MUDULE 5: THE ENTRY OF THE FOUR “GREAT” TRADITIONS

INTRODUCTION

The origin of little and great traditions is from Robert Redfield, who conducted his studies in
Mexican communities. It was Redfield who talked about little community. For him little community
was a village that had smaller size, self-sufficient and relatively isolated. Red- field did not mention
anything about traditions or great traditions. Singer and Marriott who were influenced by studies
made by Redfield conducted their intensive study in Indian villages. They elaborated the original
model of Redfield in the light of data generated from India villages. Yogendra Singh has commented
upon the construction of little and great traditions in Indian villages by these two anthropologists.

Influenced by this model (of Robert Redfield), Milton Singer and Mckim Marriott had
conducted some studies on social change in India utilising this conceptual framework. The basic
ideas in this approach are ‘civilisation’, and ‘social organisation of tradition’. It is based on the
evolutionary view that civilisation or the structure of tradition (which consists of both cultural and
social structures) grows in two stages: first, through orthogenetic or indigenous evolution, and
second, through heterogenetic encounters or contacts with other cultures or civilisations.

The Indian social structure, in a broader way, is stratified into two divisions: (1) the folks or
the unlettered peasantry, and (2) the elites. The folks and peasantry follow the little tradition, i.e.,
the village tradition. The second division of elites follows the great tradition. The great tradition
consists of the traditions contained in epics, Puranas, Brahmanas and other classical sanskritic works.
The roles and statuses of Sita and Draupadi constitute the parts of great tradition. The little tradition,
on the other hand, is local tradition of great tradition tai-lored according to the regional and village
conditions.

The great tradition is found clearly in twice-born castes, specially, priests, and ritual leaders
of one kind or other. Some of these corporate groups follow the traits of civilization and the great
tradition. The carriers of little tradition include folk artists, medicine men, tellers of riddles, proverbs
and stories, poets and dancers, etc. Little and great traditions help to analyze social change in rural
India. The nature of this change is basically cultural. There is a constant interaction between great
tradition and little tradition. The interaction between the two traditions brings about change in rural
society.

The great traditions referred by this module are the influential traditions that became
significant factors in the cultural transformations that the Southeast Asian Countries have
undergone. The Chinese, Indian, Islamic traditions, and the Western culture are the “great”
traditions are the great tradition the module are referring to. These are historical background that
needed to be known for us to have a better understanding about the historical structure of the
region of Southeast Asia.

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The following are the specific learning outcomes expected to be realized by the learner after
the completion of this module:

1. Recognize the characteristics and any background of the different influential great
traditions in the cultural transformation the Southeast Asia had.

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 2. Associate the contributions and influences made by the Chinese, Indian, Islamic
traditions and Western civilizations to the development of the dominant characteristics
of the society and culture in some places of Southeast Asia.
3. Determine the importance of the influences made by the great traditions entered in
Southeast Asia to the present condition of the society and culture of some places and
countries of the region.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

A. Preparatory Activity

Unlock the difficulties by performing this preparatory activity first. Get the
understanding of the following main concepts before you proceed to the next part of this
module by writing your understanding in the space provided after the terms.

1. Society
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2. Social change
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3. Social Factors
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4. Civilization
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5. Rural society
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B. Content Readings

Read the content and acquire farther detailed information by accessing the sources
provided.

THE ENTRY OF THE FOUR “GREAT TRADITIONS”

A. THE CHINESE: VIETNAM, CHINESE ENCLAVES IN SEA

Ancient Chinese Culture is older than 5000 years. Chinese cultural history has
enormous diversity and variety. The sophisticated Chinese civilization was rich in the Arts
and Sciences, elaborate Painting and Printing techniques and delicate pottery and sculpture.
Chinese architectural traditions were much respected all over the world. Chinese language
and literature, philosophy and politics are still reckoned as a strong influence. Chinese
culture managed to retain its unique identity till the advent of Western culture in the mid-
19th century.

Chinese Religion, Philosophy and Politics: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have
left a collective and lasting impression on Chinese culture and tradition. Confucianism
propagated “Ren” (Love) and “Li” (rituals), signifying respect for society and social hierarchy.
Taoism advocated the controversial philosophy of inaction. Buddhism emphasized on the
need to attain self- emancipation through good deeds.

The Three Pillars of Chinese Cultures

Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are called the Three Pillars of traditional
Chinese culture; they have exerted great influence on the thinking of the Chinese people as
well as on almost every aspect in political, economic and cultural life of the country.

Confucianism -Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical

philosophy rather than a religion. In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious
foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional
Chinese society.

Taoism -In the Chinese language the word tao means "way," indicating a way of thought or
life. There have been several such ways in China's long history, including Confucianism and
Buddhism. In about the 6th century BC, under the influence of ideas credited to a man
named Lao-tzu, Taoism became "the way". like Confucianism, it has influenced every aspect
of Chinese culture. Taoism began as a complex system of philosophical thought that could
be indulged in by only a few individuals. In later centuries it emerged, perhaps under the
influence of Buddhism, as a communal religion. It later evolved as a popular folk religion.

Buddhism – It is a faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than
2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one
of the major world religions. Its practice has historically been most prominent in East and
Southeast Asia, but its influence is growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and
philosophies overlap with those of other faiths.

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The Colonization of North Vietnam

For over thousands of years, China ruled over Vietnam from 111 B.C. — 980 A.D.
During the period, many Chinese culture wonders influenced the small country of the world.
One of its influence was the classical Chinese writing. In the 10th century, Vietnam adopted
Chinese writing script to create their own language — Chữ-Nôm. It wasn’t until later in the
12th — 13th century the adopted Vietnamese language was systematized as the official
language and part of literature. Vietnam’s culture was greatly influenced by China’s
domination.

The early interaction between the two countries dated back to the 3rd century B.C.
It wasn’t until two centuries late;China began its conquest of colonizing Vietnam. Back then,
Vietnam was not a small country like it is now.

Part of the lower China used to be Vietnam. During the first Chinese conquest in 111
B.C., the Han Dynastyconquered the south and expanded its territorial dominance. The first
Chinese Domination of Vietnam was significance. Emperor Han Wudi successfully conquered
Nanyue(Vietnam) and adjoined it to the Han sovereignty. The purpose of China ruled was to
control Red River Delta, a geographical terrain for trading supplies with other powerful
countries like India and the Roman Empire.

Vietnam was governed leniently by the Chinese with the addition of the Han Dynasty
wanted Vietnam assimilation, a more cohesive and civilized empire. During the conquered
period, Vietnam had to adopt the Chinese writing system, Confucianism, arts, and literature.
A part of the conquered Vietnam lost their native language, culture, and national identity
until the revolt of Trung Sister in 40 A.D.

Chinese Trade and Migration in Southeast Asia

Human migration is a central theme in world and Asian history, but important cases,
among them Chinese who emigrated to other countries between ca. 1000 and 1850 CE, have
been somewhat neglected in the migration literature. Since the mid‐19th century, millions of
Chinese migrated temporarily or permanently to other countries, making these migrants and
their descendants a vital presence in the world economy and in the population of many
nations. Today, more than 30 million people of Chinese ancestry or ethnicity live outside of
Greater China, over 20 million of them in Southeast Asia. But this emigration has a much
longer history, the subject of recent scholarly interest that has enriched our knowledge. It
has been said of the maritime trading and fishing peoples of southern China that they made
fields from the sea.

Enterprising and adaptable, Chinese have long sailed to Southeast Asia to trade,
many of them settling permanently. By 1400, Chinese trade networks linked Southeast Asian
trading ports to China and to each other. Chinese settlers eventually became dominant in
the commercial sector in many societies, including most Western colonies, in Southeast Asia.
Increasing numbers of migrants arrived to trade or mine for tin and gold, ushering in a
“Chinese century” in the Southeast Asian economies from around 1700 into the mid‐1800s.
Over the centuries some Chinese married local women, serving as cultural brokers between
China and Southeast Asia and fostering hybrid communities. Others maintained their
cultural heritage. After 1850, millions more left China. Chinese immigrants and their
descendants built the foundations for a widespread modern diaspora and transnational

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connections. The emigrant flow from China continues, continuing a human behavior –
migration – that has a long history in Asia.

The Chinese and the Manila Galleon Trade

The Manila Galleon Trade lasted for 250 years and ended in 1815 with Mexico’s war
of independence. In terms of longevity alone, plus the trade that it engendered between
Asia, Spanish America and onward to Europe and Africa, it brought in its wake events and
movement of people among the various continents that are still apparent and in place
today.

It made Mexico a world city. The Philippines, ostensibly a Spanish colony, was
governed from Mexico which gave it an Asian extension. Population flows between Asia and
Spanish America via Acapulco were, in terms of the times, huge. About 40,000 to 60,000,
maybe 100,000, mostly Chinese and in particular Filipinos, made up that flow. There is an
existing Filipino presence in Louisiana and definitely in Mexico from those times. Some of
the founders of California seem to be of Filipino descent. Emiliano Zapata, the Mexican
revolutionary, was said to have Filipino ancestry.

The migrants came as servants, slaves, sailors, barbers, vendors, harp players,
dancers, scribes, tailors, cobblers, silversmiths and coachmen. Mexico’s Plaza Mayor, known
as the Zocalo, became a place of stalls and shops selling the Asian imports where the city’s
myriad populations mixed in buying and selling. They called it the Parian after the Chinese
district of Manila known as such. Manila’s Chinatown is considered the oldest in the world.
In Mexico, the Parian began in the late 16th century and by the 18th century was a
permanent edifice. Items sold or traded were spices from the Orient, ivory, diamonds,
Chinese porcelain, Indian fabrics, Siamese ebony, rubies and emeralds from India. From the
Philippines, I would guess, ivory religious images, our indigenous fabrics in cotton, indigo and
wooden furniture.

Asian arts found a market in Mexico and beyond. They were eventually emulated
and adapted locally. Thus, Japanese lacquer desks, Chinese wall hangings and Chinese
porcelainwere imitated and reproduced in Mexico. For example, the folding screens called
“biombo” in Spanish were originally from the Japanese word for them “byobu.” Eventually,
these biombos showed images of Mexico City’s best known places.

Mexico became a multi-cultural, cosmopolitan nation in urbanization and

sophistication. At the time of the Manila Galleon, it was one of the richest cities in the world
with leading cultural and intellectual aspects to its urban life. It had a printing press as early
as 1535. Its native costumes had an Oriental influence acknowledging its opening to the
world.

Manila was the gateway to China not only for being the entrepot where Chinese
goods along with those of Japan, India, Southeast Asia were assembled for re-export to the
West, but for its role in mediating information about China. Martin de Radaacquired Chinese
books in Manila in 1575. The first translation of classical Chinese texts into a European
language took place in Manila when MingxinBorojiau was translated into Espejo Rico de
Claro Corazon in 1593 and published in Manila by Juan Cobo who also translated Seneca into
Chinese.

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 Manila was so widely famed as the galleon trade hub that it attracted predators who
dreamed of or imagined the riches it had. For example, the Dutch East India Company
believed trade could not be maintained without war. It proved it in the Dutch East Indies.
The British East India Company led the way (with the British Navy in complicity) to take
Manila in 1762, using the Seven Years’ War in Europe as an excuse. But when it came to
larger longstanding nations in the East like China and Japan and Thailand, European
colonizers could not project much force. Spain did not, but it was able to run the Manila
Galleon trade for years despite its problems with the Chinese in Manila and the fact that
both sides were breaking the rules along the way. There was an equilibrium between China
and Spain (the Sinic-Spanish global trade) that brought on trade understanding, diplomatic
relations, enduring relationships. Much different from the Anglo-American and Dutch events
in Asia with colonization, trade with colonies, industrialization and gunboat diplomacy, the
opium wars, oppressive demand for cash crops, taking advantage of the chaos in China, and
the weakness of the East Indies.

B. THE INDIAN: CAMBODIA, THAILAND, JAVA, LAOS, AND MYANMAR

Southeast Asia was under Indian influence starting around 290 BC until around the
15th century, when Hindu-Buddhist influence was absorbed by local politics. Kingdoms in
the southe ast coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political
relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula,
Philippines, Cambodia and Vietnam.

Unlike the Hindu kingdoms within the Indian sub-continent, the Pallava kingdom of
the southeastern coast of the peninsula did not have culture restrictions on crossing the sea.
This led to more exchanges through the sea routes into Southeast Asia. Whereas Buddhism
thrived and became the main religion in many countries of the Southeast Asia, it died off on
the Indian subcontinent.

The peoples of maritime Southeast Asia — present day Malaysia, Indonesia and the
Philippines — are thought to have migrated southwards from southern China sometime
between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization of the subcontinent gradually
became predominant among them, and among the peoples of the Southeast Asian
mainland.

Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the

dominating influence in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both
spread to these states from India and for many centuries existed there with mutual
toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland became mainly Buddhist.

Cambodia -The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the
Kingdom of Funan founded in the 1st century CE in what is now Cambodia — according to
legend, after the marriage of a Brahman into the family of the local chief. These local
inhabitants were Khmer people. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a
prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal
system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal
kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to the Malay Peninsula in the west.

Thailand - Thailand's relationship with India spans over a thousand years and
understandably resulted in an adaptation of Hindu culture to suit the Thai environment.

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Evidence of strong religious, cultural and linguistic links abound. The single most significant
cultural contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is Buddhism.
Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by King Asoka, it was
adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever
since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres
to Buddhism.

Myanmar - At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was
occupied by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China.
In Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except
that they practiced Hinduism. The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian
traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist
religion. The Mins were the earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia. They consisted of
several Mon kingdoms, spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they
founded the kingdom of Dvaravati. Their principal settlements in Burma were Thaton and
Pegu. From about the 9th century onwards Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills
east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy plain. They founded their capital at Pagan in Upper Burma in
the 10th century. They eventually absorbed the Mons, their cities and adopted the Mon
civilization and Buddhism. The Pagan kingdom united all Burma under one rule for 200 years
- from the 11th to 13th centuries. The zenith of its power occurred during the reign of King
Anawratha (1044–1077), who conquered the Mon kingdom of Thaton. King Anawratha built
many of the temples for which Pagan is famous. It is estimated that some 13,000 temples
once existed within the city, which some 5,000 still stand.

The Pillars of o

The core of Indian culture, as shaped by the revered rishis, revolves around the
principle of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam' - treating the entire world as our own family, which
reflects universality of serene love, altruism, sharing of responsibilities and caring for all
beings. The central theme of Indian cultural development has evolved from the Indian
philosophy of continuity of life and realization of the soul as a manifestation of divine
impulse. Successive refinement of human consciousness by elimination of animal instincts
and evil tendencies of the mind and enlightenment of its inner cores was therefore given
maximum importance by the rishis. The system of shodas samskaras was devised by them
for this purpose.

Guru - spiritual mentor, Gayatri - the Gayatri Mantra, origin of all Vedas, Ganga - the holy
Ganges, Gau (cow) and Geeta are the five fundamental elements which lie at the core of
the development and practices of the Indian culture. It is through these roots that the stout
tree of divine Indian culture had blossomed in the ancient times of yore and has maintained
its 'greenery' age after age despite turbulent fluctuations in people's faith, convictions,
cultural values and modes of living. Implementation of the divine cultural principles
becomes possible in every dimension of life with the support of Guru, Gayatri , Geeta, Gau
and Ganga at the spiritual, philosophical and worldly levels.

The Formation of States in Southeast Asia in Response to Indian example

The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the
Kingdom of Funan founded in the 1st century CE in what is now Cambodia — according to

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legend, after the marriage of a Brahman into the family of the local chief. These local
inhabitants were Khmer people. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a
prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal
system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal
kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to the Malay Peninsula in the west.

In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It
was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, Chen-la, which lasted until the 9th century.
Then a Khmer king, Jayavarman II (about 800-850) established a capital at Angkor in central
Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the
triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolizing
destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th
century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century,
when its conquests extended into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon
kingdom of Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the
great temple of Angkor Wat, built early in the 12th century.

At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied by
the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In Lower
Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except that they
practised Hinduism. The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders
during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The
Mins were the earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia.

The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hinduised empires of Sumatra and Java.
In the islands of Southeast Asia the first organized state to achieve fame was the Hindu
Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in southern Sumatra. Its
commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China
between Sumatra and the Malay peninsula (later known as the Straits of Malacca). In the 6th
– 7th centuries Srivijaya succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was
the overlord of the Malay peninsula and western Java as well as Sumatra. Like most of the
early kingdoms of Soutehast Asia, Srivijaya was Dravidian in culture and administration, and
Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.

The Malay peninsula was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another
batch of peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago.
Upon arrival in the peninsular some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the
appearance of the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the
peoples of Malaysia peninsular and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on
the geographical terrain of Peninsular Malay and Sumatera.

Thailand's relationship with India spans over a thousand years and understandably
resulted in an adaptation of Hindu culture to suit the Thai environment. Evidence of strong
religious, cultural and linguistic links abound. The single most significant cultural
contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is Buddhism.
Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by King Asoka, it was
adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever
since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres
to Buddhism.

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 Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the
dominating influence in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both
spread to these states from India and for many centuries existed there with mutual
toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland became mainly Buddhist.

The Indian and the Manila Galion Trade

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, our ancestors were already trading A
Spanish Galleonwith China, Japan, Siam, India, Cambodia, Borneo and the Moluccas. The
Spanish government continued trade relations with these countries, and the Manila became
the center of commerce in the East. The Spaniards closed the ports of Manila to all countries
except Mexico. Thus, the Manila–Acapulco Trade, better known as the "Galleon Trade" was
born. The Galleon Trade was a government monopoly. Only two galleons were used: One
sailed from Acapulco to Manila with some 500,000 pesos worth of goods, spending 120 days
at sea; the other sailed from Manila to Acapulco with some 250,000 pesos worth of goods
spending 90 days at sea.

Manila ranked just below Mexico in urbanization and sophistication. It was not quite
a world city compared to Mexico, being more a regional trading hub where China, India,
Japan and Southeast Asia sent their goods to be consolidated for shipping. Those who ran
the hub and did most of the work were Chinese. They packed the goods (no one could pack
better than them, putting more merchandise in the limited spaces and chests on the galleon
than anyone else could). They came in junks yearly, bringing goods that not only competed
in price but in quality and innovation with the rest of the world. The Chinese served as part
of the galleon crews together with Filipinos and other nationalities (the galleon crews were
mostly East Asian with a sprinkling of various European nationalities). They most probably
clandestinely participated in the galleon trade which no one but Spaniards were allowed to
do. Many Chinese became very wealthy through hard work. Manila was almost a Chinese
city with the huge migration of Chinese due to the Manila Galleon trade as against the few
Spaniards and Filipino natives. So much so that the Spaniards feared them, taxed them, sent
them out to the Parian and eventually, when tensions rose, massacred them. Such
massacres were at their height in the 17th century from suspicion, unease and fear, until the
Spaniards and the Chinese learned to live with each other in the next few centuries.

C. THE ISLAMIC TRADITION: MINDANAO, MALAYSIA, BRUNEI, INDONESIA

Islamic culture and Muslim culture refer to cultural practices common to historically
Islamic people. The early forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to early
Umayyad period, were predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine. With the
rapid expansion of the Islamic empires, Muslim culture has influenced and assimilated much
from the Persian, Egyptian, Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, South Asian, Malay, Somali, Berber,
Indonesian, and Moro cultures. Islamic culture generally includes all the practices which
have developed around the religion of Islam. There are variations in the application of
Islamic beliefs in different cultures and traditions.

The movement of Islam into the countries around the South China Sea started over a
thousand years ago and continues to this day. Most of those who brought Islamic stories and
tales into Southeast Asia were sailors, traders, holy men, and adventurers who found the
religion easy to transport since it required no temples, priests, or congregations for its

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worshippers. For a closer look at how Islam has been localized in Southeast Asia, the history
of Islam on the island of Java in the Republic of Indonesia provides a good example. Java
today is home to 59 percent of Indonesia’s population, which is projected to surpass a
quarter of a billion people by the end of the decade. Almost two thirds of Indonesia’s
Muslims live on Java, the island on which Indonesia’s largest cities, including its capital city
of Jakarta, are located.

Although some Islamic traders and sailors came to Java from Arabia, it is clear that
the arrival of Islam can be seen as a continuation of religious and cultural ideas coming from
India in the preceding centuries. Muslims from Arabia, Persia, India, Sumatra, and China all
passed through Java’s coastal cities. Islam was steadily taking hold on the north coast of Java
throughout the heyday of Majapahit, the last great inland Hindu-Buddhist empire. Majapahit
flourished in the fourteenth century when Java became a focal point for stories moving
throughout the South China Sea between India and China.

The most significant Islamic kingdom to emerge in Southeast Asia at this time was
the sultanate of Melaka, which was founded around 1400 by a local prince who converted to
Islam. Established along the Straits of Melaka on the western Malay peninsula, the sultanate
became the main entrepot for merchants traveling between India and China, and was noted
for its safe harbor and effective administration. Melaka's influence declined significantly
though after it captured by the Portuguese in 1511, with trade moving to other ports in the
region.

Other important sultanates in Southeast Asia around the time of Melaka's

ascendancy included Aceh in northern Sumatra; Johor on the Malay peninsula; the port
cities of Demak and Banten on the north coast of Java; the kingdom of Mataram in central
Java; and Ternate and Tidore in what is now Maluku. By the 16th century, Islam had also
spread into the Sulu archipelago, where an important sultanate was established, and the
island of Mindanao, in what is now the Philippines.

Philippines. The Muslim minority population in the Philippines is mostly concentrated on the
southern island of Mindanao and on the Sulu archipelago. Relations between the Muslim
population here and the predominantly Catholic majority in the rest of the country have
been difficult for decades, although periodic efforts to negotiate settlements and
agreements have been occasionally successful.

Malaysia. Islam in Malaysia is represented by the Shafi'i version of Sunni theology and
jurisprudence, while defining Malaysia constitutionally a secular state. Islam was introduced
by traders arriving from Arabia, China and the Indian subcontinent. It became firmly
established in the 15th century.

Brunei. The culture of Brunei is strongly influenced by Malay cultures and the Islamic
religion. While Standard Malay is the official language of Brunei, languages such as Brunei
Malay and English are more commonly spoken. Islam is the official religion of Brunei and
Brunei has implemented Sharia law since 2014.

Indonesia. Islam in Indonesia is considered to have gradually spread through merchant

activities by Arab Muslim traders, adoption by local rulers and the influence of mysticism
since the 13th century. During the late colonial era, it was adopted as a rallying banner
against colonialism.

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D. THE WESTERN TRADITION: PHILIPPINES AND SINGAPORE

Most scholars have approached the structure of Westernization in Southeast Asia as

a process that has developed over stages and varying intensities according to location,
internal receptiveness, and the circumstances in which the encounter took place. One of the
most important mechanisms contributing to the transmission of Western culture to the
region was trade and colonization. In this context, trade consists of the movement, over the
centuries, of peoples, goods, and ideas between the Mediterranean, Bengal, and Southeast
Asian waters. With this in mind, Western interaction with Southeast Asia can be organized
chronologically into four stages.

Scholarship has addressed the concept of Westernization in Southeast Asia indirectly

through alternative themes and interests. That the early histories of Southeast Asia by
colonial officials were actually the history of Westerners in Asia and their perspective on the
region's culture reveals something about the idea of Westernization. As many early accounts
describing this process were involved in the spreading of ideas, technology, or goods, their
assessments tended to reflect their interests and their unfamiliarity with the region as a
whole. One aspect of this approach was to view Southeast Asian history within the
chronological and narrative framework of the West's own history, leading to judgments
proclaiming the region's political, social, and technological levels to be inherently backward.
It was believed that through colonial policies, Southeast Asia under European tutelage would
be emancipated from itself, joining the civilized world by emulating it. Thus, early
assessments by colonial officials saw the process of Westernization as the process through
which traditional cultures could be made modern.

Philippines. The Impacts and Influences of Western Thoughts to Filipinos Western Thoughts
has been a persistent and constant influence across the world in the last few centuries.
Obviously, Filipinos culture has been greatly influenced by the west: our education, music,
show business, lifestyle, and fashion and even on infrastructures. The Impacts and Influences
of Western Thoughts to Filipinos Western Thoughts has been a persistent and constant
influence across the world in the last few centuries. Obviously, Filipinos culture has been
greatly influenced by the west: our education, music, show business, lifestyle, and fashion
and even on infrastructures. Westernization is one of the main reasons why there is loss of
culture in the Philippines. Spain colonized the Philippines from 1565 – 1898. The Spanish
influence on the Filipino culture has been profound, having originated from the Spanish East
Indies. A variety of aspects of the customs and traditions in the Philippines today can be
traced back to these influences.

Singapore is an island city-state located off the coast of Malaysia. It is a very small country,
only measuring 26 km north to south and 50 km east to west, yet it hosts over 5 million
people. This makes it the second most densely populated sovereign state in the world.
Singapore served as a central point of trade between the East and West in the 19th century,
coming under British colonial rule in 1826 until 1963. Today, it is independent of Britain and
Malaysia. However, the influence of its past British governance means that it is one of the
most Westernised countries in Asia. Lifestyles are quite cosmopolitan and English (also
referred to as the adapted ‘Singlish’) is the common language spoken among all ethnicities.
Singapore’s economic positioning as one of the four Asian Dragons of the global economy
has also made it a big expatriate hot spot. There are so many foreigners in Singapore that
only about 60% of the population has citizenship.

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 SOURCES:

1. https://asiasociety.org/education/islamic-influence-southeast-asian-visual-arts-
literature-and-performance
2. https://southasia.berkeley.edu/islam-southeast-asia
3. https://science.jrank.org/pages/11617/Westernization-Southeast-Asia-Structure-
Westernization-in-Southeast-Asian-History.html
4. https://www.reseau-asie.com/historical-cultural-and-ethnic-diversity/

C. Application

After reading the content, you are now ready to answer the following questions and
perform the suggested activities.

CHALLENGE YOUR SELF

1. Recognize the characteristics and any background of the four influential great
traditions in the cultural transformation the Southeast Asia had by filling in the table
below.

Great Tradition Time it happened Cultural Places where the

Characteristics influences
cogenerated

Chinese Tradition

Indian Tradition

Islamic Tradition

Western
Traditions

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2. Complete the diagram by filling in the boxes with the needed items in associating
the contributions and influences by the great traditions to the development of the
dominant characteristics of the society and culture of the given places.

a. Chinese Traditions Vietnam

b. Indian Tradition Cambodia

Thailand

Java

Laos

Myanmar

c. Islamic Traditions Mindanao

Malaysia

Brunei

Indonesia

d. Western Traditions Philippines

Singapore

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 3. Determine the importance of the influences made by the great traditions entered in
Southeast Asia to the present condition of the society and culture of some places
and countries of the region. Write your answer on the space provided in every item.

a. Chinese Tradition
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

b. Indian Tradition
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

c. Islamic Tradition
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

d. Western Traditions
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

TRY THIS OUT

1. Search for more information about the different evidences of the influences made
by Chinese, Indian, and Islamic Western culture to some Southeast Asian countries.
Discuss your insight on it in a paper.
2. Write an essay on how some southeast Asian countries cultural identity remains
distinct and unique despite the many influences brought to the region by the four
great traditions studied.

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ASSESSMENTS

TEST 1. Recognize what great tradition is referred by the following. Write your answer on the
blank before the number.
_____________________1. The core of this tradition, is shaped by the revered rishis,
revolves around the principle of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam'
_____________________2. One of the most important mechanisms contributing to the
transmission of this great tradition to the region was trade
and colonization.
_____________________3. The influence of this great tradition was one of the main
reasons why there is loss of culture in the Philippines.
_____________________4. For over thousands of years, this great tradition had an
influence over Vietnam from 111 B.C. — 980 A.D.
_____________________5. The early forms of this great tradition were from the
Rashidun Caliphate to early Umayyad period, were
predominantly Arab, Byzantine, Persian and Levantine.
_____________________6. Its eligion, Philosophy and Politics: Confucianism, Taoism and
Buddhism have left a collective and lasting impression on
Chinese this grat tradition.
_____________________7. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to some Southeast
Asian states from this great tradition and for many centuries
existed there with mutual toleration.
_____________________8. It has influenced and assimilated much from the Persian,
Egyptian, Caucasian, Turkic, Mongol, South Asian, Malay,
Somali, Berber, Indonesian, and Moro cultures.
_____________________9. The influence of this great tradition is mostly concentrated
on the southern island of Mindanao and on the Sulu
archipelago.
_____________________10. Filipinos culture has been greatly influenced by this great
tradition: our education, music, show business, lifestyle, and
fashion and even on infrastructures.

TEST 2. Identification. Identify one being referred the following statements. Write your
answer on the blank before the number.

_____________________1. The Spanish influence on the Filipino culture has been

profound, having originated from thise.
_____________________2. The most significant Islamic sultanate kingdom to emerge in
Southeast Asia founded around 1400 by a local prince who
converted in the western Malay Peninsula.
_____________________3. The first Hinduised states to achieve widespread Indian
tradition was the Kingdom founded in the 1st century CE in
what is now Cambodia
_____________________4. One of the pillars of the Indian tradition referring to a
spiritual mentor.
_____________________5. A faith that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the
Buddha”) more than 2,500 years ago in India.

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 _____________________6. Often characterized as a system of social and ethical
philosophy rather than a religion.
_____________________7. It was from him the concept of great tradition originated.
_____________________8. The Chinese Dynasty that conquered the south of Vietnam
and expanded its territorial dominance.
_____________________9. A kingdom in within the Indian sub-continent that did not
have cultural restriction on crossing the sea.
_____________________10. Principle of the Indian culture about treating the entire world
as our own family.

TEST 3. Identify what Southeast Asian county is associated by the following effect and
influences of a great tradition given by the following items. Write your answer on the blank
before the number.

_____________________1.
_____________________2.
_____________________3.
_____________________4.
_____________________5.
Served as a central point of trade between the East and West
in the 19th century, coming under British colonial rule in
1826 until 1963.
This country is represented by the Shafi'i version of Sunni
theology and jurisprudence, while defining this country
constitutionally a secular state.
The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread
importance was the Kingdom of Funan founded in the 1st
century CE in this country.
The culture of this country was greatly influenced by China’s
domination.
Relations between the Muslim population here and the
predominantly Catholic majority in the rest of this country
have been difficult for decades.

TEST 4. True or False. Answer T if the statement true, and answer F if it is false. Write your
answer on the blank before the number.

_______1. Learning the language only involves learning its alphabet, the word
arrangement and the rules of grammar.
_______2. Despite their cultural differences, indigenous peoples from around the world
does not share common problems related to the protection of their rights as
distinct peoples.
_______3. Every human society strives to continue with their way of life and keep their
traditions and practices alive and they still remain Indigenous Peoples.
_______4. The countries of Southeast Asia have a closely interrelated cultural history,
shaped by the passage of cultures and religions that accompanied the historic
trade routes.
_______5. You can understand one's culture even without accessing its language directly.
_______6. Kinship system includes politically recognized relationships based on supposed
as well as actual genealogical ties.
_______7. Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with
being male or female.

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 _______8. It is a system of kinship, the examination of which will help to understand the
mechanism of some form of social life.
_______9. Bilateral descent is a system of family lineage in which the relatives on the
mother's side and father's side are equally important for emotional ties or for
transfer of property or wealth.
_______10. Throughout Southeast Asia women are thought to be ‘good with money and
generally superior to men in financial management and business dealings.

TEST 5: Essay Type.

1. In your own opinion, which of four great traditions is having the most significant and having
the great impact to the Southeast Asian countries in terms of cultural influences? Reason
out your answer.

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