1.

Geoffrey Chaucer (The Legend of Good Women)

According to the prologue, it was Chaucer’s intention to write twenty tales about good women.
However, he ended up writing only eight, leaving the ninth unfinished. The theme of each tale
is the fidelity of women in love. All of the women suffer, if not give their lives, for love. Within
the text, they are all treated as admirable, even saintly, regardless of the potentially illicit nature
of their romantic relationships. The women are often shown to suffer at the hands of men, who
are portrayed as villainous.

The longest and perhaps the most compelling tale is that of Dido’s love for Aeneas. After
Aeneas lands on the Libyan coast, his mother, Venus, instructs him to go to the court of Dido,
the queen of Carthage. Dido offers him a warm welcome, feeling sorry for the disinherited hero
who has taken such a long journey from Troy to be there. Her pity soon transforms into love,
and she does everything within her power to comfort..

One day, Aeneas, Dido, and her retinue are hunting when they are caught in a thunderstorm.
Everyone rushes to take shelter, and Dido and Aeneas find themselves huddled in a cave.
Aeneas seizes the occasion to profess his love for Dido, and although she protests at first, Dido
eventually concedes and admits her own love for him. Aeneas proceeds to do everything he can
to court Dido and win her affections, but after a while, he grows weary and makes plans to
leave. When Dido notices his waning affections, she asks him what is wrong. He fabricates a
story in which he has had a vision of his father, reminding him of his destiny to conquer Italy.
Dido pleads with Aeneas to stay, but he ignores her, returning to his ships without her. As soon
as she discovers his absence, she has her sister build a funeral pyre upon which she stabs
herself, using Aeneas’s sword.

In constructing this tale, Chaucer draws directly from Vergil’s Aeneid, making only minor
adjustments to the plot. Another tale in the poem draws from Ovid’s Fasti. In order to prove his
wife’s loyalty, Collatinus offers to accompany Tarquin, the king’s son, to Rome to see her. They
listen in without her knowledge, as she is in her chamber, fretting over her husband’s safety.
Tarquin notices that Lucretia is very beautiful, and develops affection for her. His feelings
increase until he is consumed with lust for her and makes a plan to return to seduce her.

Tarquin sneaks into Lucretia’s room at night, he threatens her with a sword and rapes her.
Lucretia, determined that this travesty not negatively affect her husband, stabs herself to protect
his honor.

2. William Shakespeare
a. Titus Andronicus
Titus Andronicus is a tragic play by William Shakespeare, written sometime between
1588 and 1593. It is Shakespeare’s first tragedy, and is seen as his attempt to imitate his
contemporaries, who were all writing very popular, very violent revenge plays throughout
the 16th Century. It is by far Shakespeare’s bloodiest and most brutally violent work, and
is not well respected, although it was very popular in his time. It fell out of favor in the
late 17th Century and throughout the Victorian era, but regained some of its earlier
popularity around the middle of the 20th Century.
 The play takes place during the decline of the Roman Empire, and tells the fictional tale
of Titus, a Roman army general. The Roman Emperor has just died, and his two sons,
Saturninus and Bassianus, are bickering about who will succeed him. They seem destined
to resort to violence in order to settle the matter until a tribune, named Marcus
Andronicus, enters. Marcus announces that the people have chosen Marcus’ brother,
Titus, as their new emperor. Titus has just returned to Rome after waging a successful
ten-year campaign against the Goths. He is greeted by celebrations and fanfare as he
enters the city, bringing with him several Gothic prisoners. Among his captives is the
Queen of the Goths, Tamora; her three sons, Alarbus, Chiron, and Demetrius; and Aaron
the Moor, Tamora’s secret lover. Tamora pleads with Titus, but he ignores her, sacrificing
her eldest son Alarbus to avenge the deaths of his own sons, who died at war. Tamora is
distraught, and she and her two remaining sons vow to seek revenge on Titus.

Titus refuses the throne, saying that he is not fit to rule. Instead, he supports Saturninus,
who is then elected. Saturninus’ first decision as emperor is to marry his brother’s fiancé,
Lavinia, who is also Titus’s daughter. Titus agrees, but Bassianus refuses to give her up.
His sons tell Titus that Bassianus is clearly right under Roman law, but Titus refuses to
listen, and accuses them of treason. A fight ensues, and Titus kills one of his sons,
Mutius. Saturninus denounces the Andronici family, and marries Tamora, rather than
Lavinia. Tamora, who is putting her plan for revenge into motion, persuades Saturninus
to pardon Bassianus and the rest of the family, which he does, albeit reluctantly.

The next day there is a royal hunt, and Aaron persuades Demetrius and Chiron to kill
Bassianus, so that they may rape Lavinia. They do, throwing Bassianus’ body into and pit
and dragging Lavinia into the forest before violently raping her. To prevent her from
revealing what they have done, they cut out her tongue and cut off her hands. Aaron
forges a letter which frames Titus’ sons Martius and Quintus for the murder of Bassianus.
Saturninus, horrified, arrests the two brothers and sentences them to death.

It is Marcus who discovers Lavinia, and takes her to her father who is overcome with
grief. Then Aaron arrives, saying that if Titus, Marcus, or Titus’ remaining son, Lucius,
cuts off their hand and sends it to Saturninus, Martius and Quintus will be spared. Titus
has Aaron cut off his (Titus’) left hand, and sends it to the emperor, but in return a
messenger brings him the heads of his two sons, along with his severed hand. Titus orders
Lucius to flee Rome and raise an army to attack Rome.

Lavinia uses a stick held with her mouth and between her mutilated arms to reveal the
names of her attackers. Tamora gives birth to a mixed race child, fathered by Aaron.
Aaron kills the nurse, and flees with the baby to save it from Saturninus’ inevitable wrath.
Lucius, with his army, captures Aaron and threatens to kill the infant. To save his child,
Aaron reveals the plot to Lucius.

b. Timon of Athens
Timon of Athens is William Shakespeare’s 29th play, written around 1606. Critics believe
he co-wrote the play with Thomas Middleton, one of his most successful contemporaries.
Considered a tragedy, it has several elements; it is unique among Shakespeare’s work for
being incomplete and not as polished as his other plays.
The play’s themes include human greed, ingratitude, and the possibly negative
ramifications of extreme generosity.

The first scene is set in the house of Timon, a wealthy Athenian nobleman. Various
merchants, including a poet, a painter, and a jeweler, talk amongst themselves about the
possibility of selling their work to Timon. Timon learns that his dear friend, Ventidius, is
in prison; to match his bail, Timon sends him money. He ends up purchasing merchandise
from the visiting workmen.

His friend Apemantus visits his house. A laconic and gruff man, he ignores Timon’s
cheerful greeting and ridicules Timon’s other visitors, who are, according to Apemantus,
just there to get his money. This includes one poet who writes verses about Timon being
Dame Fortune’s best friend. Timon doesn’t heed Apemantus’s skepticism. His other
friend, Captain Alcibiades, also comes to his house.

Timon throws a large feast in a reception hall. Apemantus is there to observe the
flatterers. Timon gives a stirring speech about how he’s thankful for his friends and all
that they make for him. His servant, Flavius, worries that Timon will soon run out of
money because of his extreme generosity. Rumors abound that Timon has some secret
source of income because it seems that he’ll never run out of gifts to impart to others.

But one day, three creditors appear at Timon’s front door. He tries to send them away but
they insist on being paid. Flavius warned him about his dwindling funds several times
before but Timon always waved him away.

Timon tries to sell his land but it is already mortgaged. He asks his friends for loans, but
none are willing to help him. He asks Ventidius, whom Timon recently freed from jail,
but even he refuses to help.

Servants start circling Timon’s house awaiting payment. They consider among
themselves how odd it is that their masters are demanding money from Timon while they
continue to wear and use the gifts he gave them.

Despite all his financial hardship, Timon plans one last dinner party. Timon invites his
friends and other noblemen. During the feast, Timon publically prays that God never
gives people all that they desire, for one day, they will abandon him. He has his
remaining servants brings out all that he has to offer: bowls of water. He then curses his
so-called friends, and leaves Athens.

In another part of Athens, Alcibiades is debating local senators about the sentencing of
one of his friends. His friend killed another man in extreme anger. Alcibiades is so irate
that the senate views him as dangerous and exiles him. Alcibiades, like Timon, is
banished from Athens.

Timon is living in a cave when Apemantus comes to see him. Apemantus scolds him for
being so generous to everyone, even people who clearly were using him. The two swap
insults. Timon doesn’t know why Apemantus hates the world so much when it hasn’t
 been as bad to him as it has to Timon. They depart, and the only thing they agree on is
that humanity should be destroyed.

Flavius visits Timon’s cave once more. He offers his services, but Timon, seeing that he
doesn’t hate humanity yet, gives him gold and commands him to leave him alone.
Hearing that Timon has a little gold again, the poet and the painter go to his cave. To have
some fun and to exact revenge, Timon sends them on a circuitous journey before he gives
them any money.

After his self-imposed exile, two senators of Athens, led by Flavius, arrive to tell Timon
that Athens regrets how they treated him; they want him to return. They’re also motivated
by the chance that Timon’s presence will keep Alcibiades from invading the city. Despite
their pleas, Timon decides not to return and says the two senators should go hang
themselves.

Alcibiades begins his invasion of Athens. The senators attempt diplomacy: they say that
not everyone in Athens insulted Timon and Alcibiades. Hearing their defense, Alcibiades
agrees to enter the city in peace; he will only look to avenge himself against those men
who explicitly abused Timon’s generosity and insulted him.Suddenly, a messenger arrives
with the news that Timon has died. In mourning, Alcibiades reads an epitaph that Timon
wrote for himself. Alcibiades concludes that it is a great tragedy that Timon died thinking
he could trust no one on earth.

c. Macbeth
Macbeth is one of William Shakespeare’s most celebrated plays. Classified as a tragedy
and thought to be performed for the first time in 1606, it tells the story of a Scottish
nobleman who becomes obsessed with power and is driven mad by guilt.

The play opens with three witches, who make plans to meet again. In a military camp,
King Duncan of Scotland hears the news of his generals’ success. Macbeth and Banquo
have defeated two invading armies (one from Ireland, one from Norway). After their
battle, Macbeth and Banquo stumble upon the witches, who prophesize that Macbeth will
one day become a thane and King of Scotland, while Banquo will father a dynasty of
Scottish kings (without ever being king himself). When the witches vanish, the two men
are skeptical. But when Duncan’s men arrive to tell Macbeth that his success has led to
the king granting him the title of Thane, Macbeth is intrigued and writes ahead to Lady
Macbeth to let her know what has taken place and that King Duncan plans to dine at
Macbeth’s castle the following night.

Back in their castle, Lady Macbeth lacks her husband’s skepticism. She hopes that he will
kill Duncan and take the throne. When Macbeth returns, she persuades him that he needs
to assassinate Duncan, overcoming Macbeth’s hesitation. Following their plan, Lady
Macbeth drugs the King’s chamberlains, and then, while Duncan sleeps, Macbeth breaks
the laws of guest right and stabs the king. When the body is discovered the next day,
Macbeth quickly blames the King’s passed out chamberlains, pretends to be in a blind
rage, and kills them. Suspicious, Duncan’s sons flee the country, allowing Macbeth to
declare himself king in their absence.
Macbeth, remembering the witches’ words about Banquo and his heirs, hires assassins to
kill his fellow general. These men ambush Banquo and his son Fleance but only succeed
in killing Banquo. Fleance escapes, which worries Macbeth—and fulfills the witches’
prophecy, since his children will eventually rule Scotland. That night, the ghost of
Banquo appears at a feast held in Macbeth’s honor, but Macbeth can see it. The specter
terrifies Macbeth, whose crazed ramblings perturb his fellow guests. Though Lady
Macbeth tries her best to address the court’s concerns, many question Macbeth’s
legitimacy as King. Now scared, Macbeth seeks out the witches. They deliver a series of
additional prophecies. One prophecy warns Macbeth to be wary of Macduff (a nobleman
dubious of Macbeth’s kingship). Two others reassure Macbeth: No man born of a woman
can harm him, and he will remain safe until the moment when Birnam Wood (a forest)
comes to Dunsinane Castle. The witches’ words ease Macbeth’s fears, as the latter two
parts of the prophecy seem impossible. He discovers that Macduff has fled the country,
and orders the seizure of all of Macduff’s possessions and property. Furthermore, he
orders Macduff’s wife and children executed.

In England, Macduff hears that his family is dead. He is distraught and swears revenge
against Macbeth. He joins one of Duncan’s sons, who has raised an army, and they ride
north together, ready to challenge Macbeth. The Scottish court, appalled by Macbeth, is
ready to ally with them as well.

In the meantime, bouts of guilt-ridden sleepwalking plague Lady Macbeth, who has
visions of indelible bloodstains on her hands.As he prepares to meet his enemies behind
his castle walls, Macbeth learns that his wife has killed herself. This sends Macbeth into
an even deeper despair. But he remains focused and fortifies his castle, still convinced
that the witches’ prophecy means that he is practically invincible. But the double talk of
the prophecies soon comes to light: The opposing army are carrying camouflage from
Birnam Wood trees to hide their numbers.

Though Macbeth and his forces fight valiantly, the other side eventually overwhelms
them. Macduff finds Macbeth on the battlefield; Macduff tells Macbeth that he was not
born of a woman in the traditional sense but was instead born via cesarean section. Even
though he realizes that he is doomed, Macbeth fights on. Macduff eventually vanquishes
Macbeth and, in a rage, cuts off his head. After the battle, Duncan’s son Malcolm is
crowned King of Scotland. He announces that he will govern in a benevolent fashion and
invites everyone to his coronation.