Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-021-09282-z

Employing Nanoemulsions in Food Packaging: Shelf Life Enhancement

Hamed Ahari1 · Mohammad Naeimabadi1

Received: 14 September 2020 / Accepted: 11 February 2021 / Published online: 25 May 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Recently, there has been a great deal of interest in implementing new nanotechnology-based approaches to improve the qual-
ity of food products. One of the relevant applications in this field is the use of nanoemulsions in the food packaging industry.
In this research, the role of nanoemulsions in the food packaging industry and also the recent developments were discussed.
Notably, numerous factors, including bacterial growth and oxidation reduce the quality and safety of foods, fruits, and veg-
etables. In this case, new food packaging systems need to be smart, programmable, and multifunctional. Nanoemulsion can
be prepared as a delivery system in the form of an oil-in-water or water-in-oil system under different methods of preparation
including low-energy and high-energy techniques. Nanoemulsion-based delivery systems may also contain dyes, flavorings,
preservatives, disinfectants, or nutrients, depending on the purpose. This technology can prevent microorganism’s growth,
changes in food color and appearance, loss of weight, moisture content reduction, undesirable flavor and taste, and also
decrease the rate of oxidation and browning compared to the samples with the common packaging. Despite the great potential
of nanoemulsions, some specific issues exist which need to be addressed. Using these promising nanotechnologies some
food properties such as taste, texture, flavor, color, spoilage, and stability can be controlled. To ensure the commercial use
of nanoemulsions, further studies are needed to discover the application of nanoemulsions, their suitable carriers, optimize
consumption, and remove obstacles in production and processing.

Keywords Nanoemulsion · Food packaging · Shelf life · Coating · Film

Introduction in efficient product transportation, storage, and distribution.

Food packaging is one of the important items in the mod-
ern food industry. Packaging prevents wastes and confirms
retaining the quality of food at its high level throughout the
considered shelf life. Packaging has undeniable importance
and plays an essential role in food health; this industry can
be considered a waste generating resource and a threat to
the environment. Furthermore, considering human health, if
the world needs to barely feed nine billion people, the qual-
ity and quantity of food packaging should be significantly
improved [1, 2].
The four main functions of packaging are restraint, con-
venience, communication, and protection. Restraint, also
called containment, is one of the main goals of packaging,
which means to contain the products. This is a crucial factor
* Hamed Ahari
dr.h.ahari@gmail.com
1
Department of Food Science and Technology, Science
and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Besides, restraint allows the product to be divided into dif-
ferent volumes and facilitates the storage and sales process.
Convenience refers to the convenient transportation, storage,
and sale of the product. In other words, the type of pack-
aging should be such that it can be easily transported and
stored. Communication refers to the information about the
packaging cover, including text and graphics (product and
brand and product promotion), list of ingredients, nutritional
data, production and expiration date, price, barcode, and
information. Protection is often considered the main func-
tion of packaging due to protecting its contents from external
environmental influences, such as compressive forces, vibra-
tion, shock, dust, microorganisms, odors, gases, water vapor,
and water [3]. The method of packaging depends on the food
type including, liquid, solid, powder, etc.
Considering protection, various protective functions
for packages are of interest in the food packaging industry.
Briefly, it has been shown that some packages have antibac-
terial effects during shelf life [4, 5]. Given the environmental
threat, scientists were stimulated to focus on biodegradable

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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883 859

packaging [6]. Biocompatibility (being compatible with
the environment) is another issue in packaging studies. It
is important to prevent chemical pollution after package
degradation. Thereby, many studies covered the production
of biocompatible packaging [7]. A comprehensive review
reported by Fuat Topuz et al. [8].
Recently, essential oils (EOs) are tested for their antimi-
crobial activity due to their secondary antimicrobial prop-
erties for extending the shelf life of perishable horticul-
tural products (Table 1). EOs have approved their potential
as natural antimicrobial agents in food packaging systems
[9, 10]. However, Eos’ volatility, susceptibility for oxida-
tion, and low solubility in water limit their usage. Encap-
sulation of EOs is one of the techniques to overcome these
effects and increase their biological activity [11].
Nanoemulsions are attractive systems for application
to the food industry, including food packaging [12]. They
possess unique characteristics, including small drop-
l-et size, transparent appearance, tunable rheology, and
exceptional stability [13]. They are also good alternatives
to entrap lipophilic factors and increase their functional
properties and stability [10].

Table 1  A brief explanation about different nanoemulsions and way of manufacturing for food packaging purposes
Type of Essential oil Method of Employed Methods of film Zeta Droplet size Polydisper- Ref
food pack- nanoemulsion polymer preparation potential (nm) sity index
aging preparation (mV) (PI)

Coating Oregano High-speed Pectin - - 48 0.24 [75]

homogenizer
Film Eugenol High-speed Polyvinylpyrro- Electrospinning 47.7 315 0.277 [189]
homogenizer lidone
Coating Curcumin Emulsion phase - - − 10 10 8.50 [190]
inversion
Coating Orange Ultrasonic pro- - - − 107 73 - [182]
cessor
Coating Olive oil Ultrasonic - - - 308 - [191]
homogenizator
Film Eugenol and High-speed Chitosan Electrospinning - 20–140 - [145]
argan oils homogenizer
Coating Tocopherol High shear mixer - - - 476 - [192]
Film Ginger High-speed Gelatin Spreading the − 29.4 150 0.16 [102]
homogenizer solution over
an acrylic plate
Film cinnamon High shear mixer Polyvinyl Electrospinning - 270–410 - [144]
alcohol
Film Copaiba Ultrasonic pro- Pectin Spreading the − 25 69 0.31 [30]
cessor solution over a
polyester sheet
conveyor
Film Α-tocopherol Spontaneous Whey protein Solvent casting - 865 - [61]
emulsification
followed by
microfluidiza-
tion
Film Cinnamaldehyde Magnetic stirrer Polyethylene Electrospinning - 58 - [137]
oxide
Coating Cinnamon Ultrasound treat- - - − 35.4 162 0.19 [193]
ment
Film Thymol High-speed Gelatin Solvent casting - 138 0.38 [95]
homogenizer
Film Cinnamon Ultrasonic pro- Pullulan Solvent casting − 28.9 60 0.26 [121]
cessor
Film Cinnamaldehyde Magnetic stirrer Polyvinyl Electrospinning - 56.7 - [136]
alcohol
Film Cinnamaldehyde Magnetic stirrer Gelatin Solvent casting − 8.61 72 0.11 [120]
Coating Citrus sinensis Ultrasound Sodium alginate - 16.32 43 0.38 [194]
probe sonicator

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Food-grade nanoemulsions are increasingly used to improve
digestibility, targeted delivery, effective encapsulation, and
bioavailability. Edible films/coatings, due to the antioxidant
and antimicrobial properties of the embedded nanoemulsion,
are employed in food industries to extend the shelf life of fresh
fruits, vegetables, meat, and food [14]. Due to the small drop-
let size of nanoemulsions, they are transparent and kinetically
dynamical systems (time-dependent in geometrical space). In
particular, in the food industry, nanoemulsions are used in food
containment, food processing, preservation, storage, and as a
delivery system for active lipophilic components. Nanoemul-
sions show increased activity compared to other conventional
emulsions (nicely discussed by Priyakshree Borthakur [15]).
Nanoemulsions can be divided into two types of water-in-oil
(W/O) with the distribution of small water droplets in an oil
medium and oil-in-water (O/W), the dispersion of small oil
droplets in an aqueous medium [16]. By a double-step proce-
dure, it is also possible to create two kinds of multiple nanoe-
mulsions, namely W/O/W (water-in-oil-in-water) and O/W/O
(oil-in-water-in-oil) [17].
It is reported that nanoemulsions can be used in washing
fruits and vegetables as a disinfectant or a protective factor
in food coatings. The choice of EO, based on compatibility
with a specific food matrix, is one of the main concerns in
EO-based food packaging systems [18].
Regarding active packaging technology, there are two
models known as films and coatings (Fig. 1). Films are
thin sheets of considerable strength already formed and can
be used to cover the product (such as packaging) or being
placed between product layers (hamburgers) to separate them
[19]. Coatings, on the other hand, are films not made
beforehand (they are liquid) but formed after the product
is coated and then dried during a certain process, result-
ing in the formation of the coating. There are numer-
ous reports regarding the utilization of EOs in food
Fig. 1  Employing nanoemul-
sion-based film/coating in food
packaging
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
packaging as nanoemulsion or encapsulated in a nano-
carrier (nicely reviewed by Olga Martín-Belloso [10]).
There are many studies on employing nanoemulsions in
food packaging. They were either employed directly in
films and coatings or encapsulated in a polymeric car-
rier and then loaded in films and coatings [20]. One of
the main methods for incorporating nanoemulsions in
polymeric films is to disperse the nanoemulsion within
a polymeric solution under high shear stress and casting
the solution after degassing under vacuum [21]. Employ-
ing nanoemulsion showed potent performance in food
packaging [10].
In the current review, it was tried to cover the role of
nanoemulsions in food packaging. Firstly, a brief description
of the methods of nanoemulsion preparation was presented,
and then, the influence of nanoemulsions in food packaging,
pros and cons, and obstacles to nanoemulsion-based packag-
ing were discussed.
Nanoemulsion System
Emulsions are classified into three categories: (1) macro-
emulsions, (2) microemulsions, and (3) nanoemulsions.
By comparison, microemulsions and nanoemulsions have
smaller droplets than macroemulsions. Besides, polydis-
persity in macroemulsions is less than 40%, while it is less
than 10% in micro- and nanoemulsion. From the viewpoint
of energy, macroemulsion and nanoemulsion systems can
be generated under low- and high-energy-based techniques,
whereas microemulsions are produced under low-energy
processes [22]. In the following, more details about nanoe-
mulsions are provided.
Generally, O/W nanoemulsions are made of three main
components for edible coatings: dispersion phase (oil),
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
continuous phase (water), and stabilizer/surfactant, such
as Tween 80 (Fig. 2) [23]. The dispersion phase is a
nonpolar phase in which various nonpolar active ingredi-
ents can be loaded. The diameter of the droplets is one of
the vital characteristics of nanoemulsion production. The
size of the generated nanodroplets is smaller than 100 nm,
which results in significant properties, such as robust stabil-
ity, high surface area, tunable rheology, and optically trans-
parent appearance. The emulsifier is used to provide kinetic
stability to the nanodrops and prevent them from joining
together. In stabilized nanoemulsions, the size of the drops
does not change during storage. However, unlike microemul-
sions, nanoemulsions are not thermodynamically stable, and
the droplet size increases over time before phase separation.
However, the small size of the droplets makes them strong
against deposition and cohesion for a long time, thus provid-
ing more stability.
Possession of an insight into the physics of nanoemulsion
formation is crucial to control the droplet size of nanoe-
mulsions. The role of surfactants in the emulsion process
was recently reported by Robledo and his colleagues in
2018 [24]. It is shown that droplet diameter reduction can
be related to a set of physicochemical reactions, such as
surfactant concentration, stabilizing the oil and water inter-
phase, increasing the adsorption of surfactant molecules at
interface, fining droplet formation, and reducing interfacial
stress.
There are numerous studies on O/W nanoemulsions,
while there are just few bibliographies on W/O systems.
Preparing W/O nanoemulsions is not as easy as preparing
O/W nanoemulsions. Regarding the W/O systems, water is
dispersed in a mixture of surfactants and EOs [25]. Span
Fig. 2  Schematic of nanoemulsion systems: oil in water (O/W) and
water in oil (W/O)
861
20, Span 80, Tween 20, and Tween 80 are the most com-
monly used surfactants utilized (with different ratios as a
mixture) for W/O system generation. The concentration of
water needs to be controlled; otherwise, the size of droplets
increases by water content enhancement. The W/O nanoe-
mulsions, as O/W systems, can show high kinetic stability
for weeks [26]. They also show good stability and no phase
sedimentation and separation during storage [25].
It is essential to choose the correct system. This choice
may depend on the type of encapsulated factors (polar or
nonpolar phase). However, the highest liquid volume used
in nanoemulsions preparation belongs to the dispersing
phase, which in the W/O and O/W systems are oil and
water, respectively. Due to the cost reduction approach
in industries, it is more economic to use water as the dis-
persing phase. Therefore, the nanoemulsion system can be
cost-effective.
Advantages
Whether in food or other industries, such as medicine
and pharmacology [27], nanoemulsions revealed their
potentials in ingredient delivery (e.g., drugs, proteins,
vitamins, antibacterials). It provides a targeted and pro-
grammed delivery and decreases the dosage of the ingre-
dients. Nanoemulsions improve the targeting, adsorption,
encapsulation, solubility, bioaccessibility, permeability,
and bioavailability of weakly soluble ingredients. It
may be due to the nanosize and large surface area of the
droplets.
The physical stability of bioactive and macromolecules
can be modified by encapsulation in nanodroplets. Nanoe-
mulsion can also protect the loaded bioactive and ingredients
against hydrolytic and enzymatic degradation [28]. Bioactive
bioavailability can be enhanced by excipient nanoemulsions.
There are many opportunities to manipulate the droplet size,
composition, and interfacial properties for various applica-
tions [29].
Nanoemulsions, due to the biocompatibility and bio-
degradability (being degraded in the environment) of
oils or lipids as the disperse phase, are safe for humans.
Reduction in expenses and costs is one of the main goals
in industries. The sources of disperse phase, including
EOs, are common, accessible, and cheap [30]. In terms
of the shelf life of foods, nanoemulsion can provide pro-
longed protection at the best level [31]. Also, the
mechanical properties of nanoemulsified coating were
more advantageous than those of the sample without
nanoemulsion loading.
The compatibility of the nanoemulsion delivery sys-
tem with food matrix is mandatory and has minimal
impact on the organoleptic properties of the food, such as
taste, appearance, and texture. Encapsulation of bioactive
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compounds can protect it from processing conditions and
prevent its long-term degradation by temperature, light,
pH, and oxidative conditions during storage. The use of
a nanoemulsion-based delivery system for food requires
its economic feasibility in industrial-scale production.
Oh = viscocapillary breakup time scale ∕ Rayleigh breakup time scale = √ d
Nanoemulsion Preparation Techniques
Various techniques are introduced to prepare nanoemul-
sions; each of them has advantages and disadvantages,
which lead to the production of nanoemulsions with differ-
ent properties. Typically, the preparation of nanoemulsions
is a two-step process in which a macroemulsion is prepared
and is converted to a nanoemulsion. In emulsion systems,
properties such as stability, rheology, appearance, color,
and texture depend on the size and distribution of emulsion
droplets. Also, based on Table 1, the properties of nanoe-
mulsions depend on the type of techniques used to prepare
them and the conditions (material and process parameters)
of the emulsification process.
Employing different kinds of energy, such as usual energy
from mechanical equipment or chemical energy from com-
ponents and compounds, is required to form a nanoemul-
sion. Besides, the properties of nanoemulsions depend on
changes in the composition and the method of preparation.
Therefore, the properties of nanoemulsions can be optimized
by optimizing the variables of the compounds, the method
and conditions of preparation. The main and ultimate goals
in optimizing the properties of nanoemulsions are often to
achieve minimum droplet size, minimum polydispersity, and
maximum stability. Smaller nanodroplets result in a more
homogeneous system, and systems with well-distributed and
very small particles give stability [32, 33].
There are two broad categories of techniques: low- and
high-energy methods [34]. Various equipment, such as sim-
ple mixers, high shear mixers, high-pressure homogenizers,
vortex homogenizers [35], microfluidizer [36], ultrasonic
homogenizers [37], and colloidal mill homogenizers [38],
is usually used for the first stage (Fig. 3). The input energy
density (ɛ) in high-energy methods, especially mechanical
agitation, is on the order of ­108–1010 W ­kg−1 [39] while it is
­103–105 W ­kg−1 for low-energy ones [23]. Gupta et al. [40]
recommended the following equation:
We = C.Oh0.4 (1)
We stands for the Weber number that is useful when there is
an interface between two various fluids. In the case of nanoe-
mulsions, We number elucidates the inertial stress effect on
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
droplet behavior. This number also represents the balance
between the inertial and surface forces [41].
√
We = applied stress∕interfacial stress =
𝜌c 𝜇c 𝜀d
(2)
𝜎
𝜇
(3)
𝜌d 𝜎d
C is a constant assumed about 0.01–1. Oh is the Ohnesorge
number, defined as below:
Equation 3 is a promising prediction when high-energy
techniques such as ultra-sonication and high-pressure
homogenization are employed (σ: interfacial tension, µc:
continuous phase viscosity, µd: dispersed phase viscosity,
ρc: continuous phase density, ρd: dispersed phase density,
d: nanoemulsion droplet size). Equation 3 shows that the
diameter of nanodroplets depends on the properties of the
system, including the inlet power.
Another form of We number (Eq. 4) was reported by
Ankur Gupta [40]. This form of We number is useful to
mathematically define the breakup criteria of the nanodro-
plet during homogenization and ultrasonication [42]. Equa-
tion 4 includes explicitly the kinetic and interfacial forces
that, depending on their relative magnitude, will control the
phenomena of breaking-separation of liquid streams into (for
instance) air-born droplets (Fig. 3).
𝜌d u2d d
We = (4)
𝜎
According to Table 1, the type of packaging does not nec-
essarily depend on the nanoemulsion preparation technique.
To prepare coatings and films, both low- and high-energy
techniques can be employed; however, the final features of
nanodroplets, including surface charge, stability, and size,
are of great importance.
There are several review studies discussing nanoemulsion
preparation techniques [23]. The most commonly used low-
energy techniques are phase inversion temperature (PIT),
solvent displacement, and emulsion inversion point (EIP)
[43]. EIP is sometimes called PIC (phase inversion com-
position). High-energy methods, including high-pressure
homogenizer, ultrasonicator, and microfluidizer, are used for
nanoemulsion preparation. The droplet size of the nanoemul-
sion is affected by the working and operating conditions of
the equipment. As the name implies, this method uses high
kinetic energy through mechanical tools to produce nanoe-
mulsions. Based on Eqs. 1–3, the concentration of EO in the
system affects the supplied energy needed to reduce the size
of microdroplets to nanoparticles in the formulation [44].
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
Fig. 3  Two types of nanoe-
mulsion preparation methods.
Breaking macroemulsion into
nanoemulsion is possible via
both methods. High-energy
methods require special equip-
ment
Reduction in nanodroplet size results in more uniformity.
Besides, a high percentage of the nanodroplets is generated
in the same size. Unlike high-energy methods, low-energy
ones start with a W/O macroemulsion that turns into an O/W
nanoemulsion after a change in composition or temperature.
One of the most important drawbacks of the low-energy
emulsion method is the large amount of surfactant required
to form the nanoemulsion [45]. The addition of more sur-
factants may negatively show adverse effects on synergistic
activity of film/coating; hence, its concentration should be
optimized.
The W/O microemulsion is prepared at temperatures
higher than that of the phase inversion (the hydrophilic–lipo-
philic balance of temperature (THLB)) of the mixture. When
the mixture of oil, water, and surfactant cools to room tem-
perature, it passes through an inversion temperature at which
the mixture is converted from a W/O to an O/W emulsion.
Similar to EIP, the interface tension between the oil and
water interface near the point of inversion is very low, and
small droplets with a specific surface area can be produced
with low-energy requirements [46]. In EIP, a W/O micro-
emulsion is prepared at room temperature and then gently
diluted with water. During the dilution process, the system
passes an inversion point at which it changes from the W/O
to O/W emulsion, and the surface tension of the oil–water
interface is very low; therefore, small droplets can be created
without a significant energy penalty [47].
Microfluidization, regarding the preparation of nanoemul-
sions, is similar to high-pressure homogenization (HPH).
863
In the microfluidizer, a well-defined axially varying micro-
channel geometry is engineered in which macroemulsions
are pumped. In the narrow throats located along the length
of the microchannel, the drops break to form smaller drop-
lets due to experiencing high shear rates. To attain a con-
stant final size for the drops, as in HPH, microfluidization
needs multiple passes for the droplet [48]. In his method, it
is hypothesized that much more uniform nanodroplets with
the similar surface charge can be generated [49].
As previously described, first, an O/W microemulsion is
prepared via a high-energy method. This is done by mixing
oil, water, and surfactant for a while; after that, the mac-
roemulsion, under a high-energy method, is turned into a
nanoemulsion. For example, the prepared macroemulsion
can be subjected to a homogenizer. Through the homogeniz-
ers, large droplets break and are converted to the smaller
drops because of passing through a narrow gap. During this
gap, the droplets experience a shear stress [50]. It is recom-
mended that the homogenization process be repeated several
times to achieve a smaller and constant droplet size. The
macroemulsion can also be sonicated. During this technique,
sound waves are employed to create turbulent conditions
by agitation droplets in the solution. The electrical signal
is converted into a physical vibration to break droplets into
smaller droplets. In contrast with homogenization, sonica-
tion revealed more convenient operation and cleaning [51].
The parameters affecting the nanoemulsion were inves-
tigated, which can be classified as composition or prepa-
ration variables. For the low-energy emulsion method, the
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composition variables showed a much higher effect than
the preparation ones, but for the high-energy emulsion, the
effect of the preparation variables was also determined [52].
The variables selected for the low-energy method are the
ratio of oil to surfactant and the ratio between surfactants
(where a surfactant mixture is used). For high-energy meth-
ods, optimal pressure, a ratio of surfactants and several pro-
cess iterations were selected as process variables. One of the
main drawbacks of the low-energy emulsification method is
the high amount of surfactant required to form nanoemul-
sions; however, these systems would be suitable for applica-
tions where the nanoemulsion is highly diluted in the final
product [45].
By keeping the above information in mind, in the food
packaging industry, each technique can be special for a
certain purpose. These techniques differ in aspects, such as
energy consumption, employed equipment, and efficiency.
Another difference between these techniques is the charac-
teristics of the produced nanoemulsions, such as nanodro-
plets diameter, surface charge, and uniform distribution of
nanodroplets. This difference can have a significant impact
on the quality of the produced nanoemulsion-based film/
coating. Using a technique that results in smaller and more
uniform nanodroplets can lead to a more uniform distribu-
tion in the film structure. This uniformity also prevents the
accumulation of nanoparticles and the effectiveness is bal-
anced throughout the coating surface.
Nanodroplet Analysis
Nanoemulsion systems have many advantages over the con-
ventional emulsions due to the small size of the transparent
droplets, and the high optical resolution, remarkable physi-
cal stability against gravitational separation, droplet aggre-
gation, and increased biocompatibility in encapsulated mate-
rials make them suitable for food applications. Depending
on the formulation, the preparation technique should be cho-
sen to optimize the droplet size distribution as this strongly
affects the stability behavior of the nanoemulsion. Systems
with droplets smaller than 200 nm in diameter and uniform
distribution usually have a homogeneous structure. A struc-
ture with such properties remains unchanged for a long time
due to the enhanced stability of the nanoemulsion compared
to conventional emulsions with the same formulation.
Droplet size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PI)
can be measured by photon correlation spectroscopy, also
called dynamic light scattering, using a particle size ana-
lyzer, based on the Brownian motion [53]. PI gives informa-
tion about the heterogeneity of a sample based on size. Size
distribution, agglomeration, and aggregation of the particles
(here mean droplets) in the sample during isolation or analy-
sis can cause polydispersity [54]. The morphology of the
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
nanoemulsion can be determined using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and transmission of electron microscopy
(TEM). Table 1 gives a brief description of the different
nanoemulsion characteristics regarding the above parameter.
Morphology
Morphological characteristics of nanoemulsions can be
observed by microscopic imaging. Results from SEM and
TEM images of nanoemulsion revealed that nanoemulsions
contain globular shape droplets (Fig. 4a). In general, Cryo-
FESEM/SEM depicts a three-dimensional image of nanopar-
ticles [55]. The samples at appropriate accelerating voltage
(mostly 20 kV) are reported at different magnifications. The
images obtained from SEM provide a good analysis of the
spatial dispersion and morphology of the droplets’ surface
and qualitative variation in their size. By imaging analysis
software, it would be easy to analyze the shape and morphol-
ogy of the nanodroplets [56].
To obtain images of the scattered phase with higher
resolution and quality, the use of TEM is recommended
(Fig. 4b). TEM gives information on morphology, chem-
istry, structure, and even the nature of bonds [57]. Simi-
larly, useful information about particle size and distribution
can be obtained using imaging analysis software [58]. In
research done by Chuacharoen et al. [59], the TEM images
of curcumin nanoemulsion droplets revealed spherical
shapes and smooth surfaces with a mean particle size of
approximately 193.93 nm. TEM analysis of thymol nanoe-
mulsion revealed spherical droplets of 80–150 nm with
bright and smooth surface after 50 min sonication [60]. It is
necessary that this morphology stay unchanged whether in
coatings or films. It is also necessary to show good disparity
within the film. In research done by Agudelo, whey protein-
based films incorporated with natamycin and nanoemulsion
of α-tocopherol were prepared. The SEM micrographs of
the surface and cross-section of the films depicted with cir-
cular structures of the droplets with heterogeneous surfaces
in all films [61]. In another study by Niaz Ahmad et al.
[62], thymoquinone-loaded mucoadhesive nanoemulsion
showed a globular shape structure for the nanodrops. In
this research, TEM was employed to confirm the final glob-
ule size of the droplets while SEM was considered for the
spherical globular surface. According to results, spherical
shape nanodroplets with smooth surface were observed. In
research by Wu et al. [63], TEM was used during the study
(1 year) to evaluate the changes in size and dispersion of
the nanodroplets.
More advanced techniques, such as atomic force micros-
copy, X-ray or neutron scattering, or cryo-electron micros-
copy, are typically needed to detect the structure and behav-
ior of nanoemulsions [64].
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
Fig. 4  a Surface morphology
of the prepared thymoquinone
mucoadhesive nanoemulsion
by SEM [62]. b TEM images
of nanoeugenol [195]. c Zeta
potential report of blend of olive
oil and sesame oil. Z.P. equals
−33.3 [72]. d DLS result of
ginger oil in water nanoemul-
sion [196]
Zeta Potential
Emulsions must be formulated to be stable for an optimal
long period. Stabilizers and co-adjuvant molecules revealed
a remarkable impact on the physical features and stability of
nanoemulsions [65]. Molecular interactions cause a potent
effect on the structure and rheological behavior [66].
Zeta potential (ZP) is defined as the potential differ-
ence between the oil phase and the fixed layer of the par-
ticle-bound water and depends on the physicochemical
property. High ZP is known as a critical indicator of the
stability of nanoemulsions and implies highly charged
particles, which prevents aggregation of the particles
due to electric repulsion [67]. If the ZP is reduced, the
865
probability of coagulation of particles in the nanoemul-
sion increases, because in this case, attraction overcomes
repulsion [68]. It has been well researched that emulsions
with ZP values outside the 30-mV voltage range have sig-
nificant stability against correlation and flocculation [69].
As it can be seen in Table 1, nanoemulsion can obtain ZP
less or over ± 30 mV. It can also be adjusted that nanoe-
mulsions are highly stable for months to years. Technique,
temperature, and pH changes can affect this stability. It
was reported that as the ultrasound time increases, the
zeta potential of the nanoemulsion decreases [60], while a
reverse effect was reported about the effect of temperature
on zeta potential, which means by rising temperature the
zeta potential increases.
13
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The electric charge can be created by using one or more
emulsifiers, as well as by absorbing charged materials on
the droplet surfaces [70]. For instance, in a research, adding
alginate to the coating solution changed the zeta potential
as if in the absence of alginate, the nanoemulsions showed
a ZP of +27.47 mV while by adding alginate (as a biopoly-
mer emulsifier) to the system, the ZP started to shift from
positive area to negative area and reached −30 mV [71]. It
was also shown that droplets with ZP of less than −30 mV
or more than +30 mV are normally considered as stable
and avoid aggregation. ZP of −33.3 mV was reported as
the stable nanoemulsion of olive oil in water, as shown in
Fig. 4c [72].
Improvement in zeta potential will help in the stability
of the nanoemulsion during long storage. It also helps to
prevent phase separation and also coagulation. By the way,
when the nanoemulsion is stable, it can be hypothesized that
there is a likelihood of a few changes in droplet size during
storage.
Size Distribution
The mean droplet diameter and PI of nanoemulsion formu-
lations were established using DLS technique (Fig. 4d). To
overcome the multiple dispersion effect, the sample needs
to be diluted (e.g., 100 times) with distilled water prior to
measurement [73]. Equation 5 has been employed to obtain
the volume mean diameter (VMD) or De Brouckere mean
− fier concentration in the emulsion in kg ­m−3, and Cs’ is the
( D) as the average of a particle size distribution, which has
been weighted by the volume [74].
∑ 4
ni d
D = ∑ i3 (5)
ni di
where D is the the volume mean diameter, ni is the number
of particles, and di is the mean particle diameter.
Control of the final droplet size is another important
feature of nanoemulsion preparation through the defined
techniques because the droplet size affects the stability
and functionality of the coating. In general, the smaller the
particle size, the better the kinetic stability, solubility, and
performance (as a carrier) of the nanoemulsion [75]. By con-
trolling the droplet size of nanoemulsions, the appearance
of nanoemulsions can be easily adjusted to vary from clear
to milky white. The technique, residence time, surfactant
concentration, surfactant length, and relative viscosity are
known as the main factors affecting the final size [76]. In the
case of nanoemulsions prepared by low-energy techniques
such as spontaneous emulsion methods or PIT, the droplet
size depends on the nature of the employed oil, surfactant,
and water phases and also the preparation conditions such as
titration, stirring speed, and cooling rate [77, 78].
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
In ultrasonication technique, increasing in sonication time
will result in constant droplet size [79]. A marked decrease
in droplet size was observed in most cases with increasing
sonication duration despite higher energy and an increase
in suspension temperature at higher amplitudes [80, 81]. It
was also reported that the mean size of the droplets produced
by high-speed shear was larger than the microfluidization
technique [49].
In one study, it was shown that ultrasonic time could
affect the rate of adsorption of surfactants to the droplet
surface, which is an important factor in distributing the
size of newly formed droplets [82]. In another study, it was
reported that the amount of surfactant present in the systems
has a major effect on the size of the initial droplets produced,
with smaller droplets forming at higher concentrations of
surfactant [45]. It was also reported that in the other experi-
mental design group, no obvious changes in droplet size
was observed with increasing or decreasing the ultrasonic
power [82].
In research by Kenar [83], the minimum size of the nan-
odroplets that can be produced in the present of a surfactant
can be predicted by the following equation:
6.Γ.𝜙 6.Γ.𝜙
dmin = = � (6)
Cs Cs (1 − 𝜙)
In which Γ is the emulsifier surface load in kg ­m−2, ϕ is
the volume fraction of the disperse phase, Cs is the emulsi-
emulsifier concentration in the continuous phase in kg m ­ −3.
According to Eq. 6, it is inferred that the type and concentra-
tion of the surfactant can affect the diameter of the droplets.
The addition of the surfactant will affect the viscosity of
the whole system which, based on Eqs. 2 and 3, affects the
final droplet size. In a similar study, the effect of emulsion
composition like surfactant concentration and the homogeni-
zation conditions on the size of the nanodroplets generated
by a microfluidizer was examined [84]. Based on the results,
compared to the biopolymers like caseinate, surfactant with
the smaller molecules like Tween 20 results in smaller nan-
odroplets. The reason was attributed to the differences in
interfacial properties and adsorption rates. Equation 5 gives
a prediction of the nanodroplet diameter in nanoemulsions,
but comparing Eqs. 5 and 6 is based on more systematic
information.
Besides, the results indicate that the average amount of
surfactant may be physically stable for the preparation of
antimicrobial nanoemulsions. In spite of the above state-
ments, there is a likelihood that the size of the nanodroplets
gradually increases during the storage time. This increase
is mainly attributed to the Ostwald ripening phenomenon
[85], in which small droplets of oil disperse through the
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
continuous phase and form onto larger droplets of oil to
form larger sizes [86]. As the molecule of the dispersed
phase diffuses into the continuous phase, the solubility of
the dispersed phase in the continuous phase affects the Ost-
wald ripening rate critically. In this regard, Eq. 7 introduces
LSW theory, which was recommended
−
to measure the aver-
age radius of the particles ( R) [87, 88]. LSW stands for Lif-
shitz, Slyozov, and Wagner as the name of the scientists.
8𝛾C∞ 𝜐2 D
R3 = R30 + t (7)
9Rg T
In which R0 is the initial average radius, C∞ is the dispersed
phase solubility in the continuous phase, γ is the particle
surface tension or surface energy, υ is the dispersed phase
molar volume, D is the dispersed phase diffusivity in the
continuous phase, Rg is the ideal gas constant, T is the tem-
perature of the system, and t is time of the process.
In this theory, five assumptions have been considered as
follows [87]:
i. When the particles of the dispersed phase accumulate,
the final shape is spherical with radius R.
ii. Both the matrix and particles are fluids.
iii. The particles do not move and are fixed in space.
iv. Compared to the particle radius, the distance between
the particles is infinitely large, meaning that there is
no interaction between the particles, and the system is
infinitely dilute, which means that the volume fraction
(Q) of the scattered phase is infinitesimally small.
v. Soluble atoms penetrate the spherical particles under
stable conditions.
pH changes also affect the stability and size distribu-
tion of nanoemulsions which cause changes in the surface
potential of the droplets and stimulate them to coagulate
[71]. To sum up, droplet size plays an important role in
nanoemulsions, which needs to be monitored during prepa-
ration. Considering the effect of time and temperature on
ZP, as mentioned previously, Eq. 7 can predict the changes
of ZP by monitoring the diameter of the particles. The rea-
son is related to the surface area because the surface charge
depends on the total surface area available (size dependent).
Influence of Nanoemulsion‑Based Film/
Coating on Food Features
Preparation nanoemulsion-based coatings/film has been
of interest to scientists in food packaging. Nanoemulsion
showed excellent potential in incorporating bioactive com-
pounds into foods [89]. Making a multifunctional film/
867
coating which can keep foods in high quality and inhibit
bacterial and fungal growth has been of interest to scientists.
Nanoemulsions could provide numerous advantages such as
environmental stress protection, release control, solubility
improvement, and natural antimicrobial absorption in food
packaging [90]. Keeping this information in mind, nanoe-
mulsions revealed their influence on the following items.
Appearance
The appearance of food is the first item that customers
notice. Appearance includes freshness, transparency, color,
and absence of defects [91]. It is important that the food
looks fresh and without any signs of spoilage [92]. Products
are prone to several adverse effects such as oxidation and
enzymatic browning reactions during their shelf life, which
may prevent them from retaining their original appearance
and end up in undesired color changes. Microbial, mechani-
cal damage and pests may leave undesired effects on food
surface (like the skin of fruits) and cause blemishes.
One of the most important appearance changes of EO
and other bioactive components of nanosystems is the color
change, and particularly browning development. Color
changes of foods as browning index (BI), like fruits and
vegetables, are studied using a spectrophotometer by defin-
ing L*, a*, b* parameters. L* represents the lightness coef-
ficient. It ranges from 0 to 100 which indicates from black
to white. Parameters of a* and b* are defined as the color
ranges from green to red and blue to yellow, respectively,
which indicates from negative to positive on the vertical
and horizontal axes, respectively. Hence, the BI can be cal-
culated by Eq. 8 [93].
[100(x − 0.31)]
BI = (8)
0.17
In which
(a∗ + 1.75L∗ )
x=
(5.647L∗ + a∗ − 3.012b∗ )
Equation 8 gives an index of the browning phenomena. In
another study, color changes of samples (chicken breast fillet)
were assessed by Hunter Lab colorimeter [94]. As well as the
Eq. 8, color values are put in the Eq. 9 to obtain ∆E which is
defined as “total color difference (TCD)”. Equation 9 gives
a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the appearance
of samples between time zero and during storage.
)2 0.5
(9)
)2 ( )2 (
ΔE = ( L∗ − Ls∗ + a∗ − a∗s + b∗ − b∗s )
(
where Ls*, as*, and bs* are color values of the standard
(fresh) samples.
13
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It is discussable that when a nanoemulsion-based coat-
ing is applied to the samples, what changes will happen to
∆E value right after the coating process. The milky color of
the coatings may alter ∆E; therefore, it is recommended to
produce nanoemulsions with high transparency. As can be
seen in Fig. 5a, ∆E is directly related to time passing. In a
research, it was reported that addition of thymol nanoemul-
sions caused significant reduction in a* and L* values and
enhance b* values of the gelatin films but no color changes.
The same behavior was also reported for lecithin, but in this
case, the color changes of the film was observed which was
attributed the original color of the lecithin [95]. In another
research, addition of nanoemulsion of α-tocopherol and
natamycin led to an increase in a*, b*, L*, and opacity
values of the prepared films. According to the ∆E, it was
concluded that nanoemulsions had no significant impact on
the L*, a*, and b* values of the produced films [61]. Same
(Initial weight of food sample(g) − weight of food sample on nth day(g))
PLW% =
Initial weight of food sample(g)
Fig. 5  a ∆E changes of chicken breasts coated with sodium casein-
ate (SC)-based coatings containing ginger essential oil (GEO) (3
and 6%) emulsion (E) and nanoemulsion (NE) during a storage time
of 1, 4, 8, and 12 days at 4 °C [94]. b WVTR of cellulose acetate
(CA) films with sweet fennel essential oil (FEO) films (CAFEO) and
CAFEO films incorporating with 5, 10, 20, and 30% glycerol [105]. c
pH changes of the different chicken fillet under nanoemulsion-based
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
results were reported by Ghadetaj et al. [96]. Generally, it
was reported that addition of nanoemulsions increase ∆E,
but the effect of nanoemulsion-based coating on color prop-
erties (∆E) of foods depends on the EO concentration and
the type of nanoemulsion [94].
Moisture Loss and Water Adsorption
Loss of moisture due to uncoordinated shrinkage may lead
to changes in food structure as well as reduced product trans-
parency. Fruits and vegetables lose weight and change in
appearance quality due to the migration of water from the
fruit to the environment during storage. The lost weight is
measurable according to the proposed equation by Navab
et al. [97]. In their research, the lost weight was indicated by
the term “physiological loss in weight (PLW)” and defined
as follows.
(10)
treatments as affected by coating type during storage at 4 °C. CCN
curcumin-cinnamon EO nanoemulsion, CGN curcumin-garlic EO
nanoemulsion, CSN curcumin-sunflower oil nanoemulsion [122]. d
DPPH scavenging activities of pure menthone EO, starch nanoparti-
cles (SNPs), and menthone-loaded SNPs (SNP-M). SNP-M-2, SNP-
M-4, SNP-M-6, SNP-M-8, SNP-M-10 (SNP-M-2 means the concen-
tration of menthone equals 2 µl/ml) [130]
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
Further studies reported the validity of this equation [98].
Thereby, it is important to make a coating/film to act as a
barrier to reduce water loss, respiration, ethylene, and conse-
quently keep the integrity, texture, and firmness of food [98].
Rudra and his colleagues made a nanoemulsion-based coat-
ing (basil oil) to increase okra shelf life [80]. It was reported
that coatings were able to slow down the process of moisture
loss, discoloration and reduced strength during storage. It
was also reported that samples with nanoemulsion-based
coating showed low PLW compared to uncoated samples. In
a research, avocado fruits were coated with a nanoemulsion-
based coating. The use of this nanoemulsion as a coating
showed an effective alternative to increase the postharvest
storage period of this fruit [99].
There is another parameter named moisture adsorption
(MA) which is an index to measure the adsorbed moisture
in films from foods. MA gives information about the evapo-
rated water from the food texture which is diffused within
the film structure. PLW and MA both provide a similar trend
in a weight loss of the sample. Higher MA shows water con-
tent reduction in the packaged food and PLW enhancement.
The nature of the film is a significant parameter because it
might be hydrophobic or hydrophilic. For instance, gelatin or
alginate-based films tend to adsorb water while PCL-based
films show hydrophobic behavior. The addition of nanoe-
mulsion showed shifting hydrophilic towards hydrophobic
behavior. For example, in a research, it was revealed that the
film without nanoemulsion due to the hydrophilic nature of
gelatin had the highest MA compared with nanoemulsion-
based films [100]. MA can be measured by the following
equation:
(dried weight of film(g) − weight of film on nth day (g))
MA% =
Initial weight of film(g)
(11)
Agudelo-Cuartas et al. [61] reported that the addi-
tion of nanoemulsion (natamycin and nanoemulsion of
α-tocopherol) prevents MA enhancement in whey protein-
based films. These results were in agreement with the study
reported by Cordoba about gelatin-chitosan-based films
loaded with thymol nanoemulsions [101]. In another study,
it was concluded that the addition of nanoemulsions prevent
enhancement in MA of the films [102]. It is vital that the
produced films have low MA because an increase in MA
means affecting the barrier and mechanical properties of
films negatively. Addition of nanoemulsions may block
or decrease the ways that water molecules may penetrate
through them. Besides their hydrophobicity feature case a
more hydrophobic environment in the film compared with
the controlled group (without nanoemulsion) [33].
Nanoemulsion-based coating/film showed their poten-
tial in fighting against bacteria and microorganisms [103].
They are systems with high water content. “Water vapor
869
transmission rate” (WVTR, g m ­ −2 ­day−1) is another index
that gives information about the controlled humidity, the
permeability of the films, and sample weight loss [104].
WVTR = G∕t × A (12)
In which WVTR is the water vapor transmission rate (g ­m−2
­day−1), G/t is the angular coefficient of the line (g d­ ay−1),
and A is the permeation area of the sample ­(m2).
Based on Eq. 12, it is necessary to lower the G/t term to
obtain minimum WVTR. In this regard, it is vital to con-
trol the composition of the final film. Figure 5 b depicts
the effect of glycerol addition to the cellulose acetate films
incorporated with sweet fennel essential oil (CAFEO) on
WVTR [105]. As can be seen, the addition of glycerol and
enhancing its content caused an increase in WVTR. This
means that a higher amount of water content of the samples
is diffused into the layer and exits the texture of the sam-
ples. The authors reported that the concentration and type
of plasticizer can alter the barrier properties of polymeric
films. MA and WVTR show the same trend about the dif-
fused water into the film texture. The obtained results from
the research done by Velickova showed that the addition of
nanoemulsion in the composite of chitosan coating reduced
WVTR [106]. The authors of this study also reported that
when the nanoemulsion-based chitosan film was cross-
linked with tripolyphosphate, both the WVTR and the MA
decreased noticeably [107]. Keeping these results in mind,
on the other hand, the concentration of the nanoemulsion
plays a vital role in WVTR. In research by Chen et al. [108],
it was depicted that the addition of nanoemulsion resulted in
porosity in the chitosan film texture which at high cinnamal-
dehyde EO levels, due to an increase in the number and size
of the holes, WVTR experienced higher values. In another
study, it was reported that incorporation of hydrophobic
components such as EO leads to the WVTR reduction which
the reason is attributed to the increased hydrophobicity of
biopolymeric films[109]. Nanoemulsions prevent the water
molecule transformation inside the film matrix, so a homo-
geneous distribution of nanoemulsion would give a lower
WVTR to the film.
Oxygen Barrier
Similar to WVTR, oxygen barrier (OB) is known as another
factor that needs to be measured for films [110]. It is also
called “oxygen permeability” in some literatures. The main
basis of OB is the oxygen movement through the film and
reaches the food. Many products are negatively sensitive
to oxygen and that is why they are packaged via a vacuum
packaging system. Oxygen revealed its impact on food
colors as well as several flavor ingredients of food [111].
Oils and fats are known as two of the most sensitive products
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to exposure to oxygen. Oxygen in contact with FFA causes
chemical changes which result in flavor alterations [112].
In this case, the thickness of the film prepares a significant
role in the OB level. On the other hand, fresh fruits and veg-
etables, due to their respiratory metabolism, need oxygen to
avoid rapid aging and senescence of the matrix. Hence, low
OB is not always suitable for food storage [113].
As previously mentioned, the addition of nanoemulsion
increases the film thickness. Hence, although it was reported
that in cases that thickness changes were not significant, it is
important to optimize nanoemulsion content within the film
to optimize WVTR, OB, MA, etc. OB is measured using
a gas chromatographic system (GCS). OB is measured by
injecting samples with a syringe (suitable for gas sampling)
into a GCS equipped with two columns and a thermal con-
ductivity detector. This method is based on the measure-
ment of oxygen diffused into the film. There are other studies
focusing on OB measurement [114]. It was reported that
the addition of lemongrass oil nanoemulsion delayed grape
aging and increased preservation. Based on the results, oxy-
gen, as one of the main reasons of aging, has been controlled
by employing nanoemulsion to prevent oxidation of phenolic
compounds [110]. It was reported that the addition of plasti-
cizer affects OB while the addition of nanoemulsion resulted
in lower OB [115]. In another research, carboxymethyl cel-
lulose-based films containing nanoemulsion depicted their
potential in OB improvement [116]. To sum up, embedding
nanoemulsions block the pathways within the film matrix by
which oxygen can diffuse in to the film and react with the
food components [117].
Mechanical Properties
Products may experience intense stress and pressure dur-
ing the transfer process or storage. Hence, there is a likeli-
hood of damaging the film/coating layer and consequently
influence the toughness, crispness, firmness, and juiciness
as the product quality indicators. In general, poor mechani-
cal properties are caused by moisture loss, microbial dam-
age, and oxidation. Controlling the mentioned parameters
above will improve and promote the mechanical properties.
The use of smart and multifunctional coatings can reduce
the occurrence of these damages and thus preserve the tex-
ture of food [118]. There are many studies reporting the
same claim. Elongation at break (EAB) and tensile strength
(TS) are two parameters that mainly describe the mechani-
cal behavior of films [119]. For instance, the addition of
cinnamaldehyde nanoemulsion (CMN) increased EAB and
reduces TS. In the gelatin-based film. The reason for EAB
enhancement might be because of the incorporation of CMN
that interacts with the gelatin polymer chain and create flex-
ible regions within the matrix [120]. The quality of the used
nanoemulsion including the surface charge, the diameter of
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
the nanodroplets, and uniform dispersing within the matrix
may affect TS and EAB. For example, it was studied that
the undesired results about the TS might be attributed to
the inhomogeneous dispersion and coalescence of cinnamon
essential oil droplets in the pullulan matrix which can be due
to the larger oil droplet size [121]. It was also reported that
(cinnamon, or garlic, or sunflower oil)-loaded nanoemul-
sion improved the texture, quality, and nutritional profile of
chicken fillets [122]. Also, nanoemulsions made the films
less resistant to break, much softer, and less stretchable com-
pared to the nanoemulsion-free films [117].
pH
pH changes have been another factor leaving an unfavorable
taste in foods by affecting pigments such as carotenoids,
chlorophyll, anthocyanins, and also reduce the shelf life. pH
is an important quality indicator of fresh meat. pH changes
also result in the color of fruits, vegetables, and meat [123].
It is a must to control pH variation during storage. As can
be seen in Fig. 5c, the pH of foods (control group) tend to
increase gradually which the reason might be attributed to
the water content loss, spoilage, and bacterial growth (alka-
line volatile bases (e.g., ammonia and trimethylamine) are
produced by bacteria or endogenous enzymes). Nanoemul-
sion-based coating approved its potential in pH regulation.
The curcumin-loaded nanoemulsion-based coating showed
its potential in manipulating the pH in chicken fillets [122].
It was also reported that the addition of oregano oil nanoe-
mulsions to chicken pate did not adversely influence the
pH level or chemical composition [124] which shows the
neutral effect of EOs on pH. Based on changes in WVTR
(Eq. 12), pH changes can also be predictable. Thereby, pre-
paring a nanoemulsion with an appropriate pH is mandatory
in film preparation. The acidic or alkali condition alters the
polymeric behavior including degradability and mechani-
cal properties. Nanoemulsions’ stability can be considered
as a sign of being a reliable nanoemulsion for integration
with polymers because pH changes depict the possibility of
chemical reactions that can damage the films [125].
Oxidation
There are foods enriched with a high amount of polyunsatu-
rated lipids like fish containing omega-3 fatty acids which
are capable of oxidation and ending up in undesired color
and flavor and finally food spoilage, before consumption
[126]. A standard and potent coating/film has the ability
to prevent oxidation reaction until consumption. Due to
the limited ability of the current packaging systems, sci-
entists tried to introduce more powerful packaging systems
like nanoemulsion-based coatings to the food industry.
Nanoemulsion showed strong potential in encapsulation
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
and delivery of the antioxidant agents [127], although they
inherently own antioxidant properties [128, 129]. Qiu et al.
studied the 2,20-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical
scavenging activity (RSA) of EO (menthone)-loaded SNPs
as an antioxidant property validation [130]. According to
Fig. 5d, RSA can be considered as a function of time. The
DPPH RSA of pure menthone (without encapsulation and
in any tested concentrations) and SNP-M enhanced rapidly
during the first 2 h. The encapsulation of menthone caused
an extension in the scavenging time of SNP-M. By the way,
it was concluded that EO whether in the form of NPs, incor-
porated with biomaterial or pure administration, lowers the
oxidation process. They can act as oxygen scavengers by
consuming oxygen under the oxidation process. This type
of packaging is useful for the foods with high contents of
fat and oxidation-sensitive products because decreasing lipid
oxidation increase the shelf life [131].
Nanoemulsions in Food Packaging
Improvement
In recent years, numerous studies have been conducted
on the use of edible or biodegradable coatings to increase
the shelf life of sensitive products with shorter shelf life.
Food-grade coatings are placed on the surface of fruits and
vegetables as a protective layer and act like modified atmos-
pheric packages [103]. Different usage of nanoemulsions
in food packaging was assessed too. These methods can be
addressed as follows (nicely reviewed by Donsì and Ferrari
[85]): (i) mixing EO nanoemulsions with liquid products,
(ii) washing the food surface with EO nanoemulsions, (iii)
infusion of EO nanoemulsions into porous food matrices,
(iv) coating with of EO nanoemulsions onto food surfaces.
In particular, both mixing and direct coating leads to a
long-lasting antimicrobial action of EO nanoemulsions by
increasing the shelf life of the product. However, embed-
ding the nanoemulsion in a coating biopolymer matrix, in
comparison with the direct mixing, seems to be the most
promising method, due to the immobility of the EOs at the
boundaries where microorganisms can start spoiling food.
Preharvest fruit spraying of pesticides is the most com-
mon method of controlling postharvest diseases. The use of
these chemical toxins causes harm such as acute or chronic
poisoning to nontarget organisms, including humans, which
are associated with the cumulative property of living organ-
isms or carcinogenicity [132]. On the other hand, increasing
the resistance to fungicides and pesticides used in the popu-
lation of postharvest pathogens is also a serious problem
[133].
Today, due to the special attention to human health and
the environment, the motivation to find alternative methods
of toxins has increased much more. Therefore, strengthening
871
natural methods and using herbal products that have antifun-
gal properties is also very important. Therefore, covering
fruits with antimicrobial compounds is an effective way to
prevent the spoilage of fruits and increase their shelf life
[134]. It is hypothesized that the EOs first interact with the
cell wall and membrane. Thereby, it destroys membranes
and cell walls and results in the removal of vital intracel-
lular materials, which finally cause bacterial death [135]. It
was also proposed that the efficacy of the nanoemulsion in
biofilm inhibition could be due to the prevention of initial
surface attachment of bacteria [17].
Production of Nanoemulsion‑Based Films
Incorporation of nanoemulsions (liquid phase) with the
polymeric films (solid phase) is an important step in nanoe-
mulsion-based food packaging preparation. It is important
to fabricate a film with uniform scattering of nanoemulsions
within its matrix while the real characteristics of the nanoe-
mulsions are kept. To the knowledge of the authors, based
on Table 1, solvent casting (SC), extrusion (EX) and electro-
spinning (ESP), film spreading (FS), and melt mixing (MM)
are the most common techniques for manufacturing films.
Among these techniques, SC has been employed extensively
in the literature for the integration of nanoemulsions in poly-
meric films [95, 120, 121, 136], ESP and FS used fairly from
2016 [137], while EX and MM due to the high temperature
of operation, lack of applicability to a some of the materials,
the difficulty of control have not been suitable because the
heating process is not appropriate with the liquid phase and
also high temperature causes evaporation and denaturation
of the active ingredients.
SC is mostly employed for the preparation of any kinds of
films including for food packaging purposes, containing var-
ious types of nanomaterials such as nanoparticles and nanoe-
mulsions. This technique is extensively utilized because of
shorter preparation time, low costs, and importantly easy to
carry out and alter conditions. In this technique, the polymer
is first completely dissolved in a solvent and then the nanoe-
mulsion solution is added under vigorous agitation to ensure
uniform distribution. The chosen solvent is a critical point as
it can affect the polymer structure and also the barrier prop-
erties [138]. In research done by Valerio Bifani et al. [116]
to prepare a carboxymethylcellulose-based film containing
murta extract, SC technique has been employed. To reach
the film, the solution is left to dry at room temperature or
higher temperature [115]. In another study, nanoemulsion
of α-tocopherol was embedded in whey protein-based film
via SC [61]. In another research, sweet fennel EO has been
incorporated with cellulose acetate film for antibacterial pur-
poses in food packaging using SC technique [105].
ESP and FS are two techniques that have been of inter-
est to scientists, specifically ESP. FS is a simple method,
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which based on it, the films are produced by spreading the
polymeric/nanoemulsion solution over an acrylic plate in
an optional size using an automatic film spreader [102]. In
this technique, the spreading knife moves over a plate to
spread the solution polymers uniformly. By adjusting the
gap between the knife and the plate, the thickness of the
film can be adjusted. The final prepared film is left at room
temperature or higher to get dried.
ESP is a technique to produce nanofibers by using electric
force to draw charged threads of polymer solutions. ESP is
a method that produces fibers with a diameter of less than
100 to 1000 nm [139]. This technique is known as a kind of
encapsulation process [140]. The incorporation of EOs into
nanofiber via ESP has been revealed [137], but generally,
there are few reports about the integration of EOs in elec-
trospun nanofibers for food packaging purposes. In research
done by Tatlisu et al. [141], ESP was employed for prepar-
ing nanofiber-based films containing thymol nanoemulsion
for coating cheese surface. In this study, a single solvent
system containing the polymer and the EOs was prepared.
It is important that the prepared solution for ESP possess
a uniform and homogenized condition. In another study,
polylactide nanofibers incorporated with Allium ursinum L.
EOs were synthesized as a new film for food packaging. In
this technique, the type of polymer is so important because
the appropriate surface tension of the polymers affects the
quality of the electrospun nanofibers [142]. Polyvinyl alco-
hol, polycarbonate, chitosan, and polyethylene oxide have
been widely employed for EO encapsulation through ESP
due to their supreme attributes in generating nanofibers and
membranes [143]. Low or high surface tension results in
undesired nanofibers. In the mentioned reviews above, the
authors have employed EO nanoemulsion for antibacterial
purposes.
Comparing both techniques, it can be concluded that SC
process is much more easy and simple than ESP. It does not
need any special equipment and sensitive operation tech-
niques, whereas in case of ESP, the solution and operating
conditions including flow rate, distance, and voltage can
alter the quality of the final films. On the other hand, films
prepared via ESP lead to incorporation of more amounts
EOs in the film than SC and noticeably enhances antimicro-
bial action compared to SC [144]. Furthermore, ESP creates
films with higher surface area than SC techniques and this
reason promotes the responsibility of the loaded EOs such
as antibacterial, scavenging, and barrier property improve-
ment [145].
Disperse Phase Effect
The presence of natural compounds in EOs produced by the
organs of plants is known as the main reason for preventing
the growth of a wide range of pathogens [146]. EOs revealed
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
their application in food preservatives and also in the food
packaging industry. Based on the chemical compositions
(such as thymol and carvacrol), EOs have antioxidant poten-
tial [147], antibacterial and antifungal ability [148, 149].
As well as EOs, oil sources such as olive oil and sesame oil
showed their potential in different aspects of the medicine
and food industry [150].
There are numerous sources which are used in nanoemul-
sion preparation including monoacylglycerols, diacylglycer-
ols (DAG), triacylglycerols, free fatty acids (FFAs), flavor
oils, mineral oils, EOs, fat substitutes, oil-soluble vitamins
like ­D3, waxes, and various lipophilic nutraceuticals like
curcumin, carotenoids, and phytosterols [151].
Due to the unique properties of nanoemulsions, the
structure of nanoemulsions is one of the most promising
structures to improve the solubility and increase the bio-
logical and functional value of hydrophobic compounds.
For this reason, food industry professionals in recent years
have sought to use these structures to integrate hydrophobic
(lipophilic) beneficial compounds into food networks [152].
Many studies were published regarding the employment
of various food-grade oils in nanoemulsion production due
to their potential benefits to human health including antimi-
crobial and antioxidant properties and also their organoleptic
properties (Table 2) [154]. Most EOs showed antimicrobial
activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bac-
teria which one reason is contributed to their phenolic com-
pounds [153]. Anyway, phenolic compounds are not found
in several EOs while depicted strong antimicrobial activ-
ity. For instance, Ozogul et al. [155] employed thyme EOs
for nanoemulsion preparation. Thyme oil depicted strong
antibacterial activity against bacteria of fish and food-borne
pathogens. In another research, nanoemulsion containing
thyme oil stabilized with Tween 80 depicted antimicro-
bial activity against strains of acid-resistant spoilage yeasts
[156].
In another study, nanoemulsion of ginger essential oil
(GEO) was produced by microfluidization and was employed
in film production as a coating. It was shown that GEO
strongly improved film microstructure, characteristics, and
antioxidant activity [102].
Hydrogels, like chitosan, alginate, collagen, and gela-
tin, are three-dimensional, hydrophilic polymer networks
composed of polymer chains joined together (by physical
or chemical bonding). In the food industry, hydrogels have
shown great potential in food packaging systems or as car-
riers of bioactive components. Hydrogels can provide a
structure that allows them to be used as part of a packaging
system. Incorporation of nanoparticles into hydrogels may
result in more programmable and controlled release of anti-
microbial agents during storage (well-discussed in detail by
Batista et al. [157]).
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
In a research, GEO combined with cinnamon essential oil
showed reinforced antimicrobial effects. Chitosan films con-
taining a blend of both EOs with a ratio of 1:1 were prepared
to keep pork from bacteria and oxidation during storage over
9 days (4 °C). It was reported that 1% of EO chitosan film
showed strong antimicrobial and antioxidant properties and
also prevented pH enhancement [158]. In another study, a
blend of three different EOs (clove/ginger/turmeric) incorpo-
rated in chitosan film was employed in fruits and vegetable
packaging to prevent spoilage and increase their shelf life.
According to the analysis, the prepared film not only was
completely safe to be used as a food packaging material but
also prevented spoilage of food materials.
The chemical stability of sunflower seeds was improved
by employing thyme and basil oil in the form of nanoemul-
sion coating. It was reported that these oils could control
lipid oxidation and rancidity flavors [159]. Also, copaiba oil
nanoemulsion revealed great potential for active food pack-
aging [30]. Eugenol obtained from Artemisia dracunculus
could show inhibitory behavior against E. coli bacteria. It
also showed strong antioxidant activity [158]. Trans-sabi-
nyl acetate obtained from Artemisia absinthium revealed
antibacterial activity against human pathogens including
S. aureus, E. coli, and Staphylococcus epidermidis [158].
Clove essential oil has a wide range of medicinal and bio-
logical properties. Jian-Guo Xu et al. [135] has studied the
antibacterial properties of clove essential oil (CEO). Euge-
nol was reported as the major component (76.23%) in CEO.
CEO with a MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) of
0.625 mg/mL revealed potent antibacterial activity toward
Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. It was also reported
that action time and concentration of the EOs are the main
factors that affected the antimicrobial efficiency. Lavender
flower EOs (L. angustifolia) isolated by the ultrasonic-
microwave process revealed high biological effects. It was
recommended that this EO can be employed as an anti-
microbial agent [160]. The sensitivity of essential oils to
environmental factors and the low solubility in water has
limited their applications in industry. Encapsulation of EO in
polymeric nanoparticles such as chitosan (e.g., by emulsion-
ionic gelation) could overcome this problem. In a research
done by Esmaeili et al. [161], Carum copticum essential
oil (CCEO) encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles to not
only protect the EO from the environment but also provide a
controlled release during the process. Obtained results from
disk diffusion tests depicted the higher biological feature of
the chitosan-encapsulated CCEO than free CCEO. Chitosan-
based nanoemulsions revealed transparency, thermodynamic
stability, permeability, good dispersion, and mechanical
strength. More details on chitosan-based coatings were
reported in a well-written paper by Chaudhary et al. [162].
In a study, antifungal efficacy of fourteen EO compo-
nents including thymol, eugenol, menthol, geranyl acetate,
873
linalool, beta-asarone, 1,8-cineol, E-citral, beta-caryophyl-
lene, alpha-pinene, carvone, P-cymene, carvacrol, ocimene,
and their combination like thymol + eugenol, thymol +
menthol, eugenol + menthol, thymol + eugenol + menthol,
menthol + geranyl acetate were assessed. Thymol, eugenol,
menthol, and their combinations showed higher efficiency
as their MIC for fungal growth inhibition was less than
1.0 μl ­ml−1. Eugenol, thymol, and β-caryophyllene revealed
strong radical scavenging activity during antioxidant assess-
ment [163].
EOs also showed their potential against aflatoxin con-
tamination, fungal infestations, and mycotoxins in foods.
Manso et al. [164] studied the effect of cinnamon EO (CiEO)
in food packaging against aflatoxin B1 production. In this
research, CiEO was evaluated in two cases: (i) cinnamon on
a paper diffusion disc placed in vapor phase which resulted
in reduction on mycotoxin for 15 days, and (ii) incorporated
with an active PP (polypropylene) film that highlighted the
importance of CiEO concentration (optimum 2%) on the
antimycotoxigenic activity. It was concluded that probably
volatile compounds from CiEO cause damages by affecting
the enzymatic mold activity by inhibition of the keratinase
and elastase activity in Trichophyton rubrum and Aspergil-
lus fumigatus, which are two extracellular enzymes associ-
ated with their virulence factor [164, 165]. To sum up, oils/
EOs approved their inhibitory potential against bacteria and
oxidation processes and food deteriorating and they can be
successfully employed in the food packaging industry.
Nanoemulsions in Food Packaging
Microbial contamination from packaging till consumption
has been recognized as causing loss of food quality and
quantity, nutrients, and market value [166]. In the case of
food packaging, various kinds of factors including anti-
bacterial agents can be encapsulated in oily nanodroplets.
Examples of these substances are antimicrobials, antioxi-
dants, anti-browning agents, texture enhancers, flavoring
agents, or nutraceuticals. These EOs can be added in the
form of nanoemulsion directly to the food, contained in a
separate container, or incorporated into the packaging mate-
rial. In this regard, active packaging which directly interacts
with good food can maintain the quality of food and extend
its shelf life. The action mechanism of active packaging
involves the absorption or release of compounds, including
antimicrobials, responsible for inhibiting or reducing micro-
organisms in food [167].
Along with the polymeric materials, EOs showed a potent
role in food packaging in combination with the polymeric
coatings. EOs, due to their unique properties, are able to be
employed as ingredients of active food packaging for differ-
ent purposes [168, 169].
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874
In research done by Rehman et al. [20], much active food
packaging as coatings or films were made via incorpora-
tion of EO-encapsulated biopolymeric nanocarriers. For
instance, it was shown that a prepared chitosan coating
containing Satureja Khuzestanica (SKEO)-loaded nanoli-
posomes revealed its antioxidant and antimicrobial influ-
ences when applied on lamb meat. Releasing antimicrobial
agents on the surface of samples could result in retention
of the high-quality characteristics, microbiological safety
improvement, and shelf life extension during a 20-day period
of chilled storage [170] (Fig. 6a). In another research done
by Noh and Mustafa [171], chitosan nanoparticles were
loaded with lemongrass oil and used for coating bell pep-
per. This system resulted in improved fruit quality improve-
ment, as determined by weight loss (no significant impact
on water vapor permeability), firmness (highest firmness),
color (slower changes in color), soluble solids concentration
(faster ripening), and titratable acidity (decline) (Fig. 6b).
Similarly, it was approved that coating rucola leaves with
nanoencapsulated lemon essential oil and modified chitosan
Fig. 6  a Microbial analysis of meat samples during 20-day storage
at 4 ℃ (d, control: uncoated; c, coated with solely chitosan solution;
b, coated with chitosan; a, coated with chitosan solution containing
SKEO-loaded nanoliposomes) [170]. b The effects of new coating
made of chitosan and EO combinations on weight loss of bell peppers
after 21 days of storage at room temperature [171]. c Appearance of
13
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
expanded the shelf life from 3 to 7 days. This coating treat-
ment did not significantly change the organoleptic properties
of the samples [172].
Oregano or clove essential oils (as nanoemulsion) along
with whey protein isolate employed for coating chicken
breast to extend the shelf life while maintaining the qual-
ity. Therefore, coatings with 20 g ­kg−1 oregano EO content
showed the most significant efficacy compared with other
groups under assessment. It could increase the shelf life
from 6 to 13 days at 4 ℃ while keeping suitable appear-
ance quality (Fig. 6c) [173]. In another research, the effec-
tiveness of whey protein isolate coatings loaded with vari-
ous antimicrobial agents was analyzed for fresh beef at 4
℃ storage. Oregano EOs, sodium lactate, and ɛ-polylysine
were employed as antimicrobial agents, and then the effi-
cacy of the coatings against the total viable microorganism
development, Pseudomonas spp., and lactic acid bacteria
were assessed. Coatings with 1.5% of oregano EO or 0.75%
of ɛ-polylysine revealed the most significant reduction in
the coated chicken with clove and whey protein nanoemulsion with
all the different formulations (C-Cl1, C-Cl2, C-O1, C-O2, and C-C)
as compared to the uncoated ones [173]. d TG curve of nanoemul-
sion-based films containing 0% CEO (a), 5%CEO (b), 10%CEO (c),
15%CEO (d), 10%CLO (e), and 5%CEO + 5%CLO (f) [178]
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883 875

Table 2  A short list of employed EO with their protective effect in food industry
EOs Effect Source Ref

Camphor Antibacterial Achillea clavennae [197]

Viridiflorol, terpinen-4-ol Antibacterial Achillea ligustica [198]
Oregano Antioxidant and Antibacterial Oregano [199]
Carvacrol Antibacterial - [200]
quercetin antioxidant and indicator for packaging materials Quercetin [201]
thyme oil antimicrobial - [156]
thyme oil antibacterial - [155]
sweet fennel antimicrobial - [105]
Gallic acid Antioxidant and antimicrobial Gallnuts [202]
Myrcia ovata essential oils Antimicrobial Myrcia ovata [203]
Lemongrass oil Antifungal Lemongrass (leaves, peel) [171]
Oregano essential oil Antimicrobial and antioxidant oregano [204]
Rose essential oil Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anticancer Rose [205]
Black cumin essential oil Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiplatelet, antioxidant, Seeds [206]
Peppermint essential oil Antioxidant, anticancer Leaves [207]
Garlic essential oil Antioxidant, antibacterial Garlic bulbs [208]

microbial specific growth rate, and lactic acid bacteria devel-
opment was completely prevented [174].
EOs can show distinct performance as an additive in coat-
ings due to their compounds. For example, EO (cinnamon,
oregano, and winter savory)-loaded alginate films were stud-
ied by Oussalah et al. [175] for coating ham. It was reported
that cinnamon film showed strong potential as an antimicro-
bial agent than oregano and winter savory. It also depicted
higher migration of active compounds. Similar work was
carried out about beef muscle slices by Oussalah et al. [176].
Alginate-based films with 1% (w/v) essential oils (Spanish
oregano, Chinese cinnamon, or savory) were made and used
for coating the samples. Based on their results, similarly, the
cinnamon oil-based film demonstrated higher release rates
of the and strong inhibitory against E. coli O157:H7 and
Salmonella typhimurium than oregano and savory.
It is necessary to optimize essential oils (nanoemulsion)
content in coatings/films to maximize antimicrobial and anti-
oxidant activities. This optimization is done by evaluation
of the EO content and their final performance. Thereby, EO
content plays a vital role in this case. Based on the research
done by Pabast, the following equation is recommended to
measure the encapsulation efficiency of EO when EOs are
encapsulated in a polymeric layer [170].
Cl
EE% = × 100
Ct
In which Cl and Ct are encapsulated EO content and total
content of EO, respectively. A similar equation was recom-
mended by Chaudhari et al. [177]. In this regard, it is neces-
sary to use UV–visible spectrophotometry to measure the
adsorption at the appropriate wavelength according to the
EO type and standard calibration curve.
Higher content of essential oil may result in changes in
the taste and appearance of the food. The less EO content,
with higher efficiency, can be mentioned as the optimized
formulation. For instance, Ribeiro-Santos et al. [134] opti-
mized whey protein films with EOs blend (cinnamon (rose-
mary (15%) and 51 and 34%)). They showed that the film
with 5% of the EO blend showed the highest antimicrobial
capacity.
Apart from antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, it
was revealed that EOs have the potential in the physical and
thermal improvement of films. Cinnamon (CEO) and clove
(CLO) EOs could significantly manipulate the antimicrobial,
thermal, and physical properties of chitosan film during the
time under EO release. It was revealed that all films loaded
with nanoemulsions showed less weight loss compared to
the control film (Fig. 6d) [178]. EOs are able to modify
edible films from the viewpoint of the physical aspect. For
instance, edible coatings formed by incorporating carvacrol
nanoemulsions to modified chitosan solutions were able to
completely inhibit the inoculated E. coli growth on fresh
green beans over 11 days of cold storage [179]. Ayaseh and
his colleagues could modify the Plantago major seed gum-
based biodegradable films by adding nanoemulsion of olive,
(13) maize, and canola oils. According to the results, nanoe-
mulsion could increase the thickness of the prepared film,
which resulted in an increase in strain at break value. It also
decreased the level of water vapor permeability, moisture
absorption, moisture content, melting point, glass transition
point, and ultimate tensile strength [180].

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876
Geraniol and linalool nanoemulsions revealed their poten-
tial in Listeria innocua, E. coli, and Pseudomonas lundensis
bacteria inhibitory about meat simulation medium [181].
Noori et al. [94] employed nanoemulsion-based edible
sodium caseinate coating loaded with ginger EO for coat-
ing chicken breast fillets at 4 ℃. According to the results, no
color difference and cooking loss and also better antibacte-
rial potential were observed after 12 days. Various formula-
tion of orange essential oil (70%) and cactus acid fruit (10%)
nanoemulsion decreased moisture loss but increased protein,
fat, and ash content of emulsified meat system refrigerated
at 4 ℃. It was also reported that phenolic compounds, anti-
oxidant capacity, shelf life, and lipid oxidation improved
too [182]. Oregano EO and resveratrol nanoemulsion-loaded
pectin edible coating was employed to coat fresh pork milk,
and then, samples were stored in highly oxygenated atmos-
pheric packaging for 20 days at 4 °C. This coating could
expand the shelf life of the samples. It also minimized the
pH and color change and inhibited the lipid and protein oxi-
dation [75].
Obstacles
In spite of the benefits of nanoemulsion, there are some
restrictions on the use of this novel approach in food pack-
aging. Nanoemulsion formulation, especially in industry, is
an expensive process due to the reduction in droplet size
because it requires a special type of process tools and meth-
ods. Apart from expenses, there are more challenges about
nanoemulsions, which are discussed as follows.
For instance, the lack of reproducibility of EO activity
is considered as one of the obstacles. Despite their great
diversity of compounds, EOs may have qualitative and quan-
titative changes in the content of the bioactive components
resulting in various effects [183]. Moreover, EOs’ strong
aroma may restrict their applications in food packaging.
It is necessary to employ EOs appropriate to the organo-
leptic level of the foods. Because foods are complex matri-
ces, multicomponent systems comprising interconnected
microenvironments, the EO level required in foods for ade-
quate efficacy may exceed the acceptable organoleptic level
and affect the natural taste of food [184]. The nanoemulsion
systems used for agent encapsulation should also be devel-
oped in consideration of masking the EO compound taste
during antimicrobial preservation. However, by carefully
selecting EOs according to the type of food, the adverse
effects of a strong aroma can be controlled.
It is possible that EOs become less effective when applied
in coatings compared with in vitro evaluation which can be
attributed to the complexity of the food [185]. On the other
hand, it is important that nanoemulsion keep their stability
from employing till consumption. It is possible that in some
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Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
coating systems, drops join each other and result in larger
nanodrops. It is also necessary that no or just little changes
happen to their particle size.
The oil phase composition can provide nanoemulsion
with various mean diameters (133 nm (10%), 107 nm (15%),
75 nm (20%), 55 nm (25%), 60 nm (30%), and 99 nm (40%))
for carvacrol in oil phase [45]). Thereby, the composition of
the components affects the droplet size. The reason might be
attributed to the concentration, the interaction between the
droplets, and significantly zeta potential. On the other hand,
mean particle diameters and particle size distributions may
affect the stability of the nanoemulsions. Multiple scattering
enhances the risk of increasing the mean diameter. Hence, it
is necessary to create droplets in the low and same diameter
[186]. The droplet size can become constant by optimiza-
tion of the condition (e.g., time, temperature, composition)
during nanoemulsion production. For instance, as the ultra-
sound time increases, the droplet size becomes almost con-
stant [187]. It was also reported that the droplet size alters
by temperature enhancement.
It is necessary to consider the chemical incompatibility
which may occur between the EOs and the matrix of film,
coating, or foods, which, in turn, negatively influenced the
antimicrobial efficiency for nanoemulsion-based coating/
film preparation [105]. Nanoemulsion formulations of EOs
should be developed in agreement with the properties of the
product, effectively contrasting with the endogenous flora,
but also minimize the impact on the organoleptic properties.
It seems that there is less programmed delivery nanoe-
mulsion-based food packaging systems. The controlled or
activated free properties of E.O.s from delivery systems are
also desirable for higher sensitivity, for example, when pH
changes or a bacteria/microbe growth. As the last item, costs
can be considered as one of the limiting factors. Costs must
be carefully assessed, as the use of EO is still expensive, as
well as their encapsulation in nanoemulsions.
Apart from laboratory-scale studies, scaling up the pro-
cess and its difficulties and also commercial aspects of the
novel food packaging techniques, are other hinders in the
food packaging industry. For example, continuous film-
forming and also fast drying processes are essential for
industrial scale-up because of saving time. Moreover, mar-
keting strategies must be studied. It is obvious that low-cost
production enhances consumer acceptance [188].
Conclusion
Consumer demand for safe natural products in recent years
has led to the search for gentle preservation techniques to
improve the quality and safety of microbes, without causing
food and organoleptic damage. In this review, it was tried to
provide a brief discussion about the role of nanoemulsions
Food Engineering Reviews (2021) 13:858–883
and their numerous advantages in the food packaging
industry.
Various methods can be employed to generate nanoemul-
sion with different purposes but they might result in different
efficiency. The main methods for nanoemulsion production
are classified as low- and high-energy techniques. Low-
energy nanoemulsions are particularly suitable for develop-
ing delivery systems for antimicrobial essential oils.
To produce a stable nanoemulsion, surfactants showed
potent efficiency. It has been shown that mixtures of sur-
factants (multicomponent) can perform better than pure
(single-component) surfactants. It was also concluded that
the type of the surfactant can affect the nanodroplet size.
Furthermore, to obtain a highly stable nanoemulsion, food-
grade EO with low viscosity is recommended. Both W/O
and O/W nanoemulsions show a strong potential in indus-
tries, but in food packaging systems, O/W systems due to
the low expenses and high antimicrobial features of the oily
phase (nanodroplets are the main agents to fight against
microorganisms, so it is important to disperse the phase
which has antimicrobial properties) are mostly employed.
Employing nanoemulsion can result in potent coatings
and films. They showed their efficiency in maintaining
foods, fruits, and vegetables in their high-quality level by
preventing bacterial and fungal growth, delivering antibac-
terial agents, improving mechanical properties, maintaining
the pH, and delivering agents. Nanoemulsion-based coatings
were more effective than polymer coatings or oil alone. It is
also important to produce more stable, uniform nanoemul-
sion with suitable transparency which means all their dimen-
sions should be below the order of magnitude of wavelength
of the visible light. Thereby, nanoemulsions before employ-
ment need to be assessed chemically and physically.
However, there are limitations and obstacles which must
be considered in nanoemulsion-based coating/film prepa-
ration. Further studies need to be done about the toxicity
of EO-based nanoemulsion. Introducing this new system of
packaging will need approval from the legal organization
and expert committees.
Acknowledgements This research did not receive any specific grant
from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit
sectors.
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