Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Durability assessment of hybrid double-skin tubular columns (DSTCs)

under simulated marine environments
Jun-Jie Zeng a, b, Zhi-Hao Hao c, Xiong-Chao Liang a, Jia-Luo Li a, Yan Zhuge b, Feng Liu a,
Li-Juan Li a, *
a
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
b
UniSA STEM, University of South Australia, South Australia 5095, Australia
c
Department of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-concrete-steel hybrid double-skin tubular columns (hybrid DSTCs), consisting of
DSTCs an outer FRP tube, an inner steel tube, and concrete infill between them, are a relatively new structural system.
Durability Despite DSTCs being proven to have enhanced structural capabilities over traditional concrete columns, their
Artificial seawater
durability in aggressive environments remains unclear. This study presents a durability assessment of hybrid
Accelerated tests
DSTCs with a glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) tube. Hybrid DSTCs were immersed in artificial seawater at
GFRP tubes
Axial compression different temperatures (i.e., room temperature, 40 ◦ C, and 60 ◦ C) for a duration of up to 540 days. The time-
dependent behaviors, including axial load-strain (axial and hoop) curves, compressive strength, and ultimate
axial and hoop strain, are systematically investigated at different aging times. Test results reveal that the
compressive strength of DSTCs exhibits a slight reduction at room temperature and 40 ◦ C, while an obvious
reduction is observed at 60 ◦ C. After 540 days, the compressive strengths for hybrid DSTCs with 3-mm-thick and
6-mm-thick GFRP tubes reduce to 79% and 93%, respectively. A decrease in strength is notable for DSTCs with a
3-mm-thick GFRP tube at 60 ℃. The degradation of GFRP tubes is also observed via scanning electron micro­
scope (SEM) analysis, with greater degradation observed in 3 mm-thick GFRP tubes compared to the 6 mm-thick
counterparts.

1. Introduction
In recent decades, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have
emerged as a highly promising material for enhancing the strength of
structures [1–6]. Their outstanding mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance have led to an increasing trend in the construction of new
structural members with FRP composites. To capitalize on the unique
advantages of different materials, FRP composites are commonly
employed in conjunction with other materials, such as concrete and
steel, to develop high-performance hybrid members [7–11]. Hybrid
FRP-concrete-steel double-skin tubular columns (DSTCs) are one of
these hybrid member forms, which were developed at The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University [12]. Such columns consist of an outer FRP tube
and an inner steel tube, with the space filled with concrete. The fibers in
the FRP tube are primarily oriented in the hoop direction to effectively
confine the inner concrete, thereby enhancing the ductility and strength,
and providing shear resistance of the column [12,13]. Previous research
has been carried out to further confirm the performance advantages of
hybrid DSTCs, including monotonic axial compressive behavior
[14–19], cyclic axial compressive behavior [20,21], lateral loading
[22–24], as well as finite element modeling [25,26] and design-oriented
model [13].
Despite the promising benefits of hybrid DSTCs, previous studies
have shown that external agents (e.g., moisture and alkali) can lead to
the degradation of FRP composites and FRP reinforced concrete struc­
tural members [27–36]. Kashi et al. [37] observed that FCCs exhibited a
reduction in ultimate strength after 4 months of exposure to the salt
solution. Currently, limited research has focused specifically on the
long-term behavior of hybrid DSTCs. Wang and ElGawady [38] inves­
tigated the behavior of DSTCs under combined freeze-thaw, hea­
ting-cooling, and wet-dry cycles and found that the compressive
strength exhibited less than a 10% reduction after 72 days of exposure.
SEM analysis revealed undamaged resin and fibers on the outer surface
of GFRP tubes. However, the GFRP-to-concrete interface showed resin

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lilj@gdut.edu.cn (L.-J. Li).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2023.117168
Received 9 September 2023; Received in revised form 22 October 2023; Accepted 10 November 2023
Available online 21 December 2023
0141-0296/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Fig. 1. DSTC specimens.

swelling and fiber-to-resin interfacial debonding due to moisture ab­

sorption. In their subsequent study [39], they reported a 41% reduction
in the strength of DSTCs after a 450-day immersion in seawater com­
bined with sustained loads at 60 ℃.
While the durability of FRP composites and FCCs has been exten­
sively explored, comprehensive investigations into the durability and
degradation mechanisms of hybrid DSTCs are still limited. To bridge this
gap, accelerating aging tests were conducted in this study, with an aim
to evaluate the durability of two types of hybrid DSTCs distinguished by
the thickness of the GFRP tube (3 mm and 6 mm). These hybrid DSTCs
were immersed in artificial seawater at different temperatures (i.e.,
room temperature, 40 ℃, and 60 ℃) for a duration of up to 540 days.
The stress-strain responses, compressive strength, and ultimate axial and
hoop strain were assessed as the aging time increased.

2. Experimental programs Fig. 2. Compression and tension test of GFRP tubes.

2.1. Test specimen 2.2.2. GFRP tubes

A total of 76 hybrid DSTCs were prepared and tested. The key test
variables included the thickness of GFRP tubes (i.e., 3 mm and 6 mm),
exposure temperature (i.e., room temperature, 40 ℃ and 60 ℃), and
exposure duration (30, 90, 180, 270, 360 and 540 days). The height (H)
of all specimens was 400 mm, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The inner steel tubes
had an outer diameter of 152 mm and a thickness of 6 mm. The outer
GFRP tubes, with an inner diameter of 200 mm, had two thicknesses of
3 mm or 6 mm. This led to a void ratio (the ratio of the inner and outer
diameter of the concrete section) of 0.76 [12].
Both GFRP tubes and steel tubes were used as moulds for casting the
concrete. Prior to casting, all tubes were cut to the desired length of
400 mm, and their two ends were perpendicular to their longitudinal
axes. Initially, the steel and GFRP tubes were fixed on a wooden plate,
ensuring their concentric alignment. To maintain alignment during
concrete casting, the top sections of both the steel and GFRP tubes were
firmly fixed using four bolts, as shown in Fig. 1(b). A hole was predrilled
on the GFRP tube near the top end to accommodate the passage of wires
for the strain gauges.
2.2. Material properties
2.2.1. Concrete
The hybrid DSTCs in this study were cast using the same batch of
commercial concrete, which had a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm
and a slump of 130 mm. The concrete was well cured indoors at 20
± 2 ◦ C for 28 days. Three standard concrete cylinders
(150 mm × 300 mm) were tested. Their 28-day strength and elastic
modulus were 41.1 MPa and 25.2 GPa, respectively, based on the ASTM
standard [40].
Two types of filament-wound GFRP tubes were used, with thick­
nesses of either 3 mm or 6 mm. These tubes were provided by Guang­
dong Sunny FRP Co., Ltd., with a fiber content of 60% and a winding
angle of ± 80◦ with respect to the tube axis. Axial compression tests on
GFRP tubes were carried out according to GB/T 5350 [41]. For each
thickness, two GFRP tubes with a height of 150 mm were loaded under
axial compression. To prevent end failure, both ends of the tubes were
strengthened using CFRP sheets with a width of 30 mm (Fig. 2(a)). Three
20-mm axial and hoop strain gauges were evenly installed at the
mid-height of the tube. A displacement control mode with a rate of
0.018 mm/min was adopted. The compressive strengths of 3-mm and
6-mm GFRP tubes were determined to be 63.2 MPa and 60.7 MPa,
respectively. The corresponding axial elastic moduli were 9.2 GPa and
10.0 GPa, respectively.
The tensile properties of GFRP tubes were evaluated using the arc
tensile test (i.e., curved coupons). GFRP acr specimens were cut from
6 mm thick GFRP tubes. These specimens had a width of 30 mm, a
testing length of 100 mm, and an anchorage length of 40 mm (Fig. 2(b)).
5-mm strain gauges were attached to the inner and outer surfaces of
GFRP arc specimens. The tensile strength and corresponding axial elastic
moduli were determined to be 328.3 MPa and 60.5 GPa, respectively.
Moreover, 15 GFRP curved coupons were also subjected to the same
conditions as the DSTC specimens to monitor the changes in their me­
chanical properties. The GFRP curved coupons were also exposed in
seawater with different temperatures (i.e., room temperature, 40 ℃ and
60 ℃) for 30, 90 and 180 days to identify the change in tensile me­
chanical properties.
2.2.3. Steel tubes
Tension tests were carried out on five steel coupons according to BS

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J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Fig. 3. Compression test results of bare steel tubes.

Table 1
Composition of the artificial seawater [45].
Components Water NaCl Na2SO4 MgCl₂⋅6 H₂O CaCl2 SrCl2.6 H2O KCl NaHCO₃ KBr H₃BO₃ NaF

Weight (g/L) 1000 25.534 4.094 11.112 1.158 0.042 0.695 0.201 0.10 0.027 0.003

Fig. 4. Schematic of the water tank.

18(1987) [42]. The yield stress, tensile strength, and elastic modulus of
steel coupons were determined to be 254.9 MPa, 406.3 MPa, and
249.3 GPa, respectively. In addition, three bare steel tubes used in the
hybrid DSTCs were subjected to axial compression. These tubes had an
outer diameter of 152 mm, a height of 400 mm, and a thickness of Fig. 5. Test setups for DSTCs.
6 mm. At the mid-height of the steel tube, four 10-mm axial and hoop
strain gauges were attached, and four variable displacement transducers water tank. In addition, temperature-insulating cotton was applied to
(LVDTs) were used to measure the axial shortening of the whole tube. the external and bottom surfaces of the water tank for heat conservation.
Fig. 3 presents axial stress-axial strain curves of the bare steel tubes and The detailed test program is presented in Table 2. For ease of refer­
their failure modes. Steel tubes exhibited large plastic deformation ence, each specimen is designated by a name that begins with either
before undergoing local buckling. ‘‘G3″ or “G6″ representing the GFRP tube thickness (3 mm or 6 mm);
This is followed by “TU”, “TR”, “T40″ or “T60″ representing the exposure
temperature (unconditioned, room temperature, 40 ℃ and 60 ℃); The
2.3. Exposure conditions
term “D* ” indicates immersion duration, where “* ” denotes the num­
ber of exposure days), and “1/2″ indicates two identical specimens.
After a 28-day curing period, the hybrid DSTCs were coated with
waterproof epoxy resin on both ends and the inner surface of the steel
2.4. Test setups
tubes. This coating was applied to prevent longitudinal diffusion and
corrosion of steel tubes. Subsequently, the specimens were immersed in
Fig. 5 illustrates test setups for the hybrid DSTCs. Six LVDTs were
artificial seawater at different temperatures (i.e., Room temperature, 40
used to monitor axial shortenings. Four of them were evenly positioned
℃ and 60 ℃). The temperature selection is in line with common prac­
around the circumference of the mid-height section, covering a length of
tices for accelerated aging tests of GFRP composite [43,44]. In addition,
160 mm (They were affixed using Sikadur epoxy mortar). The remaining
the glass transition temperature of the GFRP tubes used in this study is
two LVDTs were affixed to opposite sides between the loading platens to
approximately 110 ℃, significantly exceeding the exposure temperature
obtain the full-height axial shortening. At the mid-height of the GFRP
of 60 ℃. The composition of the artificial seawater is presented in
tubes, four 10 mm axial and hoop strain gauges were also evenly placed
Table 1 [45]. To maintain the desired elevated temperatures, two
around the circumference (Fig. 5). Before testing, high-strength gypsum
thermostatic water tanks were constructed. These tanks were equipped
was capped to both ends of the DSTCs to ensure a flat and smooth load-
with 1000 W titanium heating rods and digital electronic temperature
bearing surface.
controllers (Fig. 4). A circulating water pump was also integrated to
ensure a uniform distribution of temperature and salinity within the

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J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Table 2
Test programs.
SpecimenID Thickness of GFRP tube (mm) Immersion Temperature (℃) Immersion time (days)

G3-TU-D0–1/2 Unconditioned 0
G3-TR-D* − 1/2 Room temperature
3
G3-T40-D* − 1/2 40 30, 90, 180, 270, 360, 540
G3-T60-D* − 1/2 60
G6-TU-D0–1/2 Unconditioned 0
G6-TR-D* − 1/2 Room temperature
6
G6-T40-D* − 1/2 40 30, 90, 180, 270, 360, 540
G6-T60-D* − 1/2 60

Fig. 6. Tensile property changes of GFRP tubes.

3. Experimental results 3.2. Hybrid double-skin tubular columns (DSTCs)

3.1. GFRP coupons 3.2.1. Failure mode

Fig. 7 shows the typical failure modes of the hybrid DSTCs, and
Fig. 6 presents the changes in tensile properties of GFRP arc speci­ additional failure modes are provided in Appendix A. It can be seen that
mens after exposure. In general, the material properties exhibit a the color of the GFRP tube surface changed evidently from whitish gray
decrease as the aging time increases, with elastic modulus being
particularly affected. At room temperature and 40 ℃, the tensile
strength shows a slight reduction even after 180 days, maintaining over
90% retention. However, at 60 ℃, tensile strength significantly reduces,
with only 45.8% retention after 180 days. This highlights a substantial
acceleration of degradation at 60 ℃. This may be due to the temperature
of 60 ℃ which is approaching the glass transition temperature of the
GFRP.
In Fig. 6(b), the reductions in elastic moduli are more pronounced,
but the effects of temperature are not evident. After 180 days, the re­
tentions of elastic modulus at room temperature, 40 ℃, and 60 ℃ are
57.1%, 57.7%, and 62.5%, respectively. The reduction in elastic moduli
after exposure may be attributed to the following factors. First, the GFRP
curved coupons immersed in seawater experience plasticization of the
matrix due to moisture penetration and fiber failure due to etching and
leaching, which substantially decrease the strength of the FRP [46–49].
Secondly, the elastic moduli of GFRP arcs are determined from curved
coupons by pulling the bent coupons until they become straight. During
the process of straightening, the strains recorded in the coupons were
considerable and part of the fibers failed. As the fibers in exposed cou­
pons were weaker than those in coupons without immersion, the elastic
modulus of GFRP coupons exhibits a decreasing trend when the aging
period and exposure temperature increase.

Fig. 7. Typical failure modes of DSTCs.

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J.-J. Zeng et al.
Fig. 8. Axial load-strain (Axial and hoop) curves.
to dark yellow after immersion in seawater. This change is attributed to
moisture absorption and salt deposition [35,50]. The moisture absorp­
tion disrupts the polymer chains, reducing the effective crosslink density
and resulting in a loss of transparency in the GFRP tubes [49]. However,
the changes in surface appearance had minimal influence on the failure
modes of DSTCs. All the specimens experienced hoop rupture of the
outer GFRP tube near the mid-height, accompanied by a sudden
explosive sound. Before the failure, hybrid DSTCs emitted several
smaller cracking sounds, and these sounds became more as the aging
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Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168
time and temperature increased, indicating that the exposure induced
local deterioration or stress concentrations. The ultimate failure of the
outer FRP tube resulted in a sudden decline in axial load. The concrete
between the outer GFRP tube and the inner steel tube referred to as
sandwiched concrete, experienced a crushing failure near the
mid-height (Fig. 7(c)). After extracting the GFRP tube and sandwiched
concrete, it was observed that the inner steel tube had undergone local
buckling near the mid-height (Fig. 7(d)).
J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Table 3
Key test results of DSTCs.
Time Specimens Compressive strength (kN) Ultimate axial strain Ultimate hoop strain

Control G3-TU-D0–1 2238.5 0.0425 0.0135

G3-TU-D0–2 2281.5 0.0520 0.0165
G6-TU-D0–1 2965.2 0.0564 0.0135
G6-TU-D0–2 2912.4 0.0605 0.0133
D30 G3-TR-D30–1 2310.4 0.0479 0.0150
G3-TR-D30–2 2290.2 0.0458 0.0148
G3-T40-D30–1 2364.4 0.0469 0.0148
G3-T40-D30–2 2476.9 0.0588 0.0175
G3-T60-D30–1 2249.8 0.0471 0.0153
G3-T60-D30–2 2439.0 0.0599 0.0182
G6-TR-D30–1 3121.9 0.0548 0.0129
G6-TR-D30–2 3003.7 0.0585 0.0126
G6-T40-D30–1 3130.2 0.0615 0.0155
G6-T40-D30–2 2845.8 0.0517 0.0123
G6-T60-D30–1 3065.3 0.0613 0.0150
G6-T60-D30–2 2965.0 0.0632 0.0127
D90 G3-TR-D90–1 2231.3 0.0397 0.0104
G3-TR-D90–2 2225.3 0.0484 0.0149
G3-T40-D90–1 2105.9 0.0425 0.0146
G3-T40-D90–2 2014.7 0.0378 0.0127
G3-T60-D90–1 2503.1 0.0590 0.0171
G3-T60-D90–2 2243.9 0.0575 0.0160
G6-TR-D90–1 2919.0 0.0620 0.0147
G6-TR-D90–2 2897.3 0.0565 0.0141
G6-T40-D90–1 2919.0 0.0558 0.0143
G6-T40-D90–2 2897.3 0.0584 0.0158
G6-T60-D90–1 3154.9 0.0749 0.0165
G6-T60-D90–2 3279.8 0.0731 0.0153
D180 G3-TR-D180–1 2288.1 0.0393 0.0144
G3-TR-D180–2 2314.4 0.0508 0.0118
G3-T40-D180–1 2274.9 0.0345 0.0128
G3-T40-D180–2 2500.1 0.0540 0.0163
G3-T60-D180–1 2337.0 0.0538 0.0160
G3-T60-D180–2 2368.6 0.0514 0.0164
G6-TR-D180–1 3327.9 0.0702 0.0144
G6-TR-D180–2 3135.3 0.0610 0.0135
G6-T40-D180–1 3327.9 0.0707 0.0166
G6-T40-D180–2 2574.0 0.0431 0.0100
G6-T60-D180–1 3017.8 0.0578 0.0126
G6-T60-D180–2 3080.2 0.0696 0.0143
D270 G3-TR-D270–1 2420.5 0.0472 0.0151
G3-TR-D270–2 2336.6 0.0490 0.0149
G3-T40-D270–1 2294.6 0.0479 0.0149
G3-T40-D270–2 2431.1 0.0486 0.0158
G3-T60-D270–1 2327.1 0.0371 0.0131
G3-T60-D270–2 2223.2 0.0420 0.0131
G6-TR-D270–1 3065.0 0.0567 0.0135
G6-TR-D270–2 3108.1 0.0688 0.0154
G6-T40-D270–1 3057.7 0.0723 0.0145
G6-T40-D270–2 3248.1 0.0627 0.0150
G6-T60-D270–1 3186.5 0.0795 0.0157
G6-T60-D270–2 2937.1 0.0669 0.0131
D360 G3-TR-D360–1 2213.8 0.0370 0.0127
G3-TR-D360–2 2357.2 0.0451 0.0154
G3-T40-D360–1 2421.5 0.0478 0.0148
G3-T40-D360–2 2309.0 0.0432 0.0136
G3-T60-D360–1 2074.7 0.0371 0.0109
G3-T60-D360–2 2034.8 0.0278 0.0118
G6-TR-D360–1 2947.4 0.0517 0.0121
G6-TR-D360–2 3083.7 0.0562 0.0125
G6-T40-D360–1 3087.1 0.0685 0.0155
G6-T40-D360–2 2975.9 0.0492 0.0120
G6-T60-D360–1 3202.4 0.0660 0.0146
G6-T60-D360–2 3340.6 0.0751 0.0139
D540 G3-TR-D540–1 2381.7 0.0506 0.0147
G3-TR-D540–2 2388.6 0.0495 0.0152
G3-T40-D540–1 2373.0 0.0514 0.0164
G3-T40-D540–2 2388.6 0.0495 0.0152
G3-T60-D540–1 1756.4 0.0232 0.0083
G3-T60-D540–2 1812.6 0.0266 0.0090
G6-TR-D540–1 3230.5 0.0714 0.0154
G6-TR-D540–2 3189.2 0.0601 0.0134
G6-T40-D540–1 2988.1 0.0599 0.0133
G6-T40-D540–2 3469.6 0.0738 0.0133
G6-T60-D540–1 2619.1 0.0637 0.0103
G6-T60-D540–2 2822.8 0.0506 0.0112

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J.-J. Zeng et al.
Fig. 9. Ultimate axial load changes of DSTCs.
3.2.2. Load-strain curves
Fig. 8 shows the axial load-strain (axial and hoop) curves of hybrid
DSTCs, which exhibit a typical bilinear shape. During the initial loading
stage, the axial strains are determined by the average value from axial
strain gauges attached to the mid-height. In the subsequent linear stage,
the axial strains are determined by the full-height LVDTs since some
stain gauges exhibited failure at this stage. The hoop strains are deter­
mined by the average value from the hoop strain gauges attached to the
mid-height. The curves terminate upon the occurrence of GFRP rupture.
It is noted that compressive loads, stresses, and strains are denoted as
positive, while tensile loads, stresses, and strains are denoted as
negative.
During the initial stage, the GFRP confinement was not yet activated.
Subsequently, the sandwiched concrete began to dilate as major cracks
developed, which led to the activation of the outer GFRP tube confine­
ment. This resulted in further increases in load-carrying capacity of the
hybrid DSTCs with reduced stiffness. As presented in Fig. 8, the transi­
tion points between the first and second stages become higher after
exposure, particularly evident in the hybrid DSTCs subjected to lower
temperatures (room temperature and 40 ℃). This is mainly due to the
increase in concrete strength as a result of further hydration. This may
also be due to the swelling of outer GFRP tubes with moisture absorp­
tion, providing a slight confinement to the sandwiched concrete.
Moreover, the slopes of the curves in the subsequent stage increase after
exposure at room temperature and 40 ℃, indicating an improved
effectiveness of confinement. However, this effect is less pronounced for
the hybrid DSTCs at 60 ℃, potentially due to GFRP damage after
exposure at this temperature as mentioned in Section 3.1, leading to a
reduction in confinement stiffness. Similar patterns are also observed in
the axial stress-hoop strain curves.
3.2.3. Compressive strength and ultimate strain
Table 3 summarizes the main test results of the hybrid DSTCs. Fig. 9
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Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168
Fig. 10. Ultimate axial strain changes of DSTCs.
presents the changes in their compressive strength over time. In general,
both G3 and G6 specimens subjected to room temperature and 40 ℃
exhibit upward trends in compressive strength, with slight fluctuations,
and the increments are within 10%. This can be attributed to the
enhancement of concrete strength. Immersion in seawater promotes
further hydration of any unhydrated cement particles, thereby
enhancing concrete strength.
However, when exposed to 60 ℃, the compressive strength of hybrid
DSTCs exhibits an initial increase, followed by a pronounced decrease.
For the G3 specimens, a 5% increase in compressive strength is observed
after 90 days. After 540 days of immersion, the compressive strength is
only 79% compared to the unconditioned specimens. In contrast, the G6
specimens exhibit less degradation than G3 specimens. After 360 days,
their compressive strength experiences an 11% increase. Even after 540
days, the compressive strength remains at 93% in comparison to the
unconditioned specimens. The initial increase in compressive strength
results from further hydration of concrete, which enhances concrete
strength. The subsequent decrease is caused by GFRP tube degradation
after exposure, resulting in reduced tensile strength and modulus of the
GFRP tubes. This, in turn, diminishes the confinement provided to the
concrete. The less degradation observed in the G6 specimens can be
attributed to relatively thick GFRP tubes and consequently the fiber
damage in the GFRP tubes was less pronounced. As has been mentioned
in Section 3.1, the primary factor influencing GFRP deterioration is
moisture penetration. Despite equivalent exposure time leading to
consistent moisture penetration depths for both thicker and thinner
tubes, the thicker tubes result in a smaller proportion being affected by
moisture. Consequently, thicker GFRP tubes exhibit less degradation in
comparison to thinner tubes.
The durability of hybrid DSTCs is closely related to the degradation
of GFRP tubes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the degrada­
tion of GFRP composites is most pronounced during the initial exposure
period [51–53]. Bazli et al. [36] conducted accelerated aging tests on
J.-J. Zeng et al.
Fig. 11. Ultimate hoop strain changes of DSTCs.
GFRP tubes, subjecting their outer surface to seawater and their inner
surface to simulated concrete environments. They observed that the
majority of strength reductions of GFRP tubes (with 4 mm and 8 mm
thickness) occurred within the first 180 days, after which the strength
remained stable. Considering these findings, it is reasonable to predict
that the ultimate strength reduction of G3 and G6 DSTCs in this study
will be limited to approximately 25% and 10%, even after prolonged
exposure.
Concrete generally suffers limited degradation in marine environ­
ments [54,55]. The primary cause of degradation in traditional rein­
forced concrete structures is the corrosion of steel reinforcement
induced by chloride and sulphate attacks [56,57]. This corrosion leads
to surface cracking and spalling of the concrete due to the expansion of
the corroding steel. In contrast, hybrid DSTCs exhibit superior durability
performance, primarily due to the incorporation of GFRP tubes. These
tubes offer excellent corrosion resistance and effectively protect steel
tubes from moisture and detrimental ions [12].
Fig. 10 presents the changes in the ultimate axial strain of hybrid
DSTCs over time. Notably, the ultimate axial strain presents a more
pronounced scattering pattern compared to the compressive strength,
highlighting its sensitivity to exposure [49]. For G3 specimens subjected
to room temperature and 40 ℃, the ultimate axial strain exhibits some
fluctuations as the aging time increases. However, at 60 ℃, substantial
reductions in ultimate axial strain are observed over time. After 540
days of exposure, the axial ultimate strain remains at 53% compared to
the unconditioned specimen. This finding further confirms that the
degradation of G3 DSTCs is more pronounced at the higher temperature
of 60 ℃, and it is primarily attributed to the deterioration of GFRP tubes.
In contrast, the reduction in ultimate axial strain is not significant for G6
DSTCs. Even at 60 ℃, the ultimate axial strain retains 98% compared to
the specimens without exposure. This indicates that the degradation of
G6 DSTCs was minimal, and they presented better durability perfor­
mance compared to the G3 DSTCs. In this regard, it can be said that the
seawater with a temperature of 60 ℃ may lead to much more significant
8
Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168
Fig. 12. Changes in confinement effects for concrete before and after 360 days
of exposure.
hydrolysis of chemical chains in the matrix than that with a temperature
of 40 ℃.
Fig. 11 presents the changes in the ultimate hoop strain of hybrid
DSTCs over time, revealing a similar pattern to that observed in the
ultimate axial strain. After 540 days of immersion at 60 ℃, the ultimate
hoop strain for G3 and G6 DSTCs is reduced to 58% and 80%,
respectively.
3.2.4. Confinement for concrete
The confinement by the GFRP tube and steel tube enhances the
strength of concrete compared to the unconfined concrete. To evaluate
the aging effects on the confinement, the compressive strength of
confined concrete is determined as follows:
Pt − PG − Ps
fcc = # (1)
Ac
where Pt , PG and Ps are the load carried by hybrid DSTCs, GFRP
tubes, and steel tubes, respectively. The load carried by the GFRP tube
and steel tube is found from the compression behaviors of hollow GFRP
and steel tubes at the ultimate axial strain of hybrid DSTCs. To exclude
the changes in compressive strength of unconfined concrete fco after
J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Fig. 13. SEM observations of GFRP tubes after exposure.

exposure, the strength enhancement ratio is defined as: 360 days. Without exposure, the compressive strength of confined
concrete fcc was significantly enhanced compared to unconfined con­
fcc
∅= # (2) crete fco . The strength enhancement ratio was 2.6 and 3.6 for G3 and G6
fco
DSTCs, respectively. It indicates that the concrete was effectively
Fig. 12 presents the changes in confinement effect before and after confined by the two tubes.

9
J.-J. Zeng et al.
In the case of G3 DSTCs, the compressive strength of confined con­
crete fcc increases after exposure at room temperature and 40 ℃.
However, Fig. 12(b) shows that the strength enhancement ratio in­
creases. This suggests that the increase in fcc is mainly attributed to the
post-curing of the concrete, and the confinement effects are not signif­
icantly affected. However, when the temperature is elevated to 60 ℃,
there is a noticeable reduction in fcc despite no reduction in fco . The
reduction in fcc can be attributed to the weakening of confinement
concrete, as shown in Fig. 12(b).
Similarly, for G6 DSTCs subjected to room temperature and 40 ℃, the
compressive strength of confined concrete fcc increases and the strength
enhancement ratio remains relatively unchanged as the aging time in­
creases. However, when the temperature rises to 60 ℃, there are more
substantial increases in both fcc and the strength enhancement ratio,
reaching 171.5 MPa and 3.9, respectively. As the ultimate strength of
DSTCs exhibits a substantial decrease from the 360-day to the 540-day
exposure, the strength enhancement ratio is expected to correspond­
ingly decrease after 540 days of exposure, since the strength enhancement
ratio displays a similar trend relative to the ultimate strength of DSTCs.
3.2.5. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis
To further investigate the degradation mechanism, scanning electron
microscope (SEM) analysis was conducted on the GFRP tubes extracted
from the DSTCs after exposure, as shown in Fig. 13. Both outer and inner
surfaces of GFRP tubes were observed, where the inner and outer surfaces
refer to the side in contact with the concrete and artificial seawater,
respectively. Fig. 13(a) shows the outer surface of GFRP tubes after 360
days of exposure at 60 ℃. Minor resin cracks were observed on the outer
surfaces of both 3 mm- and 6 mm-thick GFRP tubes, with a higher density
of cracks on the 3 mm-thick GFRP tube. In addition, the exposure resulted
in the formation of white blisters on the surface of GFRP tubes, which was
attributed to osmosis pressure. Initially, moisture and ions can accumu­
late within microvoids present in the GFRP tubes through diffusion. Due
to the lower permeability of the matrix acting as a semi-permeable
membrane, moisture and ions accumulate in these microvoids, leading
to more moisture entering the voids and inducing an increase in osmotic
pressure. As osmotic pressure exceeds a critical threshold, it triggers the
development of surface cracks in GFRP tubes, manifesting as the observed
blistering [58]. Fig. 13(b) presents SEM images of the fibers on the outer
surface. The 3 mm-thick GFRP tube exhibited fewer resin attachments
compared to the 6 mm-thick tube. Cracks along the fiber direction and
pits were observed on the fiber surface.
Fig. 13(c) presents the inner surface of GFRP tubes after 360 days of
exposure at 60 ℃. After the same exposure time, the inner surface of the
3 mm-thick GFRP tubes exhibited more severe degradation compared to
that of the 6 mm-thick GFRP tube. Specifically, the 3 mm-thick GFRP
tubes showed more resin cracks and debonding at the resin-to-fiber
interface. The 6 mm-thick GFRP tube also had resin cracks along the
fiber direction, but these cracks were comparatively shorter and nar­
rower than those observed in the 3 mm-thick GFRP tube. Fig. 13(d)
presents SEM images of the fibers on the inner surface. It can be
observed that fibers of the 3 mm-thick GFRP tube showed less resin
attachment compared to the 6 mm-thickness GFRP tube.
Based on SEM observations, it is evident that both the inner and outer
surfaces of the thicker GFRP tubes exhibited less degradation compared to
the thinner tubes after the same exposure period. The less degradation of
thicker tubes is attributed to their relatively smaller surface-to-volume
ratio and thus a lower proportion of fibers affected by moisture.
4. Conclusions
This study investigates the durability of FRP-concrete-steel hybrid
double-skin tubular columns (DSTCs) immersed in artificial seawater at
different temperatures. The conclusions can be drawn as follows:
10
Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168
(1) As the aging time increases, the tensile strength of GFRP curved
coupons shows no notable degradation at low temperatures (i.e.,
room temperature and 40 ℃). However, at 60 ℃, tensile strength
significantly reduces, retaining only 45.8% after 180 days. Elastic
moduli considerably reduce at all temperatures due to fiber
damage during straightening.
(2) Hybrid DSTCs fail due to hoop rupture of the outer GFRP tube
near the mid-height along with concrete crushing. The failure
mode is independent to the exposure condition and aging time.
(3) Axial load-axial strain curves exhibit a bilinear shape. After
exposure, the strength at the transition points and the slopes in the
second stage slightly increase. This enhancement is less obvious in
specimens at 60 ℃ due to more severe GFRP tube damage.
(4) The compressive strengths of DSTCs with 3 mm and 6 mm-thick
GFRP tubes slightly increase at room temperature and 40 ℃.
However, at 60 ℃, they exhibit obvious decreases followed by
initial increases with aging time. Hybrid DSTCs with a thicker
GFRP tube exhibit less degradation, which can be attributed to
the lower percentage of damaged fibers.
(5) Ultimate axial and hoop strains in hybrid DSTCs show no evident
reduction at room temperature and 40 ℃ but exhibit substantial
decreases at 60 ℃, particularly in hybrid DSTCs with 3 mmm-
thick GFRP tubes.
(6) The confinement for concrete of hybrid DSTCs exhibits no
obvious degradation after 360 days at room temperature and 40
℃ but degrades noticeably at 60 ℃.
(7) SEM images confirmed more degradation in 3 mm-thick GFRP
tubes, revealing more surface cracks and microvoids after exposure.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jun-Jie Zeng: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision,
Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Zhi-
Hao Hao: Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft. Xiong-
Chao Liang: Investigation, Data curation. Jia-Luo Li: Investigation,
Data curation. Yan Zhuge: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Feng Liu: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. Li-Juan Li: Meth­
odology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Conflict of interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with
other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our
work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or
kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as
influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript
entitled.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support received from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 52178277 and
12032009), the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province
(Nos. 2021B1515020029 and 2022A1515240008).
J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

Appendix A. Failure modes of DSTCs

11
J.-J. Zeng et al. Engineering Structures 301 (2024) 117168

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