Chapter 4: Phase Changes Lesson 2: Phase Diagrams
Lesson 1: Energy and Molecular Order Changes: Phase Changes Terminologies:
Terminologies:
• Melting - Adding energy to or heating a solid (increasing the kinetic
energy of the particle) to break down solids into liquid.
• Freezing - removing heat or cooling a liquid decreasing the kinetic
energy of the particles until particles are unable to move and remain
in position.
• Evaporation/Vaporization - particles tend to overcome the KE of their
neighboring particles.
• Condensation - the opposite of evaporation vaporization; the tendency
of particles in the vapor phase to cool down. By lowering the KE, the
particles are attracted back and returned to liquid.
• Sublimation - direct change of matter from solid phase to gas phase
due to relatively high vapor pressure (compared to atmospheric
pressure) as well as relatively weak forces of attraction between the
particles of solid.
• Deposition - the opposite of sublimation; direct change of matter in the
gas phase to solid phase.
• Reverse Phase Changes - occur at the same temperature if the force
of change occurs at the same rate. The evidence of different phases
of matter co-existing in equilibrium.
Phase change depends on the nature of the substance and on the
temperature and pressure of its environment. It involves gain/absorption
of heat by the substance from the environment (endothermic) or
loss/release of heat by the substance of the environment (exothermic).
• Evaporation - solid to gas
• Vaporization - liquid to gas
• Melting - solid to liquid
• Freezing - liquid to solid
• Condensation - gas to liquid
• Sublimation - solid to gas
• Deposition - gas to solid
• Supercritical fluid (SCF) - any substance at a temperature and
pressure above its critical point, where distinct liquid and gas
phases do not exist. It can effuse through solids like a gas, and
dissolve materials like a liquid.
Phase changes, as we have learned, are dependent on both
changes in temperature and pressure. To better understand how these
changes occur, we use phase diagrams.
• A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the different phases of matter. A typical phase diagram
has variables, pressure on the v-axis. and temperature on the x-
axis.
Remember: Whenever pressure is increased, the particles get
compressed therefore density will also increase. In the case of
melting, the density of liquid water is higher than ice since in
comparison, liquid water has higher pressure. This is the reason why
ice floats in pure water.
Chapter 5: Solubility
Terminologies:
• Molecules - a group of atoms bonded together, representing the
smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part
in a chemical reaction.
• Pure Substance - any single type of material that are made of only one
type of atom or only one type of molecule.
• Compound - a chemical substance composed, or many identical
molecules composed or atoms from more than one element held
together by chemical bonds.
• Mixture - substance made by combining two or more different
materials in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs.
• Homogeneous mixture - a mixture in which the components that make
up the mixture are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture.
• Heterogeneous mixture - a solid, liquid, or gaseous mixture that has
the same proportions of its components throughout any given sample.
• Solution- a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or
more substances. in such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved
in another substance, known as a solvent.
• Solute- the substance that is dissolved in a solution.
• Solvent- component of a solution that is present in the greatest
amount. It is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. Usually, a
solvent is a liquid.
One of the most important facets of Chemistry aims to explain what
matters are made of. As such, it is important to distinguish the difference
between pure substance and mixtures; element and compound; as well as
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture. Matter can be classified as
pure substance or mixtures according to its composition and properties.
Solubility is the process by which particles/molecules are integrated into
the different phases of matter and not only in liquids. Solubility is essential
and many chemical reactions.
Just like human groups, molecules in liquids and gasses are held
together by attractive forces. Humans are bound together by common
interests while molecules are held together by intermolecular forces. When
a solute dissolve a solvent, the particles of the solute disperse throughout
the solvent. Hence, to describe how a substance can dissolve in another
substance we need to look at the solution process.
There are three types of interaction:
1. Solute-solute interaction (break apart)
2. Solvent-solvent interaction (break apart)
3. Solute-solvent interaction (combine to form solution)
Remember that this solution process is dependent on pressure and
temperature. As the KE of the molecules become reactive, not only
chemical bonding becomes possible but mixture as well. The uniqueness
of the solution process also includes the rule of solubility that says: like
dissolves like.
Factors Affecting Solubility
There are three factors affecting solubility:
1. Nature of the solute (its chemical and physical properties)
2. Pressure
3. Temperature
The relationship between these factors can be best described:
Solubility of gasses, decrease at lower temperature.
Solubility of solids and liquids increase in temperature.
As pressure may affect the molecule concentration, the relationship
between gas and solubility is more unique and is best described using
Henry's law which is named after English chemist William Henry in
1803. The mathematical equation given is:
c = kP
Where:
c = molar concentration (mol/L) of the dissolved gas
P = pressure (in atm) of the gas over the solution
k = constant (unit in mol/L • atm) for the given gas where k
depends on temperature
Chapter 6: Calculations Involving Solutions
Lesson 1: Concentrations of Solutions Lesson 2: Stoichiometry in Solution Reactions
Terminologies: Terminologies:
• Dilute- to make (a liquid) thinner or weaker by adding water or • Stoichiometry - a section of chemistry that involves using
another solvent to it. relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical
reaction to determine desired quantitative data. In Greek,
Knowing the concentration of solutes present in a solution affects its stoikhein means element and metron means measure, so
properties. There are various ways to express the amount of solute stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of elements.
dissolve in a solvent: • Titration - a laboratory method used to obtain the unknown
1. Percent by Mass - computed by dividing the mass of the solute by concentration of solution. The slow addition of one solution of a
the mass of the solution. This method is advantageous to use known concentration (called a titrant) to a known volume of
when the solute is solid. another solution of unknown concentration until the reaction
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 reaches neutralization, which is often indicated by a color
Percent by mass (%) = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 + 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 change.
2. Percent by Volume - Expressing concentration in terms of volume • Titrant (Standard Solution) - a known concentration of solution
is the method used when the substances that form the solution • Analyte - the unknown concentration of the solution; substance
are in states whose quantities can be more accurately measured whose quantity or concentration is to be determined-is reacted
in terms of volume such as when both the solute and solvent are with a carefully controlled volume of solution of accurately known
in the same liquid or gaseous state. Calculations are like those of concentration called a standard solution.
percent by mass. • pH Indicator- is used in laboratories to signal the completion of
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 acid-base reaction.
Percent by volume (%) = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 • Burette - a graduated glass tube with a tap at one end, for
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
delivering known volumes of a liquid, especially in titrations.
3. Molarity - It is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 liter of
• Reactant - a substance that takes part in and undergoes change
solution. Molarity is denoted as M and has the unit of mol/L and is
during a reaction.
read as molar.
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
M= Stoichiometry equations are used to present a chemical reaction.
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Generally, we can follow these simple steps in performing stoichiometry:
4. Molality - is another unit of concentration. It is like molarity except 1. Balance the equation.
that the number of solutes is divided by 1kg of solvent instead of 2. Convert units of a given substance to moles.
1L of solution. Using molality instead of molarity is advised if the 3. Using the mole ratio, calculate the moles of substance yielded
calculations are performed over different temperatures since by the reaction.
volume is dependent on temperature. The unit for molality is m 4. Convert moles of wanted substance to desired units.
which is read as molal.
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 We use stoichiometry in understanding solution reactions. One of the
m=
𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 common laboratory methods used to identity unknown solution
concentration is called titration. In an aqueous solution, acid-base titration
5. Mole Fraction - defined as the amount of the component of the is often used.
solution expressed in moles per mol of solution. Expressed as:
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
X1 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

The X represents the mole fraction and I denote the solution

component in question.
Acid-base titration
Typically, the titrant (the known solution) is added from a burette to a
known quantity of the analyte the unknown solution) until the reaction is
complete. Knowing the volume of titrant added allows the determination
of the concentration of the unknown. Often, an indicator is used to usually
signa the end of the reaction, the endpoint.
The equivalence point indicates that the solution has already achieved
a state where both reactant quantities are chemically equivalent. We
realize that the equivalent point is achieved using a pH indicator.

General formula:
M Analyte V Analyte = M Titrant V Titrant

Dilution
Often, solutions need to be diluted to conserve samples. In the dilution
process, we take a measured volume of a solution of known high
concentration and mix it with a measured volume of the solvent to yield
another solution of lower concentration that we refer to as dilute solution.
This condition is almost similar with titration where we use the equation:
Mconc Vconc = Mdilute Vdilute