) is relatively small and
hence, often the concentration of 'K' is not considered. The expression for ESR becomes
ESR = Na+ / Ca+ ++ Mg+ + -------- (2)
Another parameter commonly used of the assessment of sodium hazard is Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP), which is related to ESR by the expression,

ESP = ( ESR / 1+ ESR ) x 100 ----- (3)
Introducing the eq.(1) in eq(3) , it becomes
ESP = { ( Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + K+ + Na+ ) } x 100
Introducing eq.(2) in eq (3), it becomes
ESP = { ( Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + Na+ ) } x 100
The assessment of sodium hazard may also be made on the basis another, more rational parameter
termed as Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) which is defined as
SAR = Na+ / [ ½ ( C+ + + Mg+ + ) ] ½

Concentrations of all elements are expressed in meq/ litre
An empirical relationship between SAR and ESP has been developed as indicated below
ESP = 100 ( -0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR ) / { 1 + ( -0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR ) }

ESP may be determined from known values of SAR
(ii) Based on Sodium Hazard

Waters have also been divided into four classes depending on their sodium hazard
1. Low Sodium Water(S1) : Can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of
development of sodium
2. Medium Sodium Water(S2) : Suitable only for coarse textured(sandy) or organic soils
3. High Sodium Water(S3) : May produce some sodium problem in most soils. Require special
management such as good drainage, leaching, addition of organic matter. If gypsum is present, it
is not a serious problem.
4. Very High Sodium Water(S4) : Is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation except on low salinity
or medium salinity levels where the use of gypsum or some similar material makes its use
possible
Therefore, while judging the suitability of irrigation water, both salinity hazard and sodium
hazard(SAR) should be kept in view. The classification of irrigation waters based on salinity and sodium
hazards shown in figure( Fig. 7.9 )

iii. Based on Suitability of Irrigation Water
Based on suitability of water for irrigation, it may be classified in Three categories.
class - 1 : Water is considered to be excellent to good and are suitable for most crops under most growing
conditions.
class - II : Water is considered good to injurious and are suitable only with permeable soils and with
moderate leaching. These waters are harmful to some sensitive crops
Class - III : water is considered injurious to unsatisfactory and are unsuitable for most crops except a
few most tolerant varieties. The standard for each of the classes are furnished in the following table If the

salts present are largely sulphates, the limiting values for total dissolved salts in each class given in the
table may be raised to 50%
Class
E.C micromhos/cm
of Total Chlorides Sulphates Boron Remarks
Water dissolved in ppm in ppm in ppm
ESP
salts(TDS)
in ppm
I 0 - 1000 0 - 700 0 - 60 0 - 142 0 -192 0 - 0.5 Excellent

to good for
irrigation
II 0.5-2.0 Good to
1000 - 3000 700 - 3000 60 -75 142-355 192-480 injurious.
Over Unfit for

III Over 3000 Over 2000 Over Over 355 Over 480 2.0 irrigation
75
Another scientist Mr. Wicox, has suggested the classification basing on the suitability of irrigation
water, taking the tolerance of crops into account as given in the following table
Water class Percent Specific Boron, mg/lit

Sodium Conductance,
Sensitive Semi-tolerant tolerant
(ESP) μS /cm (EC)
Crops Crops Crops
Excellent <20 < 250 < 0.33 < 0.67 < 1.0
Good 20 – 40 200 – 750 0.33 – 0.67 0.76 – 1.33 1.0 – 2.0
Permissible 40 – 60 750 – 2000 0.67 – 1.00 1.33 – 2.00 2.0 – 3.0
Doubtful 60 – 80 2000 – 3000 1.00 - 1.25 2.00 – 2.50 3.0 - 3.75
Unsuitable > 80 > 3000 > 1.25 > 2.50 > 3.75

2. SOIL- PLANT -WATER RELATIONSHIP
Soil-plant Water relationships relate the properties of soil that affect the movement, retention
and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:
 Soil-water relation
 Soil-plant relation
 Plant-water relations
2.1 Soil Suitability for agricultural practices

Knowledge of the soils within a potential irrigation area is essential for economic and technical
reasons.
Definitions
1. A soil is a three-dimensional body occupying the upper part of the earth’s crust and having
properties differing from the underlying rock material as a result of interactions between climate,
living organism, parent material and relief and which is distinguished from other soils in terms of
differences in internal characteristics and/or in terms of the gradient slope- complexity, micro
topography, stoniness, and rockiness of the surface.
2. Soil, superficial covering that overlies the bedrock of most of the land area of the
Earth; an aggregation of unconsolidated mineral and organic particles produced
by physical, chemical, and biological processes; and the medium that supports the growth of
most plants.
The primary components of soil are inorganic materials that are mostly produced by the
weathering of bedrock; soluble nutrients, or chemical elements and compounds used by plants
for growth; various forms of organic matter; and gases (notably oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
dioxide) and water required by plants and soil organisms.
Soil is an important natural resource and is the medium within which most agriculture
takes place. The specific properties of soil are of great concern to farmers. Knowledge of the
mineral and organic components of soils, of the amount of air they contain (aeration), and of
their water-holding capacity, as well as of many other aspects of soil structure, is necessary for
the successful production of crops.
Soil is a very important agricultural complement without which no agricultural is possible. It is
important to study the soil characteristics to say a particular soil type is suitable for agriculture or
not. The process of the suitability of land for different uses such as agriculture is assessed and it
is known as land evaluation.
Land evaluation for agricultural purpose provides information for deciding ‘which crops to grow
where’ and other related crops. Hence, before a land is put certain land uses, its suitability for
that particular land use should be evaluated.

Soil map provides us with detailed information on soils that are utilized for land capability
classification. This indicates the suitability or unsuitability of the soil for growing crops.
Land capability classification is an interpretive grouping of soils based on inherent soil
characteristics, external land features and environmental factors that may restrict the
use of the land for growing varieties of crops.
For land capability classification, we need information on:
1) The susceptibility of the soil to various factors that cause soil damage & decrease in its
productivity (we get this from soil map)
2) Its potential for crop production: Lands are first tentatively placed in different land
capability groups on the basis of slope of the land, erosion and depth of the soil. The suitability
of soil for agricultural practices may be affected by physical and chemical soil characteristics.
The physical characteristics include
1. Effective soil depth: - The depth of the soil, which can be exploited by crops, is
very important in selecting soils for agricultural purpose. Experience has shown that
many irrigated crops produce excellent yields with a well-drained effective root depth
of 90 cm.
2. Water holding capacity: - This refers to the depth of water that can be held in the soil
and available for plants. A good soil from agricultural point of view should have a
very good water holding capacity. Clay soils have large water holding capacity,
because drainage water is high in these soils. Ideally, loam soils are the best in this
regard. Since in sandy soils an application loss are high and in clay soils drainage and aeration is
difficult.
3. Non-capillary porosity: - High values of non- capillary porosity is desirable, because lower
values of porosity and high values of bulk density hinders root development and expansion.
4. Topography: - A leveled land is the most suitable for agriculture. Because, the water for
irrigation can easily be conveyed and less conservation and management practices are required.
Whereas, in sloppy soils, the more is the land wasted in bunds and channels in surface irrigation
and therefore that cost f or land development per unit area will be high.
5. Texture: - is the weight percentage of the mineral matters that occurs in each of the specified
size fraction of the soil. It is the relative proportions of sand silt and clay, (Particles sized groups
smaller than gravel i.e. < 2 mm in diameter). It is the number and sizes of its mechanical
particles after all compounds holding them together have been destroyed. Loamy soils are the
best texture for agriculture. Deviation either into sandy or clayey texture will reduce the value of
the land for agriculture.
6. Soil Structure: It refers to the manner in which primary soil particles are arranged into,
secondary particles or aggregates. Soil structure determines the total porosity, the shape of
individual pores and their size distribution, hence it affects: -

• Retention & transmission of fluids in the soil
• Germination
• root growth
• Tillage
• Erosion etc
7. Soil Consistence: Is the resistance of the soil to deformation or rupture. It is determined by
the cohesive and adhesive properties of the entire soil mass. Structure deals with size, shape and
distinctness of natural soil aggregates, and consistence deals with strength and nature of the force
between particles. It is important for tillage or traffic consideration.
Soil Consistence Terms: - Consistence is described for three-moisture levels i.e. wet, moist &
dry. For instance, a given soils may be sticky when wet, firm when moist and hard when dry.
The terms to describe soil consistency include –
1) Wet soil - non sticky, sticky, non plastic, plastic
2) moist soil - loose, friable, firm
3) Dry soil - loose, soft, and hard
8. Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity
Permeability - is the ease with which liquids, gases and roots pass through the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of the soil for water. I.e. the ease with which the soil
pores permit water movement. It controls the soil water movement. The major factors affecting
hydraulic conductivity are texture and structure of soils. E.g.,
Sandy soils have higher saturated conductivity than finer textured soils. Soils with stable
granular structure conduct water rapidly than those with unstable structural units, since
they will not break down when get wetted. Fine textured soils during dry weather
because of their cracks allow water rapidly then the cracks swell shut, and drastically
reduce water movement.
1. Salinity (soluble salt content) When the quantity of salts in irrigated land is too
high, the salts accumulate in the crop root zone. These salts create difficulty to crops in
extracting enough water from the salty solution. Thus, for the land to be of high value for
irrigation, the soluble salt content should be low as much as possible.
2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-When the amount of exchangeable sodium is
high in the soil, the soil will have large amount of Na+ in the form of colloid. This results
in tremendous reduction of the permeability of the soil. This in turn makes it difficult to
the cop to get sufficient water and causes crusting of seedbeds. Such a soil is called
Black alkali soil. Hence, the amount of exchangeable sodium should be low in
agricultural lands
3. Soil Reaction (PH): is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. It is a measure of the
concentration of hydrogen ion in a soil. Mathematically,

Excessively low or high pH values are not good for proper growth and adequate yield production
as they bring about acidity or alkalinity in the soil. In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest,
regional water shed etc.) soils have five key roles
1. Medium for plant growth: It supports the growth of higher plants by providing a
medium for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that are essential to the entire
plant.
2. Regulator of water supplies: Its properties are the principal factor controlling the fate of
water in the hydrologic system. Water loss, utilization, contamination, and purification
are all affected by the soil.
3. Recycler of raw materials: With in the soil, waste products and dead bodies of plants,
animals and people are assimilated, and their basic elements are made available for reuse
by the next generation of life.
4. Habitat for soil organisms: It provides habitats for living organism, from small
mammals and reptiles to tiny insects to microscopic cells.
5. Engineering medium: In human - built ecosystem, soil plays an important role as an
engineering medium. It is not only an important building material (earth fill, bricks) but
provides the foundation for virtually every road, airport, and house we build. In relation
to irrigation:
The capacity of the soil to accept, transmit or retain relatively large amounts of water
(Water holding capacity of the soil) in a relatively large amounts of water in a relatively
short time should be measured.
 The surface infiltration rates and the case of water movement through unsaturated and
through saturated layers (hydraulic conductivity) need to be measured punitively.
 The surface infiltration rates and the case of water movement through unsaturated and
through saturated layers (hydraulic conductivity) need to be measured punitively
 The amount, kind and distribution of clay minerals (Soil chemical properties) are
especially important to water movement, relation and availability of plants.
 Studies of cracking and structural changes under different management Practices
(helps surface sealing or a need of pre irrigation) and
 Physical properties of soil matrix.
2.2 Soil- water relations

It means that physical properties of soil in relation to water
The rate of entry of water in to the soil and its retention, movement and availability to plant roots
are all physical phenomena. Hence, it is important to know the physical properties of soil in
relation to water.

The relationship between the three phases of soil can be described in a number of mathematical
relationships. These relationships can be used to calculate one soil property from another.
Referring to Fig the following notations are used:
Va = Volume of air
Vw = Volume of water
Vs = Volume of solids
Vv = Volume of voids (Va+Vw)
Vt = Total Volume (Va+Vw+Vs)
Ma = Mass of air (negligible)
Mw = Mass of water
Ms = Mass of solids
Mt = Total mass (Ma+Mw+Ms)
Particle density (ρs)
It is the ratio of a given mass (or weight) of soil solids to that of its volume and it is given by
Sometimes it is referred to as true density. It is usually expressed in terms of g/cm 3 and varies
between the narrow limits of 2.6 to 2.75 g/ cm3. Particle density is a constant for a soil with a
given texture and is independent of size and arrangement of the soil particles.

Dry Bulk Density (ρb)
It is the density of the undisturbed (bulk) soil sample which is the ratio of dry mass of the soil to
its total volume. It is given by
This is expressed as gm/cm3.Drybulk density can be calculated by collecting a known volume of

soil to get the soil volume (Vt), and drying the associated soil to get the mass of dry soil (Ms).
Total (Wet) Bulk Density (ρ)
It is the mass of moist soil per unit volume and is represented as:
Example 21.1:
Calculate the dry bulk density from the following data
Fresh weight of soil = 2505g; Weight of water = 740g; Height of core = 10cm;
Diameter of the core = 12cm
Solution:
Volume of the core =
DryBulkdensity =
Porosity (n )
Porosity is the void space in a given volume of soil that is occupied by air and water. The total
porosity is calculated as follows:

Generally total porosity varies from 30% to 60% for agricultural soils. Coarse textured soils are
normally less porous (35%– 50%) than the fine textured soils (40% – 60%). However, the mean
size of individual pores is greater (>0.06mm in diameter) in the coarse textured soils than the
fine textured soils. From irrigation water management point of view, knowledge of porosity in a
given volume of soil is very important, because it is an index of moisture storage capacity and
the aeration conditions. These are two most important factors that influence the plant growth.
Example
Calculate the porosity from the following data
Bulk density = 1.31 g/ cm3and particle density = 2.64 g /cm3.
Solution:
Porosity ( n ) =
Void Ratio (e)
It is the ratio of the pore space to the volume of solids and is given by
2.3 Classes of Soil Water Availability

The mass water content or soil moisture content(θm) is the ratio of the mass of water in a sample
to the dry soil mass, expressed as either a decimal fraction or as percentage. It is often referred
to as ‘gravimetric water content’. The mass water content is found by
It is determined by weighing the soil sample collected from field, drying the sample for at least
24 hours at 105 0C, and then weighing the dry soil. Difference in mass of the wet and dry sample
represents the mass of water in the soil sample (Mw). The mass of the sample after drying
represents the mass of dry soil (Ms).
The volumetric water content ( ) represents the volume of water contained in total volume of
undisturbed soil. The volumetric water content is defined as

Determination of volumetric water content requires the volume of the undisturbed soil sample
which is sometimes difficult to measure. However, it can also be determined from mass water
content and specific gravity (ratio of bulk density of soil to density of water) as follows
Where,
Pw= density of water which is 1 g/cm3
When comparing water amounts per unit of land area, it is frequently more convenient to speak
in equivalent depths of water rather than water content. The relationship between volumetric
water content and the equivalent depth of water in a soil layer is:
d=Θv.L (21.9)
Where,
d = equivalent depth of water in a soil layer and
L = depth increment of the soil layer.
Example 21.3
A field soil sample prior to being disturbed has a volume of 82 cm3. The sample weighed 125
grams. After drying at 1050C for 24 hours, the dry soil sample weighs 100 grams. What is the
mass water content? What is the volumetric water content? What depth of water must be applied
to increase the volumetric water content of the top 1m of soil to 0.40?
Given: Ms = 100 g
Mw = 125 g - 100 g = 25 g
Vt= 82 cm3
Find: Θm, Θv and d
Solution:
Dry bulk density=
Θv = Θm = of soil.

The current depth of water in 1 m of soil is: d = Θv . L = 0.3025 1 = 0.3025 m.
The depth of water in 1 m of soil when Θv = 0.40 will be
d = Θv . L = 0.4 X 1 = 0.4 m.
Thus, the depth of water to be added is 0.0975 m (0.4m -0.3025m).
Kinds of Soil Water
Water can exist in either of the following forms in the soil.
Gravitational water: Water is rapidly drained from the soil profile by the force of gravity. The
term rapid is relative and in soil-water studies normally refers to periods of 24 to 48 hours.
Capillary water: is the water remaining after rapid drainage by gravity that can require force
greater than gravity such as those exerted by plant roots may remove this water.
Hygroscopic water: the water that is forces generally found in nature, adheres to soil particles,
cannot be removed from the soil particles by the plant roots. Hygroscopic water can be removed
by oven drying a soil sample in the laboratory.
Water may also be classified as unavailable, available and gravitational or superfluous. Such a
grouping refers to the availability of soil water to plants. Gravitational water drains quickly from
the root zone under normal drainage conditions. Unavailable water is held too tightly by
capillary forces and is generally not accessible to plant roots. Available water is the difference
between gravitational and unavailable water.
Water drains from the soil under the constant pull of gravity. Sandy soils drain rapidly,
while clay soils drain very slowly. Hence, one day after irrigating a sandy soil has
drained most of the gravitational water, where as clay may require four or more days for
gravitational water to drain.

Fig. Physical classification of soil water.
2.4 Soil Moisture Constants

The following soil moisture contents are of significance importance in agriculture and
are termed soil moisture constants.
1. Saturation Capacity: - When all the micro and macro pore spaces are filled with
water, the soil is said to have reached its saturation capacity. At field capacity, the water is held
loosely and tensions are almost negligible. Thus, plants will not have any difficulty in extracting
moisture from soil.
2. Field capacity: - is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained down. At
field capacity, the macro pores are filled with air & capillary pores filled with water. Field
capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture. It is often defined as moisture content in a
soil two (light sandy soil) or three (heavy soil), days after having been saturated and after
drainage of gravitational water becomes slow or negligible and moisture content has become
stable.
- Larger pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water
- At field capacity, Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10 – 1/3 atm.
Some of the factors, which influence the field capacity of the soil, are soil texture and
presence of impending layer (soil profile), arise from plaguing the same depth yearly -hard pan.
The volumetric moisture content at field capacity is given by:
Field capacity can be determined by ponding water on a soil surface in an area of about 2 to 5 m2
and allowing it to drain for one to three days preventing surface evaporation. Then soil samples
are taken from different depths and the moisture content is determined as usual, which gives the
field capacity
3. Permanent Wilting Point: - is the moisture content beyond which plants can no longer
extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the soil. The water beyond
the permanent wilting point is tightly held to the solid particles that plants cannot remove
moisture at their normal rate to prevent wilting of the plants. The soil moisture tension at PWP
ranges from 7 to 32 atm, depending on the soil texture, kinds of crops and salt content in the soil
solution.
-Since the change in moisture content (∆θ) is insignificant for changes in SMT
from 7-32 atm. Hence, 15 atm. is taken as SMT at PWP.
- At PWP the plant starts wilting, and if no water is given to the plant, then it will die.
N. B θ v(wp) = ρb θm(wp) (volumetric moisture content at Permanent wilting point)
2.4 Soil moisture ranges:

1. Total available water, TAW
The soil moisture b/n field capacity and permanent wilting point is called available water. This is
the water available for plant use. Fine-grained soils generally have a wider range of available
moisture than course textured soil.
Not exact because crop roots do not extract water uniformly from the soil profile
2. Management allowed deficit, MAD.

The degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to deplete before the next
irrigation is applied. That is portion of the available moisture, which is easily extracted by the
plant roots. It is commonly 60 – 80 % of the available water.
MAD = f. TAW, f depends on type of crop and Crop growing stage.
3. Soil moisture deficit, SMD.
The depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time that particular soil moisture
content, θv , is measured. That is the amount of water required to bring the soil moisture back to
the field capacity. Deficit = Fc – soil moisture at that instant.

Figure2.1: Soil moisture levels and available water ranges
2.5 Soil Water Energy Concept (Soil water Dynamics)
Infiltration is defined as the process by which water passes through the soil surface and enters
the sub soil, generally the root zone for application in irrigation. It is different from the
percolation, because percolation is the movement of water within the soil. The two phenomena
are certainly interrelated, as infiltration cannot continue unimpeded, unless, percolation provides

sufficient space in the surface layer for infiltrated water. The process of infiltration will stop
unless percolation removes infiltrated water.
The rate at which infiltration can be maintained in a particular soil is an extremely important
parameter in the design of irrigation systems. The type of irrigation system, which may be
applied at a given site, is often governed by the infiltration characteristics of the soil. The
infiltration rate also usually plays key role in the management and operating schedule of an
irrigation system.
a) It is the most crucial and often the most difficult parameter to evaluate under the surface
irrigation systems, particularly the variation of infiltration characteristics spatially and
temporally.
b) It does not only affect the amount of water that enters the soil profile and its rate
of entry but also significantly influences overland flow processes.
Generally, infiltration has a high initial rate that diminishes during continued rainfall toward a
nearly constant lower rate. During the rain infiltration, loss occurs quickly almost exclusively
from the water that has reached the ground surface. The water infiltrating into the soil moves
downward through larger soil pores under the force of gravity. The smaller surface pores take in
water by capillarity. Capillary pores also take in the downward moving gravity water. As
capillary pores at the surface are filled and intake capacity is reduced, the infiltration rate
decreases.
Factors affecting Infiltration:
The process of infiltration is affected by many different factors. Infiltration may be considered as
a three-step sequence surface entry, transmission through the soil and depletion of storage
capacity in the soil. These are important factors affecting infiltration, in addition to the
characteristics of the permeable medium and percolating fluid. In addition to these factors some
other important factors such as soil texture and structure, condition at soil surface; soil - moisture
content, type of vegetative cover, soil temperature, Human activities on soil surface, may also
affect the infiltration
1. Surface entry: The surface of the soil may be sealed by the in wash of fines or other
arrangements of particles that prevent or retard the entry of water into the soil. Soil
having excellent under drainage may be sealed at the surface and thereby have a low infiltration
rate.
2. Transmission through the soil: Water cannot enter the soil more rapidly than it is transmitted
downward. Conditions at the surface cannot increase infiltration unless the transmission capacity
of the soil profile is adequate.
3. Depletion of Available Storage Capacity in the soil: the storage available in any horizon
depends on porosity, thickness of the horizon and the amount of moisture already present.
Texture structure, organic matter content, root penetration colloidal swelling, and many other
factors determine the nature and magnitude of the porosity of the soil horizon. Total porosity as

well as the size and arrangement of pores, has a significant bearing upon the availability of
storage. The volume will largely control the infiltration that occurs in the early part of the storm,
sizes and continuity of non-capillary or large pores because such pores provide easy paths for the
movement of percolation water.
4. Characteristics of the permeable medium: Factors that affect infiltration are the
characteristics of the permeable medium. The soil and the characteristics of the percolating fluid
are of significant importance. In soil the problems concerns itself largely with pore size and pore
- size distribution that is the proportion of different sizes present, as well as their relative stability
during storms, irrigations, or other applications of water. In sands, the pores are relatively stable,
since the sand particles that form, they are not readily disintegrated, nor do they swell upon
wetting. During a storm or irrigation, they may rearrange themselves into a more dense mix than
formerly. However, this change in condition of the sand is relatively slow when compared with
changes that occur in silts or clays.
5. Characteristics of the fluid: Another group of factors that affect infiltration though usually to
a lesser degree is those modify the physical characteristics of the fluid namely; water pure
rainwater enters the soil. The infiltrating fluid is often contaminated by the salts, particularly in
the alkali soils, and to some extent in many other soils. These salts may affect the viscosity of the
fluid and form complexes with the soil colloids, which affect the welling rate when wet.
Irrigation water very often contains residues of fertilizer, particularly when they are reused.
Water in farm ponds may contain impurities that modify infiltration.
6. Soil Texture and Structure: The water cannot continue to enter soil more rapidly than it is
transmitted downward. Therefore, the conditions at the surface cannot increase infiltration unless
the transmission capacity of the soil profile is adequate. The continuity of non-capillary or large
pores provides easy paths for percolating water. If the sub soil formation has coarse texture, the
water may infiltrate into the soil so quickly that no water will be left for runoff even if rainfall is
quite heavy. On the contrary, clayey soils after soaking some water in the initial stages of rainfall
may swell considerably. It makes the soil almost watertight and infiltration may be reduced to
practically negligible extent.
7) Conditions at soil surface: Even if the soil has excellent under- drainage but at the surface,
soil pores are sealed due to turbid water or by in wash. These soil particles may prevent entry of
water into the soil and infiltration rate will be low.
8) Soil- moisture content: When the soil is dry the rate of infiltration into the soil is very high.
The infiltration rate diminishes as the soil - moisture storage capacity is exhausted. After this
infiltration rate equals transmission rate. The rate of infiltration in early phases of a rainfall will
be less if the soil pores are still filled from previous rainstorm.
Measurement of infiltration:
Due to the complexity of the infiltration phenomenon and the fact that many factors affect the
process, the measurements of infiltration rates and volumes should be accomplished under field
conditions. Infiltration can be measured by two methods namely

(1) Indirect method or by infiltrations (2) Direct method Hydrograph analysis.
1. Indirect Method: They involve artificial application of water over sample area. The
mechanism used for this purpose is called infiltration. There are two types of infiltrometers such
as flooding type and rain simulators
2. Direct method: It consists of analysis of runoff hydrograph resulting from a natural rainfall
over a basin under consideration. The following figure illustrates the characteristics of
infiltration for different type of soils and the initial soil moisture contents.
Fig.2.2 Example of Infiltration rate (Average, instantaneous), and cumulative infiltration depth
Generally the following factors limits infiltration rate:
• initial (antecedent) moisture content
• conditions of sub-soil
• hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile
• texture, porosity (changed by cultivation and compaction)
• Degree of swelling of soil colloids and organic matter
• Vegetation cover, duration of rainfall or irrigation

3. Crop water Requirement
3.1. Evapotranspiration
This includes the water lose through evaporation and transpiration.
Evaporation and Transpiration
Evapotranspiration is one of the major components of the hydrologic cycle and affects crop
water demand. Therefore, its quantification is necessary for proper irrigation planning. The term
evapotranspiration refers to combination of two processes, namely, evaporation and
transpiration. Evaporation is a process by which water is lost in the form of vapour from natural
surfaces, such as free water surface, bare soil, from live or dead vegetation. Transpiration is a
process by which water is lost in the form of vapor through plant leaves. Therefore,
evapotranspiration is a combined loss of water from the soil (evaporation)and plant
(transpiration) surfaces to the atmosphere through vaporization of liquid water and is expressed
in depth per unit time (for example mm/day).
Consumptive use (CU) – CU is used to designate the losses due to ET and water that is used for
its metabolic activities of plants thus CU exceed ET by the amount of water used for digestion,
photosynthesis, transport of minerals and photosynthesis, structural support and growth. Since
this difference is usually less than 1%, ET and CU are normally assumed to be equal. But both
(CU &ET) terms are used simultaneously.
Fig. Evapotranspiration process.

ET can be either directly measured for a given crop, soil and climatic conditions or computed
using the reference crop ET, which is generally estimated by various methods depending upon
availability of data for a case.
Concept of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
Reference Crop ET – is the potential ET for a specific crop (usually either grass or alfalfa) and
set of surrounding (advective) conditions. According to Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977) ”ET from
an extensive surface of 8 10 15 cm tall, green grass covers of uniform height, actively growing,
completely shading the ground and not short of water”. Allen et al. (1998) modified the above
definition to represent hypothetical grass surface. Reference crop evapotranspiration from an

extensive surface of green grass of uniform height(0.12m), actively growing, completely shading
the ground with an albedo of 0.23 and having ample water supply is called reference crop
evapotranspiration and is denoted by ETo
Fig.Estimation of reference crop evapotranspiration.

Climatic parameters are the only factors affecting ETo and it can be computed from weather data.
ET for specific crop can be estimated using reference crop ET and crop coefficients. Typical
ranges for ETo values for different agro-climatic regions.
ET Estimation Methods
Due to wide application of evapotranspirtaion data, various indirect ET estimation methods have
been developed over the years. These methods can be grouped into four major categories.
Although there is large number of methods developed in each category, a few examples are
given below:
1. Temperature based (Thornwaite, SCS BlaineyCriddle, FAO24 BlaneyCriddle,
Hargreaves)
2. Radiation based (Turc, Preistly Taylor, Jensen-Haise, and FAO 24 Radiation)
3. Pan evaporation based (Pan evaporation, FAO 24 Pan)
4. Combination (Penman, Penman Moneith, FAO 56 Penman Monteith)
Data requirement as well as performance of each of these methods varies. In order to help user
with ETo estimation, A Decision Support System for ETo estimation is developed at IIT
Kharagpur (Bandopadhyaya et al. 2012), which estimates ETo by 22 well established method
and ranks them based on their ETo estimation performance.
Hargreaves Methods
Hargreaves method is a temperature-based method and it was derived to overcome non-
availability of solar radiation data at many locations. Hargreaves and Samani (1985)
recommended estimating solar radiation from extraterrestrial radiation and proposed the
following equation for estimating ETo in mm/day
(25.1)

Where,
TD = difference between mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures in °C,
RA= extraterrestrial solar radiation in MJ m-2 d-1,
Tmean = mean monthly air temperature in °C.
Thornthwaite Method
The relationship is expressed as:
Where,
ETo = Monthly potential evapotranspiration (cm) or reference crop ET (i.e., ETo)
T= Mean monthly temperature (°C)
I = A heat index for a given area which is the sum of 12 monthly index values i
i is derived from mean monthly temperatures using the following formula:
a = an empirically derived exponent which is a function of I
Pan Method
The amount of water evaporating from a pan is determined by measuring change in water level
in the pan and correcting from precipitation (if water loss due to wind action, animals, birds etc.,
has been prevented or is negligible). USBR Class A Pan evporometer is most commonly used for
estimation of pan evaporation .it is relatively inexpensive and simple way of assessing the
evaporative capabilities of the atmosphere.
 It consists of a 120 cm diameter and 25 cm deep pan made of 20 gauge galvanized
iron sheet with a stilling well.
• A vertical pointer is provided in the stilling well to show the level of water to be
maintained in the pan.
• The pan is painted white and is placed on a wooden frame so that air may circulate
beneath the pan.
• Daily evaporation rate is given by the fall of water level in the stilling well during 24-
hour period.
• Adjustments are made to the evaporation values if rain occurs during a period of
measurement.
• After measuring the fall in the water level each time, water is added to the pan to bring
back the water level to the original position of pointer tip level.
• As the rate of evaporation from pan evaporimeter is higher than that over a large free
water surface, the pan evaporation value is multiplied by 0.7 to obtain the evaporation
rate over a large free water surface (RET)

Types of Evaporation Pans
Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of integrated effect of radiation, air
temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However, differences in the water
and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water loss from an open surface and
the crop. The pan is used to estimate reference ETo by observing the evaporation loss from a
water surface (Epan) and applying empirical coefficients (Kpan)to relate pan evaporation to Eto
thus:
ETo = Kp x Epan

Fig. Pan evaporimeter. (Source: http://www.polylabindia.com/open-panevaporimeter-
1622575.html, accessed on August 29, 2013)
Reference Crop ET (ETo) is related to Epas follows:
ETo = Ep .kp
Where,
ETo = Reference crop ETo in mm/day
Ep = pan evaporation (mm/day)
Kp = pan coefficient
Kp accounts for differences in pan type and conditions upwind of the pan, and for dissimilarities
between plants and evaporation pans. Kp values for USBR class a Pan.
FAO-56 Penman – Monteith Method
Allen et al. (1998) modified the Penman–Monteith equation for estimation of grass reference
crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The mathematical relationship is as follows:
Where,
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration (mm/day)
Rn = Net radiation at the crop surface (MJ/m2/day)
G = Soil heat flux density (MJ/m2/day)
T = Air temperature at 2 m height (°C)
U2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/s)
es = Saturation vapour pressure (kPa)

ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa)
(es – ea) = Saturation vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
Δ = Slope vapour pressure curve (kPa/°C)
γ = Psychrometric constant (kPa/°C)
Details of parameter estimation for the above ETo methods can be found in Allen et al. (1998)
and Michael (2008).
Application & Limitations
 Method requires all weather data, i.e., minimum and maximum temperature, minimum
and maximum RH, wind speed, Solar radiation or sunshine hour
 Wide applicability i.e., in arid, semi-arid, humid, sub-humid conditions
 Gives a very satisfactory estimate of ETo
 Can provide basis for developing consistent crop coefficients
3.2. Crop Evapotranspiration

Estimation of evapotranpiration for a specific crop (ETc) requires first calculating the reference
evapotranspiration (ET0) and then multiplying the crop coefficients (Kc) to estimate actual:
ETc = ETo x Kc
Where, ETc is the ET of a specific crop, ETo is the grass-reference ET, and Kc is the crop
coefficient for a given crop.
Crop Coefficient Concept
While ETo accounts for variations in weather and is used as an indicator of atmospheric demand
for water, Kc values account for the difference between ETo and ETc and link them. Kc is the crop
coefficient for a given crop and growth stage and is usually determined experimentally. Each
agronomic crop has a set of specific crop coefficients used to predict water use rates at different
growth stages.
There are four main crop growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season:
a) Initial period – planting to 10% ground cover
b) Crop development – 10% ground cover to effective cover i.e., flowering
c) Mid-season – Effective cover to start of maturity i.e., senescence of leaves
d) Late season – Start of maturity to harvest.
These crop development stages along with crop coefficient variation for a typical crop are
depicted in presents length of growth stages of some of the representative crops whereas table
shows values of crop coefficient during different stages. Crop coefficient values vary with the
development stage of the crop. In the case of annual crops, Kc is typically low at seedling,
emergence and establishment stage, increases with increase in ground cover and attains
maximum value at mid-season stage and thereafter decreases towards ripening and maturity
stage.

Example:
Determine monthly water requirements and total water requirement of a groundnut crop grown
in the rice fallows at Palakkad, Kerala.
Month January February March April
Kc Values 0.51 0.93 1.14 0.82
ETo mm/day 4.60 5.00 5.59 5.20

Solution:
For the month of January:
Kc =0.51
No of days =31
ETo = 4.60
Therefore, ETc = ETo x Kc x No of days
= 4.60 x 0.51 x 31
= 72.725 mm
For the month of February:
Kc =0.93
No of days =28
ETo = 5.00
= 5.00 x 0.93 x 28
= 130.2 mm
For the month of March:
Kc =1.14
No of days =31
ETo = 5.59
= 5.59 x 1.14 x 31
= 197.47 mm
For the month of April:

Kc =0.82
No of days =30
ETo = 5.20
= 5.20 x 0.82 x 30
= 85.2 mm
Total water requirement = Jan +Feb+Mar+Apr = 485.72 mm Ans.
Irrigation requirement for the above months are calculated by subtracting monthly effective
rainfall from ETc of respective months.
Example: Calculate the seasonal crop water requirement of maize [25/35/45/30 (135)] If the
average Kc is 0.65 and ETo =7mm/day.
Daily ETc = Kc. ETo = 0.65*7 = 4.55mm
Seasonal ETc = Daily ETc* Growing period = 4.55 * 135
= 614mm
Methods of Crop Water Requirement Determination
a. Direct Measurement of Evapotranspiration
Plant water use is an important management input; thus, it is critical to know ET. Several
methods have been developed to measure evapotranspiration is already discussed earlier, a few
are summarized here.
b. Aerodynamic Methods
The vapour pressure of the air and air flow velocities can be measured at several levels above a
plant canopy. By evaluating these measurements, the instantaneous evapotranspiration rate can
be determined. Summing these instantaneous measurements provides an estimate of
evapotranspiration for a day This technique requires very accurate equipment because the air
moves erratically above the canopy.
c. Soil Water Balance Methods
Soil water is the source for evapotranspiration, and several methods have been used to relate
changes in soil water to plant water use. The primary components of the soil water balance. The
soil water balance can be expressed as:
Where,
ET = amount of evapotranspiration during the period,
AWe = amount of soil water in the root zone at the end of a period,
AWb = amount of soil water in the root zone at the beginning of a period,
P = total precipitation during the period,
dg = gross irrigation during the period,
Uf = groundwater contribution to water use during the period,
Ri= surface water that runs onto the area during the period,
Ro = surface runoff that leaves the area during the period, and
dp = deep percolation from the root zone during the period.

Fig. Sketch illustrating the components of the soil water balance.
Soil water content can be measured using neutron scattering or other techniques described
earlier. Deep percolation is difficult to measure and is often assumed to be insignificant unless
substantial rainfall occurs or large irrigations are applied. A significant problem with the soil
water balance technique is that repetitive measurements must be made throughout the season.
One week is usually the shortest period for using the soil water balance method to estimate ET.
d. Lysimetry
Lysimeters are measuring device used for estimating evapotranspiration. It consists of specially
designed open-top tanks buried in the field that are filled with undisturbed soil and planted with
the same crop as the surrounding area. Water used for ET by plants grown in the lysimeter must
come from the soil water within the tank. ET can be measured by monitoring soil water contents
and water applications from irrigation or rain. The soil tank is used to isolate soil water from the
surrounding area and to prevent runoff, upward groundwater flow, and drainage entering into the
system. For some applications drainage is allowed and the volume of deep percolation is
measured. The soil water within the tank can be measured with traditional methods such as
neutron probes. The amount of water in the tank can also be determined by weighing the tank,
soil, plants, and soil water. Since soil water is the only item that changes significantly over short
time periods, the change in weight equals the amount of water used for ET.

Fig. Cutaway drawing of weighing type lysimeter.
3.3. Crop water requirement:

It is defined as the total quantity of water required by a crop irrespective of its source in a given
period for its normal growth and development under field conditions at a given place. In means
that it is the total quantity of water required to mature an adequately irrigated crop to meet the
losses due to evapotranspiration (ET), plus the losses during the application of irrigation water
(unavoidable losses) and the additional quantity of water required for special operations such as
land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts below the crop root zone, frost control etc. It is
expressed in depth per unit time.
In other words, crop water requirement is total water demand for growing a crop. Crop water
demand can also be expressed in term of supply as:
WR = IRR + ER +ΔS +GWC
Where:
WR = Total depth of water required during the life of crop irrespective of source
CU = Consumptive use (total water required for all plant processes)
ER = Effective rainfall received during crop life
ΔS = Profile water use i.e., difference in soil moisture in the crop root zone at the beginning and
end of the crop
GWC= Groundwater contribution, if any
IRR = Irrigation
a) Irrigation requirement of Crops
The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement of
crops that should be fulfilled by irrigation In other words, it is the water requirement of
crops excluding effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground water
contributions.
WR=IR +ER + S +GW
IR= WR-(ER+S+GW)

 Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR)
The net irrigation requirement is the total amount of irrigation water required tobring the soil
moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field capacity i.e., difference between the
field capacity and the soil moisture content in the root zone before application of irrigation water.
Thismay be obtained by the relationship given below:
Where,
NIR = net amount of water to be applied during an irrigation, cm
Mfci = gravimetric moisture content at field capacity in the ith layer of the soil, (%)
Mbi = gravimetric moisture content before irrigation in the ith layer of the soil, (%)
ρbi = bulk density of the soil in the ith layer, g/cm3
Di = depth of the ith soil layer, cm, within the root zone, cm
N = number of soil layers in the root zone D.
 Gross Water Requirement

The total amount of water, inclusive of losses, applied through irrigation is termed as gross
irrigation requirement which in other words in net irrigation requirement plus application and
other losses.
b) Effective Rainfall (ER)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be utilized
by crops. Not all the rainfall that falls is useful or effective. As the total amount of rainfall varies,
so does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal rainfall that falls will be
lost as unnecessary deep percolation; surface runoff and some water may remain in the soil after
the crop is harvested. From the water requirement of crops point of view, this water, which is
lost, is ineffective.
People in different disciplines of course define effective rainfall in different ways. For instance
to a canal irrigation engineer, it is the rainfall that reaches the storage reservoir, to a hydropower
engineer, it is the rainfall that is useful for running the turbines and for Ground water engineers
or Geo – hydrologists, it is that portion of the rainfall that contributes to the ground water
reservoir. CropWat 4 Windows has four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from
entered monthly total rainfall data.
1. Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall:
Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall
2. Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and sub-
humid climates. This formula is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)
3. Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall
This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above) with some
parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b (Total Rainfall < z mm)
Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d (Total Rainfall > z mm)
Where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user
4. Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)
The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA Soil
Conservation Service, which is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall) (Total Rainfall < 250
mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall (Total Rainfall > 250 mm)
c) Ground water contribution (GW):
Sometimes, there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water requirement of
crops. The actual contribution from the groundwater table is dependent on the depth of ground
water table below the root zone & capillary characteristics of soil. For clayey soils, the rate of
movement is low and distance of upward movement is high while for light textured soils, the rate
is high and the distance of movement is low. For practical purposes, the GW contribution when
the ground water table is below 3m is assumed nil.
3.4. Duty-Delta relationship

Duty of water is its capacity to irrigate land. It is the relation between the area of the
land irrigated, and the quantity of water required. Thus, Duty (D) is defined as the area of
the land, which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of water was applied to the land
continuously for the entire base period of the crop and it is expressed in hectares /
cumecs
Base period (B): the base period is the period between the first watering and the last
watering. The base period is slightly different from the crop period, which is the period
between the time of sowing and the time of harvesting the crop.
Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period. If
the entire quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth
of water would have been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be
determined by dividing the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the
area of the land (in ha)
Delta (∆) =Total quantity of water (ha-m)
Total area of land (ha)
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows.
Considering the area of land of D-hectares and If Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the
total quantity of water used in the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a
continuous flow of 1 cumec for B days.
Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 ------------------------------------------------ (a)
If Delta (∆) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares, the
quantity of water is also given by:
Quantity of water = (D *104)* ∆ m3 -------------------------------------------------- (b)

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s (a) and (b)
1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* ∆
D = 8.64 B
∆
∆= 8.64B
D
Where D = in ha/cumec
∆= In m
B = in days
Factors affecting Duty
-Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses, the greater are
duty because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
 Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
 Structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil
Counteracting all the factors that decrease the duty by decreasing various losses may improve
duty of water
Example: The base period, duty of water and area under irrigation for various crops
under a canal system are given in the table below. If the losses in the reservoir and
canals are respectively 15%, 25%, determine the reservoir capacity.
Solution_ = Calculation is tabulated here below
Total volume of water 47,910 ha-m

Volume at head of canal = 47910 = 63880 ha-m
0.75
Volume of reservoir = 63,880 = 75,150 ha-m
0.85

3.5. Irrigation Efficiency
The term irrigation efficiency expresses the performance of a complete irrigation system or
components of the system. Irrigation efficiency is defined as the ratio between the amount of
water used to meet the consumptive use requirement of crop plus that necessary to maintain a
favourable salt balance in the crop root zone to the total volume of water diverted, stored or
pumped for irrigation.
1. Reservoir Storage Efficiency
It is the efficiency with which water is stored in the reservoir. It is expressed as follows,
•Where,
•V = evaporation volume from the reservoir
e
•V = seepage volume from the reservoir
s
•V = inflow to the reservoir
t
•V = volume of out flow from the reservoir
o
•ΔS = change in reservoir storage
2. Water Conveyance Efficiency
The conveyance efficiency is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance systems
associated with the canal network, water courses and field channels.
E =100(V /V )
c f d
Where,
Ec= the conveyance efficiency (%),
Vf = the volume of water that reaches the farm or ﬁeld (m3),
Vd= the volume of water diverted (m3) from the source.
3. Application Efficiency
Application efficiency relates to the actual storage of water in the root zone to meet the crop
water needs in relation to the water applied to the field.
•E = 100(V /V )
a s f
• Where,
• E = the application efficiency (%),
a
3
• V = the volume of water stored in root zone (m ),
s
3
• V = the water delivered to the ﬁeld or farm (m ).
f
4. Storage Efficiency
The water storage efficiency evaluates the storage of water in the root zone after the
irrigation in relation to the need of water prior to irrigation.
E = 100 (V /V )
s s rz
Where, E = the storage efficiency (%)

s
• V = the root zone storage capacity (m3)
rz

5. Water Distribution Efficiency
It is the ratio between the mean of numerical deviations from the average depth of water
stored during irrigation (Y) and the average depth stored during irrigation (d). It is
mathematically expressed as:
• Where,
• Υ= Average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depthstored
during irrigation
• d = Average depth of water stored during irrigation.
Example
A stream of 140lps was diverted from a canal and 110 lps were delivered to the field. An area of
1.65 ha was irrigated in eight hours. The effective depth of root zone was 1.85 m. The runoff loss
3
in the field was 435 m . The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.85 m at the head
end of the field to 1.25 m at the tail end. Available moisture holding capacity of the soil is 25
cm/m depth of soil. Determine the water conveyance efficiency, water application efficiency,
water storage efficiency and water distribution efficiency, irrigation was started at a moisture
extraction level of 50 percent of the available moisture.
3.6. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Irrigation scheduling is essential for good water management and it deals with two classical
questions related to irrigation.
These are (1) how much to irrigate and
(2) How often to irrigate.
Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling
• It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various fields to minimize
crop water stress and maximize yields.
• It reduces the farmer's cost of water and labour as it minimizes the number of
irrigations.
• It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation (leaching) to a
minimum.
• It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
• It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage requirements.
• It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled leaching.
It results in additional returns by using the "saved" water to irrigate non-cash crops that
otherwise would not be irrigated during water-stress period
Full Irrigation
•It provides the enough water to meet the entire irrigation requirement and is aimed at
achieving the maximum production potential of the crop.
•Excess irrigation may reduce crop yield because of decreased soil aeration
Deficit Irrigation;
•It means partially meeting the crop water requirement. It is practiced when there is water
scarcity, or the irrigation system capacity is limited.
•With deficit irrigation root zone is not filled to the field capacity moisture level.

•Deficit irrigation is justified in case where reducing water application below full
irrigation causes production cost to decrease faster than revenue decline due to
reduced yield.
•This method allows plant tress during one or more periods of growing season
Irrigation Interval
• It is the number of days between two successive irrigations. It depends on the crop ET,
effective rainfall, and available water holding capacity of the soil in the crop root zone
and management allowable depletion
Methods of Irrigation Scheduling
• Over the years, a number of methods have been developed for irrigation scheduling.
These can be broadly classified into following categories:
• Soil indicators
• Climatological
• Plant indices
• Water balance
Soil Indicator
•There are number of methods based on soil indicators.
•These include feel and appearance, soil moisture monitoring using gravimetric method,
neutron probe, TDR, or soil moisture tension measurement using tensiometer, porous
block etc. Soil moisture as well as soil moisture tension measurement is already
discussed in previously.
•Feel and appearance is one of the oldest and simple methods of determining the soil
moisture content. It is done by visual observation and feel of the soil by hand. The
accuracy of judgment improves with experience.
Climatological Approach (IW: CPE Ratio)
• Irrigation scheduling on the basis of ratio between the depth of irrigation water (IW) and
cumulative evaporation from U.S.W.B. Class A pan evaporimeter minus the precipitation
since the previous irrigation (CPE) proposed by Prihar et al. (1974).
Table: Classification of irrigation water based on salt concentration
Crop Optimum IW/CPE ratio Crop
0.75 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio

depending on crop developmental
Groundnut ♦ Groundnut
stages in Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra & West Bengal
0.5 to 1.0 IW/CPE ratio

Sunflower ♦ depending on crop developmental Sunflower
stages at Hyderabad & Kanpur
1.0 IW/CPE ratio at Ludhiana,

Wheat ♦ Wheat
Kanpur and Bikramganj
(Source: http://www.angrau.ac.in/media/7380/agro201.pdf: accessed on June 3, 2013)

Plant Indices Approach
•The plants readily respond to the deficit in soil water
Visual Plant Symptoms
•The visual signs of plants are used as an index for scheduling irritations.
•These include colour of plants, curling and rolling of leaves, wilting of leaves, change in
leaf angle etc. Plant water stress in maize and beans crop is reflected through hrolling
of leaves in case of maize and change in angle of leaves in case of bean
Rolling of leaves in maize and change of leaf angle in beans
Plant water potential is a measure of the energy status of plant water and is analogous to the
energy measurements of soil water. This serves as a better index of physiological and bio-
chemical phenomena occurring in the plant. Plant or leaf water potential can be precisely
measured either by a Pressure bomb or pressure chamber apparatus
Pressure chamber apparatus.
Canopy Temperature
• The canopy temperature reflects the internal water balance of the plant, and can be
used as a potential indicator for scheduling irrigation to crops.
• It can be measured by porometer, infrared thermometer.

Infrared thermometer for scheduling irrigations to crops
Water Balance Approach
• where SMD= total soil moisture depletion in the root zone and is defined as the
difference between total soil moisture stored in the root zone at the field capacity and
the current moisture status; ET = crop evapotranspiration; DP = deep percolation; I =
c
irrigation amount; P = effective rainfall; GW = the capillary rise/ground water
e
contribution and i = time index.
• Daily crop evapotranspiration can be calculated as:
•
• Where ETo= grass reference crop ET and can be estimated using the methods discussed
previously; Kc = crop coefficient which is a function of the crop type and the growth stage;
Ks = crop stress coefficient which is a function of the soil moisture available to the crop.
•Crop stress coefficient varies with moisture content:
Deep percolation from the root zone occurs when excess water from rain or irrigation fills the
root zone beyond field capacity.
Example: For a crop with effective rooting depth of 150 cm, calculate the irrigation interval.
Given, field capacity = 14%, permissible depletion 8 %, and crop evapotranspiration = 285 mm/
month.

Problems
1. What is meant by duty and Delta of canal water? Drive a relationship between duty and delta
for a given base period?
2. A stream size of 150 lit /sec was released from the diversion headwork to irrigate a land
of area 1.8 hectares. The stream size when measured at the delivery to the field
channels is 120lit/sec. The stream continued for h hours. The effective root zone depth
is 1.80m. The application losses in the field are estimated to be 440m3. The depth of
water penetration was 1.80m and 1.20m at the head and tail of the run respectively. The
available water holding capacity of the soil is 21cm/m and irrigation was done at 60%
depletion of Am. Find Ec, Ef, Ea, Es and Ed. The stream size delivered to the plot was
100 lit/sec.
3. In a lysimeter, soil depth is 1.5 meters and volumetric moisture at beginning of period is
35 percent. Effective precipitation for rainfall >20 millimeters is 50 percent of the
rainfalls and for rainfalls<20 millimeters is 75 percent of the rainfalls. According to the
table, determine evapotranspiration in the growth period. In addition, determine crop
coefficient in the growth period using the equation.
Month Monthly Relative Rainfall Irrigation Drainage Volumetric

temperature humidity (%) (mm) (mm) (mm) moisture
(℃) (%)
April 10 45 40 120 20 22
May 12 42 32 130 25 18
June 15 38 22 150 40 19
July 20 35 18 180 35 20
August 25 32 10 200 40 22
September 20 37 5 120 25 20
ET=0.45+1.5RHmin(0.46T+8.13)

4. The following data were obtained in determining the soil moisture content at successive
depths in the root zone prior to applying irrigation water.
Depth of sampling, cm Wt. moist soil sample, gm Oven dry wt. of soil sample, gm
0-25 135.60 127.82
25-50 137.28 128.95
50-75 123.95 116.32
75-100 111.92 103.64
The bulk density of the soil in the root zone was 1.65 gm/cc. the available moisture holding
capacity of the soil was 18.0 cm/m depth. Determine
a) The moisture content at different depths in the root zone

b) Moisture content in the root zone at the time of irrigation
c) Net depth of water to be applied to bring the moisture content to
field capacity
d) Gross irrigation requirement at an estimated field irrigation
efficiency of 70 %

Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material Chapter 1, 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material Chapter 1, 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material Chapter 1, 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

Target Program: Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering

Course: Irrigation Engineering Exit Exam Tutorial Material

Instructor: Tenaw E. And Eyoel Y.

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 1

1.2 Necessity of Irrigation

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 2

1.4 System of Irrigation

1.5 Method of Distribution of Irrigation Water

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 3

A. Surface Method of Irrigation

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 4

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 5

1.6 Feasibility study or Irrigation project surveying

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 6

The common procedures adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

Approaches of data collections:

• What or which are the required data.

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 7

1.6.2 Land resources

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 8

1.6.3 Water resources

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 9

Future situation of agriculture.

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 10

1.6.5 Social and Economical aspects.

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 11

1.9. Quality of Irrigation Water

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 12

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 13

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 14

Classification of Irrigation Waters

Classification of water E.C micromhos/cm at 250 C

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 15

ESR = Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + K+ -------- (1)

Characteristics of some major constituents in water

Constituent Atomic weight Valency Equivalent weight

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 16

ESP = { ( Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + K+ + Na+ ) } x 100

Introducing eq.(2) in eq (3), it becomes

ESP = { ( Na+ / Ca+ + + Mg+ + + Na+ ) } x 100

SAR = Na+ / [ ½ ( C+ + + Mg+ + ) ] ½

ESP = 100 ( -0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR ) / { 1 + ( -0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR ) }

(ii) Based on Sodium Hazard

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 17

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 18

I 0 - 1000 0 - 700 0 - 60 0 - 142 0 -192 0 - 0.5 Excellent

Over Unfit for

Water class Percent Specific Boron, mg/lit

Good 20 – 40 200 – 750 0.33 – 0.67 0.76 – 1.33 1.0 – 2.0

Permissible 40 – 60 750 – 2000 0.67 – 1.00 1.33 – 2.00 2.0 – 3.0

Doubtful 60 – 80 2000 – 3000 1.00 - 1.25 2.00 – 2.50 3.0 - 3.75

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 19

2.1 Soil Suitability for agricultural practices

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 20

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 21

TENAW E. & EYOEL Y. 22