COMPLEX ANALYSIS Mario ©. Gonailex Classical Complex AnalysisPure and Applied Mathematics ; 151 author: Gonz publisher isbni0lasin : 0824784154 print isbn13.: 9780824784157 ebook isbni3: 9780585316918 language: subject publication date Kee: ade subject: coveragei Classical Complex Analysis Mario 0. Gonziitez Professor Emeritus of Mathematics University of Alabama Marcel Dekker, inc. New York® Basel* Hong Kong page iPage i Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gonzilez, Mario 0. Classical complex analysis / Mario O. Gonzalez. Pp. cm,(Monographs and textbooks in pure and applied mathematics) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8247-8415-4 1. Functions of complex variables. 1 Title. I. 1.7.G65 1991 91-22128 cp This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright © 1992 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. MARCEL DEKKER, INC. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 (Current printing (last digit) 10987654321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAPage i To my wife Lola, to my daughters Vicky and Laura, and to my son-in-law Harold C, Raley, with deep affection, page itiPage v Preface This is a book on the theory of functions of one complex variable. It contains, with many elaborations, the subject of the courses and seminars offered by the author during a period of some 40 years. Some topies which, due to time limitations, were presented briefly in the classroom here are given a more leisurely and extensive treatment In addition to the basic topics in the classical theory of analytic functions, usually taught in first courses on the subject, the text contains some material on nonanalytic functions and a brief account of various types of generalized analytic functions as discussed by several authors in the last few decades. In this respect our book differs from all standard works on the subject. Because of the amount of material involved and the detailed manner in which some topics are treated, this book should be considered a source from which a variety of courses can be drawn, depending on the preferences of the instructor. The clear explanations, numerous examples, exercises, and illustrative figures also make the book invaluable for self-study and as a reference work. Whenever possible I have endeavored to give a specific reference for each important theorem or fornmuta discussed in the text. Also, inthe bibliography at the end of each chapter Ihave included the most significant books and papers consulted in the preparation of the chapter. page_vPage vi Tam especially grateful to my brother Luis R. Gonzélez for his expertise in computer programming which made possible the accurate construction of a number of figures, as well as the elaboration of a table of the generalized tangent function to be found in the Appendix to the companion volume Complex Analysis: Selected Topics (Marcel Dekker, Inc, referred to as Selected Topics). Also, | acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of my former graduate students and friends Drs. Jerrald Abercrombie, Joseph Cabri, Barbara F, Chambers, Christofer Horsfield, Lola Kiser, Elena Medina Wilson, Gaston Smith, and Sarah Williams, who read one or more chapters and made a number of valuable suggestions. Many thanks are also due to the staff of Marcel Dekker, Inc., in particular, to Ms, Maria Allegra and to Mr. Andrew Berin, With patience, understanding, and competence they aided me considerably during the preparation of this book for the press, MARIO O. GONZALEZ page_viPage vit Contents Preface v Introduetion 1 ol Sets, 1 02 Mappings 3 03 Notations 6 1 Complex Numbers 7 11 ‘The Complex Number System 7 12 Real and Imaginary Complex Numbers. The Complex Units "1 13 Complex Conjugates R Exercises 1.1 4 14 Ordering of the Complex Numbers 15 15 ‘The Complex System as a Linear System and as an Algebra 0 16 Absolute Value of a Complex Number 19 Exercises 1.2 4 17 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers a 18. Polar Form of the Complex Number 30 19 Exponential Form of the Complex Number 2 Exercises 1.3 4 page viitna Rein teint en Co nC Eg nn Copa Mate Ten ie ‘pp Naan ate sent Seta hiptno Regie Tenpenetsoepia hai Danette Eatin sti Sonya Nee cite ‘eens A te any Teta saps i pent eeSuet teen ‘Maen tay Ne Cty a a peti eet = “VF we sr ve ee ® eas 6‘Recaaay Biman ent ‘lp gin teen Strole ‘he Comoe Dien Compe Fn Cagle era Opes epithe Comps ep + ‘Bette Desa Dae oat eg Soe tn aed ye Dic Dae ‘Re Futuna Tyla Pope ofc Fins Seth nye tne ‘St Any att ine mp Fast og eg ony tn mp anf aco ie ag +eCp i A ee Teg ei Se cay Repetto nea Fee Pei the Cogs hy sos! re Cay come Se a Mert Coty ae pi te Cay cet en Sa a inference {ry se ee opts (hayes Ae ‘iy stg etna Tae Ash Speen Soi Futon Sin Rena Se Sp ne Inept tia Se ta‘apc ene aap ge Se cmty teetipe Tae Sean ons SiS Noam Foc ‘nM neste Fans inp Ce ‘ethene ti ‘eCatyeseamc Pain ‘apatites tins92 bola Siapuaes 93 Behavior at Pole oa Behavior tan Ese Singoaiy os Nonisolitd Singles. Caster Pins Exersines 9. 96 (Chasctesizatio of Some Simple Fantions by tne Natu of Tei Single Residuss ‘Some Special Rules forthe Computation of Residues Exewines 92 99 The Reside Theorem Exewines 93 10 Some Ussel Lemmas oa Evaluation of Real Improper nip by Using the Reside Toren Brerines 94 Exewines 9S Exewines 96 Exewines 97 on Summation of Crain Seis by Using the Reside Theorem Exewines 98 ous ous Zetos and Poles of Meromoepie Functions The Arpument Pipl ad Is Consquences Exerc 99 Mapping Popes of Analyte Functions verse Function Theos Exewsise 9.10 Bibliography pases ost 656 658 co 0s oo om ors on” 690 70s m2 0 ™ ™~ 740 40 mu on 150 11Introduction In this treatise we assume the reader to be familiar with the real number system R, as well as with the properties of the real functions of one or several real variables, as developed in the usual courses in calculus and in real variables. We assume also some acquaintance with the fundamental concepts and propositions of abstract algebra and modern geometry. In Chapter 2 we elaborate on some topological notions and properties that are needed in complex analysis. In fact, many developments in topol- oy originated from certain questions in complex analysis and conversely, a number of recent advances in analysis are topological in character, these ‘two branches of mathematics being closely related. Since several instances of sets and mappings occur in Chapter 1, we begin with a brief discussion of these notions 0.1 SETS ‘The concepts of an element (or object) and a set (or class, collection, family, system, aggregate) of elements are assumed to be intuitively clear. They are regarded as primitive concepts, so we shall not attempt to define them.” "Por an indirect definition in terms of axioms, see, for example, P. Suppes, Aziomatic Set Theory, or J. E. Rubin, Set Theory for the Mathematician,There is a relation between the elements of a set and that expressed by such phrases as “a is an element of the set Jement a belongs to the set A,” or “a lies in A.” This selation is denoted by the symbol €, and we write a € A to express that a is an clement of the set 4. The negation of this relation is denoted by the g. Thus bg A means that the object b does not belong to the set A, If s € A implies that x € B, then sct A is said to be a subset of B. or that B is a superset of A. It is also said that A is contained in B. or that B contains A. Set inclusion is denoted by the symbol C. Thus we write A C B (equivalently, B > A) to indicate that every clement of A is also an element of B. IAC Band BC A, then A and B contain the same elements. They are said to be equal sets, aud we write A = B. If the sets do not contain the same swe write A # B. IAC Band Af B. Ais called fs proper subset of B. In every mathesnatical discussion the sets under consideration are always subsets of a certain fixed set called the master set, the universal set, or the space, the latter term being applied mainly when the master set is endowed with an algebraic or topological structure: for example, a vector spnee ot ‘a Euclidean space, The elements of the space are sontetinies called points Dut this termi is not to be taken literally in most eases, ‘To specify» particular set, we may exhibit its elements in @ tabulation {1,2,3,4} to indicate that A/ is the set of the integers from: 1 to 4. However, this notation, ealled the roster notation, is often impractical. In the so-called rule method a property or condition that characterizes the elements of a set (among thos cof a given master set) is used to specify the set, with the understanding that those clemients that have the property, and only those, belong to th This is sometimes called the aziom of specification. The set A of ele X such that ¢ © X with the x having a certain property P. is denoted by Sa isa member nbd customarily enclosed in braces. Thus we write 2 cuts A= (rir €XP(r)) In this notation the colon is read “such that” and the comm as “and.” For jstance, an open interval (a,8), a < 0, of the real numbers R is defined as follows: (ab) = {rire Racr 1), Fors #0 we further define 2° = 1 ayer. 1.11 we discuss powers of complex numbers in detailComplex Numbers un 1,2 REAL AND IMAGINARY COMPLEX NUMBERS. ‘THE COMPLEX UNITS ‘Complex numbers of the special form (a,0) behave as the real numbers and are called real comple numbers. More precisely, the set of real complex ‘numbers is isomorphic to the set R of the real numbers under the one-to-one mapping 9 : (2,0) — a. In fact, we have 1. (a0) = (a',0) iff a =a! 2. (a,0) + (a',0) = (a+a',0) > ata! 3. (@,0)(a',0) = (aa',0) + aa! so that equality, as well as the operations of addition and multiplication, are preserved under this mapping, Because of such isomorphism the system R of the real numbers can be ‘embedded in the system € of the complex numbers simply by replacing each real number a by the corresponding complex number (a,0). Conversely, the complex number (a,0) may be replaced by the real number a whenever convenient. For simplicity of notation we usually do so. For instance, we write 0 to denote the zero complex number (0,0), and 1 instead of (1,0). In accordance with this convention, by the sum r-+(a, 6) of areal number rand a complex number (a,6), the sum (r,0) + (a,8) is understood, i.e. 1+ (a,8) = (7,0) + (0,8) = (r+ 0,8) (uz) Similarly, we have 7(a,8) = (r,0)(a,6) = (ra,r6) (1.22) Complex numbers (a,6), with 6 4 0, are called imaginary complez num: bers! (also nonreal complez numbers). In particular, complex numbers of the form (0,8), with 8 # 0, are said to be pure imaginary numbers. The complex numbers ur=(1,0) and up =(0,1) are of special importance and are called complez units Since (2,6) = (a,0) + (0,6) = a(1,0) + 8(0,1) = aus + buy (1.28) "This unfortunate terminology survives as a result of @ historical misconception about complex numbers. For an account of the history of complex numbers, we refer the reader to [22]. Numbers in brackets refer to the bibliography at the tend of the chapter.12 Chapter 1 we see that any complex number can be expressed as a linear combination, with real coefficients, of the complex units u, and ua; (1.2-3) also shows that any imaginary complex number can be expressed as the sum of a real complex number and a pure imaginary number. In practice, the real complex unit 1 = (1,0) is represented by 1, and the pure imaginary unit uz = (0,1) is denoted by é (sometimes by j). With this notation (1.2-3) becomes (2,0) a4 bi (124) ‘The right-side of (1.2-4) will be called the binomial form of the complex number. If z = (a,b) = a + bi, we shall often use the notation a = Rez and b= Imz as an abbreviations for the real component and for the coefficient of the imaginary component of z, respectively. Multiplying the imaginary unit i = (0,1) by itself, we obtain (0,1)(0,1) = (1,0) = -1 (125) which shows that the square of the imaginary unit is the real number —1 If now we multiply the complex numbers a+ 6i and c+ di asin elementary algebra, and then replace i? by —1, we obtain (a+ bic + di) = (ac — bd) + (ad + bei (1.26) which is the correct value for the product according to Definitions 1.1. Historically, (1.2-6) was obtained fist (rather than the other way around) by assuming the existence of a “fictitious” number i such that i 1.3 COMPLEX CONJUGATES Definitions 1.2 Given the complex numbers = (2,y) = 2 + iy, the com- plez conjugate of z, or simply, the conjugate of z, denoted Z, is the complex number G-w=2-iy (a1) The mapping h + ¥is called comple conjugeion. Theorem 1.1 Complex conjugation has the following properties: 2% implies that 2) = #2, and conversely. 2 iff is real. 2Rez. 2i lm 2.‘Complex Numbers 2B 1. AER sath. 8. AA= An 9. Gla) = a/z. 20. F(21,22)-0-52n) = F(E1,F2--+y3n)s where F(#1,225..-5#n) denotes a rational algebraic expressior properties above follow easily from Definitions 1.2, except property 10, which is a consequence of properties 7, 8, and 9. As an illustration we prove property 8. Let 2) = 1 + iy) and 22 = 22+ iy. Since fa = (12 — viva) + (tive + 22m) we have (2122 — yry2) — i(z1y2 + 22m) (13-2) But 7182 = (21 ~ ty )(22 ~ ty) #122 — wie) — i(ziy2 + 2201) From (1.3-2) and (1.3:3) it follows that 7TH = #122. Property 2 means that the conjugate of £ is z, This is expressed by saying that complex conjugation is an involutory mapping, Property 1, together with properties 7 and 8, show that complex con- jugation is an automorphism of C, i.e., an isomorphism from C onto C. Clearly, the identical transformation J(2) = is also an automorphism of C. It can be shown [25] that they are not the only automorphism of © and, in fact, that there are (13. a such automorphisms, where No (aleph subzero) denotes the smallest transfinite number [23]. From properties 4 and 5 it follows that rte 2 By means of (1.3-4) any equation involving z and y can be expresse terms of : and 2. For instance, the equation of a straight line in the plane is given in Cartesian coordinates by (13-4) az tbyte=0 with a? +8? #0, By use of (1.3-4), we obtain (a— biz + (a+ bi)z+2e=04 Chapter 1 |, 2 = C, the foregoing equation can be written as Art Az+O=0 where A #0 is a complex constant and C is @ real constant. This is the complex form of the equation of the straight line. In a similar way, itis easily seen that the equation of a circle sty tartbyte=0 Letting a+b has the following equivalent representation in the complex form: 2+ Ast Az4+O=0 with A a complex constant and C a real constant, The numbers z and # are called the complez conjugate coordinates, or simply the conjugate coordinates corresponding to the point (2,y). Also, they have been called the isotropic coordinates and the minimal coordinates ‘of the point. As will be seen later, for many purposes the system (2,2) is ‘more convenient and elegant than the system (z,y)- In matrix form the transformation from real to conjugate coordinates is given by 2) _ (1 i\(z @-6 )Q) EXERCISES 1.1 1, Perform the following operations (a) (2,3) + (4,-2) (b) (2, V3) + (2,4v3) (©) (2,0) ~ (1,5) (4) (4) = (27) 2. Perform the following operations. ©) G.2004) ) Ga.30.-8) () @) as 4. Perfo the indicted operations, 9 (a) (2-31) + (445i) (b) (6 +51) -(-2+3i) (©) @-H4 +38) @ poe oti Thee per 5. Prove that addition and multiplication of complex numbers are commutative and aeociativeComplex Numbers 1s 6. Prove the following cancellation laws. (a) If +22 = 21-25, then 2 = 2 (b) If 2422 = 2125 and 21 #0, then 22 = 23. 1. Prove that the set of 2 2 matrices of the form a -b Goo with the usual definitions of equality, addition, and multiplication of matrices, is isomorphic to C. 8, Prove that the set of polynomials in z with real coeflicients, modulus 2" +1, is isomorphic to ©. 9. Show that any three different complex nurabers #1, 22,25 are linearly dependent over the reals, ic, there are real numbers r1,72,73, not alll zeros, such that nitrate =0 10, Find the complex conjugate of each of the following. (a) 2-3: (b) 4i(2 +3) we @yh 11. Show that: ie 2B) = BE as 0 (0) aH =A (22) - 22, 12, If 2? = 34, show that = is either real or pure imaginary. "13. Prove that 11 4 Daily a a is real. Hint: Show that D =D. (* notation explained in Section 0.3.) 14. Express each of the following in complex conjugate coordinates. (a) 22 +3y+5=0 (b) 2? +y?—2r-8=0 (©) vi =4e (4) 92? + 4y? = 36 15, Express 7 + (3 — 4i)z + (3 + 4i)z +24 = 0 in Cartesian coordinates. 1.4 ORDERING OF THE COMPLEX NUMBERS We have extended the field of real numbers to the field of complex numbers, so both systems of numbers satisfy the same formal laws (those of a feld) However, there is one important property of the reals that does not carry ‘over to the complex numbers. The field of the reals is @ linearly ordered ficld while that of the complex numbers is not.16 Chapter 1 We recall that by a linearly ordered field (briefly, an ordered field) is meant a field F that contains a nonempty subset F, having the following properties: 1, Habe Fy thnatbe 2. Ifajb € Fy, then ab € Fy. 3. For each a'€ F exactly one of the following holds: 0, eR, -a€F (trichotomy law) ‘The elements of Fy are called the positive elements of F. If there exists in F such a subset Fy, 2 linear onder can be introduced in F by defining a> bto mean a—B€ Fy. It follows that a > 0 iff a € Fy We are now ready to prove the following Theorem 1.2 The field C of the complex numbers is not a linearly ordered field. Proof Suppose that € contains a subset Cy with properties 1, 2, 3, and that a linear order is introduced in € as indicated above. If z #0, we must have z? > 0. In fact, if : € Cp, then z? € Cy or z? > 0 by property 2, and if -2 € Cp, then (=z)? = (=1)?s? = 2? € Cy or 2? > 0. Hence 1? = 1 is positive, as well as i? = -1. But 1 € Cy implies that -1 ¢ Cy, by (3). This contradiction shows that C does not contain a subset Cp with the required properties. ‘The question arises as to whether some kind of order (not a linear one) can be introduced in C. The answer is in the affirmative. In fact, it ean be done in several ways; for instance, if (a,6) # (c,d) and a # e, we may define (0,6) > (c,d) if a > e, and for the case a= ¢, b# d, we set (a,b) > (c,d) ifb > d. However, a more significant ordering of € is obtained by introduc- ing the notion of a direct two-order of three elements as follows. Let S = {2,y,2,..,} be any set with more than two elements, and suppose that there is'a function f defined on the classes of equivalent ternary per- ‘mutations of the elements of $ (two permutations being equivalent if they consist of the same elements and are both of the same parity). In addition, suppose that the range of f is the set {—1,0,1} and that f satisfies the following properties: 1. f(z1,22,28) = f(t2,23,21) = ~f(z2,21,23) 2 Mf f(ynz2,23)f(zryarys) > 0, f(vate,z3)f(viziyys) 2 0, and F(ys»22,25)F (vis v2.21) 2 0, then F(z1,22,23)f(dr,¥2,ys) 20Complex Numbers 7 In that case we shall say that f introduces a two-order in S (the one- order being the linear order). ‘An order isomorphism between two two-ordered sets (Si, fi) and (S2, fa) is a bijective function 9 : S$; —+ Sz which either preserves or reverses the order, i.e., such that filp,a.r) = wSa(9(P), 9(49),9(7)) where j1 is either +1 or —1. If = +1, itis said that g is direct, and if = ~1, that g is opposite. Next, let F be a field that is also a two-ordered set. Then F is called 1 two-ordered field if the mappings Qeiz—ezta and hyiz—var, a¥0 are order isomorphisms. If both are direct, F will be called a direct two ordered field Tn the complex field C a two-order can be introduced by defining ot S(2v22525) = sgn]zn 22 22] where sgnr = r/r| for r # 0 real, and sgn0 = 0. Furthermore, it is easy to check that Sleus22y23) = Fler + 22 +0525 +4) and F(z1, 22,22) = f(azr,az2,a2z3), a #0 so that both ga and hy are direct order automorphisms of €. Hence it follows that C is a direct two-ordered field. Tt can be shown that any direct two-ordered field that has the so-called supremum property is isomorphic to C. For the details, see L. Gutierrez Novor {12} 1.5 THE COMPLEX SYSTEM AS A LINEAR SYSTEM AND AS AN ALGEBRA The complex number system with the definitions of equality and addition as given in Section 1.1, together with property (1.2.2), namely, ¥(a,6) = (ra,r6) taken forthe definition of the product ofthe real number r by the complex number (a,8), constitutes a linear or vector system of dimension two over18 Chapter 1 the reals. We recall that, in general, by a linear system (or vector space) over a commutative field F = {a,,...) is meant a set of elements X = {2,u,2,...} together with an equal relation among its elements, a binary operation in X called addition, and a multiplication of the elements of X by those of F, satisfying the following conditions: 2 +y is uniquely defined and z + y € X. rey =yte (tye = 24 y te) There exists an element @ € X such that z +6 = z for all x € X. For every z € X there exists an element, denoted —z, such that z4(-2) = 8. For every z € X and every a € F, the product az is uniquely defined and az € X. ) (a +B): a(z + y) = ar + ay. 10. yz = 2, where jis the unit of F. Its clear that the complex number system C satisfies all of conditions 1 to 10, with F the commutative field of the reals. The elements 21, 22, -.-, tn of X are said to be linearly independent if the equation yz, + agzy ++ tant, = 0 where ax € F, implies that ax = 0 (K = 1,2,...5n). X is of dimension n (n 2 1) if there are in X n linearly independent elements x), ..., 2, and if any element x € X can be expressed in the form Brti toot Bate with Br € F (k= 1, ...)n). The set (21,22,...,2n} is then called basis in X. The set {us,u2}, where uy = (1,0) and uz = (0,1), is basis in C, since rama + r2u2 = (71,0) + (0,72) = (F172) = (0,0) implies that ry = r2 number (a,5) we have 0, and we have already seen that for any complex (0,8) = au + bun Thus the complex number system is of dimension two over the reals, However, C is of dimension one over itself. ‘An algebraic system A is said to be an algebra over the field F if A is a ring and also a vector space over F, where the ring addition is theComplex Numbers 19 same as the veetor space addition, and the relations (ab) = (7a)b = a(8) for all 1 € F and all a,6 € A connect the ring multiplication with the vector space multiplication, A is of dimension n if the vector space has that dimension. Obviously, the system € of the complex numbers is also an algebra of dimension two over the reals. It is possible to reverse the procedure that we have followed and define the complex number system as an algebra of dimension two over the reals, which is also a field. ‘Then it can be shown that the only possible choice (within an isomorphism) for the product of two complex numbers is the rule given in Definitions 1.1. Further details concerning this method can be found in {19} 1.6 ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER Definition 1.3 The absolite value or modulus of a complex number z = 1 + iy, denoted |, is defined by bl=VFae (161) where, as usual, the radical stands for the principal (nonnegative) square root of 2? + y?. Example [1 +2i| = VIF F3 = vi. Formula (1.6-1) defines a function f : €-2%%R+. Definition 1.3 extends to the complex number system the concept of the absolute value of a real number 2. In fact, we have eo =ver= {TREO -2 ifr leu! — lzall 9% lez] = leil/lz2h, 22 #0 10. |2"| = ||", man integer Proofs The proofs of the properties 1, 2, and 3 follow easily from Definition 1.3, and we omit them.20 Chapter 1 Property 4 can be written as v27 +9? < lel + ly which is equivalent to 2? + y? < x? + 2|z||y| + y?, since both sides of the inequality are nonnegative real numbers. The last inequality reduces to 0 < [zllyl, which is obviously true. For the first inequality in property 5, we have Iz] = V¥ < VP F¥ = [2] and similarly for the second. We note that those inequalities may also be written as -lszslz| and lel Sy S lel (1.6-2) respectively. Hence we have Rez<|2| and mz <|z] (1.63) It is clear that Rez = |2| holds iff 2 is real and nonnegative. On the other hand, Imz = |2| holds iff z = iy with y > 0. Property 6 follows from 1)(22%2) = bei lz2l? by taking square roots, since both sides of [2122 This extends easily ton factors; ic., we have leallzal--- [zal (1.6-4) levzal? = (2122)(#022) = (21 lai[lz2] are nonnegative where n is any positive integer. ‘To prove property 7, we note that la tal =(a +2) +4) lanl? + 2122 + 122 + leal? But the conjugate of 2172 is #122, so that sayin + £122 = 2Re(2122) < 2)e1%2] = 2leilkal Therefore, leu + 22)? $ lea? + 2leulleal + lea? = (Veal + Leal)? and it follows that bu + 221 0. The case n trivial, and ifn = -m (m > 0), we have An alternate proof of (1.6-5) can be obtained by using property 9 and (1.6-3) as follows: otis) (ata) M282 assuming 21 +2 #0. The case 21 + 22 = O is trivial [zal + lea} Tar + 22]2 (Chapter 1 Theorem 1.4 If n complex numbers #1, 225 «++ 2m (n> 2) are given arbitrarily, then leu tanto tan] Seal + eal +--+ end (1.69) and the equality sign holds iff the ratio of any two nonzero terms is positive. Proof The case n = 2 has been considered in Theorem 1.3, property 7. Assuming that (1.6-9) is valid for n = k, we have len tag toot zal S lead + deal +--+ lee (1.610) ‘Then for the case n = k +1, we obtain, applying (1.6-5) and (1.6-10). Ven teen test ze t tual = Men +++ + 24) + zeal Sle test el + leaal Seal too + bead + leeeal Hence by mathematical induction, the property is valid for all n > 2. If we assume that equality holds in (1.6-9), we get eal + lea] +--+ lend = [(2n + 22) +--+ 2a Slate teal +--+ Sle + lea] te + lanl ‘Therefore, equality must hold throughout, so that [zx + z2| = [za] + lzah and if zp # 0, it follows that the ratio z1/z2 must be real and nonnegative, ive. 21/22 2 0, which implies that 21/22 > Oif 21 0. Of course, the same reasoning may be applied to any other pair of nonzero terms, Conversely, assuming, for instanee, that z # 0 and sx/z1 > 0(k = sn), we have 2, len +22 to++ + 2nl = fail |d + lai (142 lal ) oe GS ble Fal = lel + bel +--+ + [zal ‘This completes the proof.Complex Numbers 23 Theorem 1.5 (Lagrange’s Identity). If {21,22,-..y2n} and {Wwi, way +5 wa} are two sets of n complex numbers (n > 1), then Sosa] = Shah Sh DO lee -aewjP (16-11) Proof We have wy] = (2awy +o + zqta)(Fre ++ + Fain) = leiP hon? +--+ lena? + > aiiz js wa = Lela? +--+ [eal lwal? + Dewees, + 2502107) (16-12) and : Se lea oul? = (lend? +--+ bea?) lay? + + ha?) mie = [eaPPhwoa? + +++ + [enlluon? + D> esl?) co = [es hay +--+ Lea + Sleiti ji; + 2jF;091) (16-13) Subtracting (1.6-12) from (1.6-13), we get = Devas - sai? (1.614) which is equivalent to (1.6-11).24 Chapter 1 Corollary 1.1 (Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality). If {21,..-,2n} and {wi,..., wp} are two sets of complex numbers (n > 1), then do zewa} < Do leel? So lwel? (1.6-15) Fo where the equality sign holds iff the z_ are proportional to the iy. Proof This follows at once from (1.6-14) since the right-hand side of this equation is a nonnegative number. We have equality only when that right- hand side vanishes, ic., if (16-16) which is equivalent to 2; = rij, where r # Ois a constant of proportionality. Of course, condition (1.6-16) is trivially true if all 24 oF all wy are zeros. EXERCISES 1.2 1. Find the absolute value of each of the following. (a) 15-81 (b) 343 (©) — "hi (4) (@ 8) + 2abi 2. Prove that 2122 = 0 iff 1 = 0 or 22 = 0 by means of the properties of the modulus of e complex number. 3. Hf lil # [eal show that ata|* Tal- Fall 4. (a) If z = 2 + iy, prove that [2] + Iyl < V2I21 (b) If sy = 21 +iyi and 2 = x2 + iyp, prove that aM a= Ak mM 2 5. A complex number u such that |ul = 1 is called unimodular. Show that the following complex numbers are unimodular. (a) a (2 #0) (b) cos@ + isind oP (@) E28 eee) 6. Show that if u and v are unimodular, the numbers @, 1/u, uv, u/v, and u" are also unimodular 7. If |ul = 1 and u ¢ -1, prove that w can be expressed in the form = (1-+Ki)/(1—ki), where kis areal number. Deduce thet unimodular‘Complex Numbers 25 10. nL. 2 13, M4, 6 16. "7. 18, numbers other than ~1 can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the real numbers. . If wand v are unimodular, show that (u+v)/(1+uv) (uv # -1) is real. If [zx] <1, 7 20, and Df, re = 1, prove that | nual <1 1 Lp} < 1 and [al <1, prove that: pa belt 2) <1 o [P| © pila Show thet ipa her [p| = 1 oF [gl = 1, oF if [| Prove the identity Ip+al + p— al =2lbpP + la?) In particular, if [p| = [gl, then Ip+al + Ip— al? =4lpl? = |a| = 1 provided that p 4 ¢. Prove the entity le + leal? + leal? + lan + 222s = lev + 20l? + lea taal? tes taal? Prove the identity [1 = ab? — Ja — 8]? = (1 + Jad)? (lal + [6))? If Rea > 0 and Reb > 0, show that W< lara] Prove the identity (2-H Fea) = Show that. (a e)(1 + 86) + (c~ (1 + a2) (1+ 20)(1 + Zw) < (1+ [2P)(1 + ful) and use it together with the identity in Problem 16 to prove that la BIL + [el?)Y/? < Ja ef(1 + [bIP)/? + fe — O1(1 + fal?) Show that lac| — Re(ae) "Ale — al? — Yel — la)?26 Chapter 1 and then prove that |z|—Rez < ¥f, iff z = ae Drobnies, Amer. Math. Monthly, 77 (1970), 194). 19. Determine the set all points z such that the ratio (1 ~ 2)/(1 +2) is a purely imaginary number. 20. Show that the ratio z/(z — a)(1— az), where [al # 1, represents a positive real number whenever [2 21. Ifa and 6 #0 are complex numbers such that |a+ 6| = that 44/0 is real 20. If ay + 22 +29 = 0, show that: al <1. (81 la ~, prove (a) len — 22)? + Jeo — zal? + [ea — au? = Bleu? + leak? + lel?) and if zy +22 +25 +24 = 0, then (B) bea = eal? 4 lea — zal? + [ea — zal? + [au — an? 2 lanl? + feel? + lel? + le?) where equality holds iff 25 = —21 and 4 = —27 Remark (a) and (b) are special cases of Schoenberg's inequality: If They ze = 0, then Yolsesn — se? 4 (in? 2) al? = mt where zn¢1 = 21. [See Monthly, 57 (1950), 390-404.] 23. Let 21, 22, and w be complex numbers. Then w satisfies Ileal —leall < hol < [aul + Feel iff w = 121 +.com2 with Jou] = lea] = 1. [H. A. MacLean, Amer. Math, Monthly, 85 (1978), 105] +24, (a) Prove that the equation az + 5F +.¢ = 0 represents a single point in the complex plane if la] # [8]. Find that point (b) Show that the equation above represents a straight line in the com- plex plane if jal = [6] # 0 and ac = be. Show that in this ease the equation can always be put in the form Az + A? + C = 0, where ‘A # 0 is complex and C is real (c) Show that the equation has no solution if |al = [6| and ae 4 88 *25. Consider the equation 22 +a: +62 +6 =0. (a) Show that the equation represents two points (distinct or not) in the complex plane if a # b. (b) Show that the equation represents a circle if a = b,c is real and [oP —e > 0.Complex Numbers nu (©) Show that the equation represents the point —b if @ = 6, c is real, ‘and |b]? — e = 0, and has no solutions if 4 = 4, c is real, and bP <0. 26. Show that the equation of the straight line through the point zo is given in conjugate coordinates by fo + A(z — 20) where the constant A (called the elinant of the line) is related to its angle of inclination @ by the equation A = e~*#, and to the slope m by A = (1—im)/(1 + im). 27. Show that the equation of a circle with center at a and radius r is given in conjugate coordinates by pat 1.7 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX ‘NUMBERS Since the system € of the complex numbers, with multiplication restricted to the product of a complex number by a real number as in (1.2-2), consti- tutes a linear system of dimension two, itis natural to seek a geometrical interpretation of these numbers in terms of geometric elements in a plane, 1 sphere, or some other two-dimensional surface. ‘The simplest interpretation in terms of points in a plane, was proposed. independently by C. Wessel (1797), K. F. Gauss (1799), and J. R. Ar gand (1806). To obtain this representation, consider a Buclidean plane ‘and introduce Cartesian rectangular coordinates as usual, by choosing an arbitrary point O as the origin, a pair of orthogonal directed lines OX,OY 1s axes, and equal scales on the axes (Fig. 1.1). Then each complex number28 Chapter 1 +i is made to correspond to the point P with coordinates #, and conversely. This procedure establishes one-to-one mapping f between the set of all complex numbers and the set of proper points of the Euclidean plane. This plane, regarded as the image of € under Fis called the complex plane (also the z-plane or Gaussian plane). Example The complex number ~2+3i is represented by the point (—2,3) (Fig. 1.2) The point P of the plane corresponding to the complex number 2 = (a,)) is sometimes called the affiz (Cauchy) or the carrier of this number. We note that the complex real numbers (a,0) = « are represented by points on the OX axis and, conversely, points on this axis correspond to complex real numbers. Because of this, OX is called the real azis, or the azis of the real numbers. Similarly, the pure imaginary numbers (0,6) are represented by points on the OY axis, and conversely. Hence OY is ealled the imaginary azis, or the azis of the pure imaginary numbers, The origin O corresponds to the zero complex number (0,0). Because of the one-to-one mapping just established between complex numbers and points of the plane, the words complez number and point (of the plane) are often used interchangeably. It is also possible to introduce 1 geometric language directly in € by using the following dictionary: Point: complex number = (a,5) Real axis: the set {(a,0):a€ R} Imaginary axis: the set {(0,b):b€ R) Origin: the point (0,0) Distance between tivo points: the nonnegative real number |21 ~ #2] ete. Each point P of the complex plane, other than the origin, determines a directed segment of geometric vector OP (called its position vector), with origin O and endpoint P, and conversely. Hence our correspondence between complex mimbers and points of the plane induces s one-to-one‘Complex Numbers 29 correspondence between the complex numbers and the vectors with the origin O, provided that we associate the zero complex number (0,0) to the zero of null vector OO. This representation of complex numbers by vectors of origin O will be widely used in what follows. We note that the projections OP’ and OP" of the vector OP upon the axes OX and OY, respectively, have signed measures equal to @ and 5, respectively. Denoting the signed measures of OP" and OP", by and OP", we have OP'=a and OP" =6 (On the other hand, the length r of the vector OP is given by ra Ve +h =e) (ta) ‘The measure @ in radians of the oriented angle from the positive real axis to the vector OP is called the argument or the amplitude of the vector OP, as well as of the corresponding number z # 0, and we write = arg: (1.7.2) This number @ is determined only up to multiples of 2r. Sometimes the angle itself, also denoted @, is called the argument (or the amplitude) of OP, or of the number z, but this seldom causes any confusion. In most cases it is convenient to choose a principal value, or determina- tion, or branch of the argument. Usually we shall select, as the principal value of the argument, the value 6 satisfying the inequality —r < 0 + 2kx, and sin8 = sin(@y + 2kn) = sin8 058 = cos(o + 2k) = cos By Thus it is immaterial what value of the argument is chosen in the representation (1.8-2). ‘The polar form of the complex number is sometimes abbreviated by 2 = reisd. Examples 1. If: =i, we have r = 1 and 0 = iscos 5 +isin 5