Waste Management and the Circular Economy

Course Credit: 4(60 hrs)

Innocent Ndoh Mbue, PhD

Professor in Ecoinformatics
ENSP, University of Douala-Cameroon
• E-mail: dndoh2009@gmail.com Tel: 653754070/656568758

1
NB: Environment (Biodiversity, Energy, Forest, Water, Waste)
 Course Outline /TEACHING PLAN

Week Slot Topics Delivery Mode

L P
1. The concept of waste
2. Waste Legislations (National and International laws) Mbog
1 3. Different types of industrial wastes 8 2
1. Characteristics of wastes
2-3 2. Waste Management process 8 1
3. Integrated solid waste management Ndoh
1. Waste generation:
 Statistical technics in waste management
4-5  Material flow analysis 8 2
 Load count analysis
6 Environmental Risk Assessment 4
 Defining risk and environmental risk;
 Methods of risk assessment;
 Case studies

2
ID Topic Hours
7 Radioactive Waste Management –Fundamentals 5
 Sources, measures and health effects; nuclear power plants
and fuel production;
 waste generation from nuclear power plants; disposal
options
8 Environmental Risk Assessment 5
 Defining risk and environmental risk;
 Methods of risk assessment;
 Case studies
9 Physicochemical Treatment of Solid and Hazardous Waste
 Chemical treatment processes for MSW (combustion,
stabilization and solidification of hazardous wastes); 8
 Physicochemical processes for hazardous wastes (soil
vapour extraction, air stripping, chemical oxidation);
 Ground water contamination and remediation

3
 … Course Outline

ID Topic Hours
10 Biological Treatment of Solid and Hazardous Waste 6
 Composting; bioreactors; anaerobic decomposition of solid
waste;
 principles of biodegradation of toxic waste; inhibition; co-
metabolism; oxidative and reductive processes; slurry
phase bioreactor; in-situ remediation
11 Landfill design 4
 Landfill design for solid and hazardous wastes; leachate
 collection and removal; landfill covers;
 incineration
TPE 20

Total 60

4
 … TEACHING PLAN
Section II: The Linear Model Vs Circular Economy
1. Recognise, explain and discuss how materials and
energy flow through our economic system Mbog
2. Apply a systems approach to developing circular
9 economy models to keep materials and energy at their 4 1
highest value
Municipal Solid Waste Management – Fundamentals
 Definition, Sources; composition;
 Generation rates; collection of waste; separation, 8 1
10-12 Mbog
 transfer and transport of waste;
 treatment and disposal options
13-15 Hazardous Waste Management – Fundamentals 12
 Definition, Characterization of waste; Mbog
 compatibility and flammability of chemicals; fate and
transport of chemicals; health effects
Radioactive Waste Management –Fundamentals Mbog
 Sources, measures and health effects; nuclear power
plants and fuel production;
 waste generation from nuclear power plants; disposal
options
TOTAL 48 20
5
 Examination

• Assignments:
Attendance: 5%
Class Participation: 5%
Devoir 10%
Technical Reports: 10 %
 CONTINUOUS Assessment (CC) 30%
EXAMINATION 70%

Total 100

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 Structure of Technical Report

 Title
 Abstract (Maximum, 250 words)
It should contain these four elements:
1. The purpose of the study (the central question);
2. A brief statement of what was done (Methods);
3. A brief statement of what was found (Results);
4. A brief statement of what was concluded
(Discussion, in part).

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… Structure of Technical Report

1. Introduction (1-2 pages)

1.1. Background and/or literature review
1.2. Statement of the Problem
1.3. Statement of Purpose
1.4. Specific Objectives
1.5. Significance of Study
1.6. Scope of Study
NB: Plagiarism = 0/10, therefore make sure you
acknowledge ALL work whenever necessary

8
… Structure of Technical Report

2. Study site (1-1.5 pages)

» Where and when was the work done?

» A description of the study site is necessary. This
should contain some (depending on the problem)
or all of the following:
» Location (Latitudes/Longitudes and site- you
may use a map for emphasis),
» Biophysical Characteristics,
» Socioeconomic Characteristics of the area

9
… Structure of Technical Report

3. Methods (or Materials and Methods)(2-3 pages)

» What materials were used?

» How were they used?
» The function of this section is to describe all
experimental procedures, including controls. The
description should be complete enough to enable
someone else to repeat your work.
» A. Research design
» B. Data sources (to include variable measured
and why)/software used/other materials used,
» C. Sampling design if required/necessary,
» D. Method of data analysis 10
 … Structure of Technical Report

4. Results (2-3 pages)

• Simply present your results using figures and tables
• The text should be understandable by someone who has not seen your
figures and tables.

Example:
• Incorrect: The results are given in Figure 1.
• Correct: Rural women involved in some kind of micro-credit schemes
had improved livelihoods than those not involved (Fig. 1).

• The results of statistical tests can be presented in parentheses following

a verbal description.

Example: Health hazards resulting from Arsenic contamination were

significantly greater for zones involved in gold mining (2(1, N = 95) =
35.688, p < .000)) than elsewhere.
11
 … Structure of Technical Report

5. Discussion (1-2 pages)

• Interpretation of results (e.g. discussion of apparent impact of
assumptions or limitations of the approach).

The Discussion should contain at least:

 the relationship between the results and the original hypothesis, i.e.,
whether they support the hypothesis, or cause it to be rejected or
modified,
 an integration of your results with those of previous studies in order to
arrive at explanations for the observed phenomena (compare how your
conclusions agree or contrast with previously published works ),

• End the Discussion with a summary of the principal points you want the
reader to remember. Do not close on what you wish you had done, rather
finish stating your conclusions and contributions. 12
… Structure of Technical Report

6 Conclusions (1-2 paragraphs)

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 Proposed Topics for Term Paper
1. Waste Legislation in Cameroon: Do actors comply with existing
regulations?
2. Anaerobic treatment technologies: Examples and case studies
3. Environmental Risk Assessment of MSW: Concept and application
4. Strategies to achieve a more circular economy (e.g., eco efficiency,
clean production, industrial ecology,…) and how technology such as
big data facilitates this.
5. Waste management and ISO14001 accreditation: does HYSACAM
merit this?
6. Application of a systems approach to developing circular economy
models to keep materials and energy at their highest value.
7. Waste treatment Methods: Composting and Recycling
8. Hazardous waste management
9. Waste-to-energy valorisation technologies: Concept and application
10. The international effort to control the Transboundary movement 14of
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hazardous Waste: the Basel and Bamako Conventions
 Suggested Text

• Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., Vigil, S., 1993. Integrated Solid Waste
Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill
Book Co, Singapore.

• CIRAIG (2015), „Circular Economy: A Critical Literature Review of Concepts‟,

CIRAIG Literature Review, and Montreal: UQAM, ESG.
http://www.ciraig.org/pdf/CIRAIG_Circular_Economy_Literature_Review_Oct
2015.pdf

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Municipal Solid Waste Management – Fundamentals
 Definition, Sources; composition;
 Generation rates; collection of waste; separation,
 transfer and transport of waste;
 treatment and disposal options

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 PROBLEMATIQUE DE LA GESTION DES DECHETS SOLIDES.
Filière de gestion des déchets Problèmes liés aux déchets
1. Quels sont les types de déchets et leur 1.
volume actuel? Quelle quantité de
déchets est produite quotidiennement ?
2. Comment les déchets sont-ils traités et
éliminés à ce jour (s‟ils le sont) ? 2.
3. Qui est chargé de la collecte, du
traitement et de l‟élimination des
déchets et (si ces personnes existent) 3.
quels sont les moyens mis à leur
disposition ?
4. Quelle est la quantité et quel est le type 4.
de déchets issus de la catastrophe ? Où
se trouvent-ils ?
Les systèmes actuels de
traitement et d‟élimination des
déchets peuvent-ils répondre au
volume de déchets produits ?
Y a-t-il des déchets dangereux qui
demandent une attention spéciale
(tels que les déchets médicaux) ?
Les organisations chargées de la
collecte des déchets peuvent-elles
faire face à la demande ?
Existe-t-il des structures
appropriées d‟élimination des
déchets pour tous les types de
déchets produits ?
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 PROBLEMATIQUE DE LA GESTION DES DECHETS SOLIDES.

Les déchets Urbains solides proviennent des activités humaines à savoir :

- Les dechets domestiques
- Les déchets commerciaux et artisanaux
- Les déchets de voiries
- Les déchets industriels
- Les déchets agricoles et animaux.

Ces déchets peuvent contenir diverses formes de polluants indésirables ou peuvent

être le lieu de prolifération et de production d‟insectes et de rougeurs. Ces polluants
insectes et rougeurs sont une menace constante de la santé de l‟homme, des
animaux. En effet :

• Les différentes formes de mouches. de moustiques d‟insectes et les rongeurs se

reproduisent près des habitations dans les immondices et les flaques d‟eau non
contrôlées et les boites de conserve utilisées que l‟on a jeté au hasard.

• Les bactéries. les protozoaires. les virus et les oeufs des vers intestinaux se
développent dans les eaux usées et les excréments et contaminent le sol. ies herbes
et les marres d‟eaux,. 18
 PROBLEMATIQUE…

• Les usines et la combustion incontrôlée ou incomplète des déchets solides

libèrent dans l‟atmosphère des particules solides des composés de soufre et
d‟azote de l‟acide chlorhydrique.. .

• Les eaux de pluie qui traversent un dépôt de déchets ou l‟atmosphère chargé de

polluants. en sortent sous forme d‟un lixivat qui contient une proportion élevée
de germes ou de polluants qui peuvent contaminer l‟eau du sous-sol.

Les détritus dont sont jonchés les villes et les campagnes. le dégagement d‟odeurs et
de liquides répugnants ou nauséabonds pendant la fermentation des déchets. la
dispersion de fragments de papier. de morceaux de plastiques et de poussière par le
vent sont l‟une des atteintes les plus flagrantes à la beauté de l‟ Environnement.

A ce stade, il convient de rappeler que le coût des mesures de restauration de

l‟environnement. étant souvent très supérieur aux profits économiques réalisés, il faut
aux tous premiers stades de développement d‟une ville. faire le nécessaire pour
assurer une bonne gestion des déchets.
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 PROBLEMATIQUE…

En effet, il est beaucoup plus coûteux de débarrasser les rues et les parcs des
immondices et des papiers plastiques, que de mettre préventivement en place les
installations et règlements nécessaires à leur dépôt et à leur ramassage.

Dans le pays hautement touristiques, il convient aussi de noter que le visiteur risque
d‟être rebuté par le spectacle de jardin et de plage jonchés d‟immondices et de papier
plastiques ; par les fumées et les odeurs des déchets en combustion ou en
décomposition, par les débris flottants et l‟écume mousseuse qui souille les cours
d‟eau pittoresques.

” La collecte et l‟élimination correctes des déchets urbains est donc une nécessité et
une obligation pour tout un chacun”.

II existe cependant des contraintes démographiques, politiques. Réglementaires et

institutionnelles, techniques et technologiques. matérielles et humaines, d‟éducation et
de sensibilisation et les problèmes financiers.

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 1. Contraintes démographiques
 Problèmes lies a la croissance démographique et au tissu urbain
 La démographie galopante des villes
 La non délimitation entre les zones Industrielles, portuaires, Commerciales et
residentielles et avec habitations et les équipements Collectifs
 Apparition inadequate des zones Spontanées au cœur des quartiers Residentiels
ou industriels
 La promiscuité des différents types d‟habitats (residentiels, spontanes,
Immeubles . ..)
 l‟insuffisance de reseaux routiers carrossables en toutes saisons
 La démographie galopante des villes - La non délimitation entre les zones
 Apparution inadéquate des zones Spontanées au cœur des quartiers Résidentiels
ou industriels
 La promiscuité des différents types D‟habitats (résidentiels, spontanés,
Immeubles . ..)

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 Comment corrigés le Problème de Promiscuité des différents
types d’habitat
L‟une des approches les mieux indiquées en ce qui concerne la promiscuité des
différents types d‟habitat passe par une politique d‟urbanisation maitrisé.

 les flux migratoires doivent être réduits si possible.

 Le respect des plans directeurs, la responsabilisait communale permettront une
planification plus rigoureuse en matière d‟habitat.
 L‟application stricte des normes ne fera que renforcer les structures urbaines
existantes.
 Malheureusement, le développement actuel des villes se fait dans un
environnement économique difficile ce qui rend sa maitrise particulièrement
ardue.
 La prendre en compte le problème de gestion des déchets dans le plan
d‟urbanisme.

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2. Problemes politiques

 L‟absence de volonté politique dans la gestion des dechets

 Absence de plan ou schéma directeur
 La mauvaise utilisation des ressources par les autorites politiques
 La relégation au second plan des Services techniques
 Implication politique dans le choix des fournisseurs
 Interventions intempestïves des elus Dans la gestion des déchets
 Conflit d‟autorite entre elus

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 3. Problemes reglementaires et institutionnels

 Absence de règlementations ou leur Insuffisance ou mauvais application des

règlementations existants
 Non application des reglementations Existantes
 Mauvaise définition des taches et des Roles des intervenants
 Institutionalisation des recuperateurs Revendeurs et valorisateur
 Insuffisance et l‟inorganisation du Secteur informel des ong et des
groupements associatifs

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 4. Problemes techniques et technologiques

 Absence de schéma directeur d‟objectif Et de planification

 La prédisposition des techniciens aux Technologies sophistiquees
 Transfert des technologies non Adaptees
 Utilisation de technologies couteuses
 L‟ignorance des techniciens aux Technologies simples
 La meconnaissance des dechets (Sources, caracteristiques, composition)
 Circuit de collecte, de transport Non maitrise
 Absence/insuffisance ou non maitrise des circuits de valorisation, de recuperation
et de recyclage
 Insuffisance dans l‟entretien et le Fonctionnement des ouvrages et des
Equipements
 Les solutions actuelles manquent Souvent de fondement technique et
Technologique 25
5. Problemes materiels et humains

 L‟utillsation anarchique et abusive du materiel

 La vetuste du materiel
 Absence et manque d‟entretien du materiel roulant ‟ .
 Mode de recrutement et gestion du personnel
 Insuffisance et qualité du personnel
 l‟indisponibilite des pieces detaches
 Approvisionnement irregulier en carburant et en lubrifiant

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6. Information - sensibilization

 Utilization des canaux de sensibilization inappropries

 Populations non motivees pour l‟embellissement du cadre de vie
 La méconnaissance des pratiques et des bénéfices de l‟hygiene publique
 Resistance aux changements due au poids de la tradition
 Non implication de la population aux projets (femmes en particulier)
 Insuffisance de la sensibilisation de la population

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 7. Problemes financiers

 Absence de politique de financement

 Non maitrise du cout de l‟operation
 Absence ou imprécision de source de financement
 Absence de ligne budgétaire propre, a la gestion des déchets
 Mauvaise utilisation de crédit alloue
 Disponibilité des fonds au moment opportun
 Complexité du mode d‟engagement des depenses
 Crise de confiance entre fournisseurs et elus

 important de comprendre que la gestion des déchets en milieu urbain ne pourra se

faire qu‟avec la combinaison d‟actes et d‟actions multiformes.

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 Factors that influence waste management
(Summary)

• Political: political will, multi-level governance, government regulations (taxes,

subsidies), data collection and monitoring; a willingness to pursue changes
• Economic: business model, cost-benefit analysis, availability of finance, collaboration
and transparency along the value chain;
• Environmental: sustainability policy, human health impact;
• Social: community perception;
• Technological advances: innovation, infrastructure;
• Educational: research centres, cooperation projects (it encompassed universities,
research centres and companies, which work hand in hand in search of solutions for
the problems associated with waste Management in the country and beyond)
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 Comment corrigés la vétusté du matériel roulant et l’insuffisance
de personnel qualifié?
 l‟identification et la mise en œuvre d‟une meilleure politique de planification de
l‟achat du matériel. Il faudrait que les coûts d‟entretien ne soient plus ignorer et
que la notion d‟amortissement soit mieux comprise. Le choix du matériel doit
tenir compte de la disponibilité des pièces de rechange, de leur coût.

 L‟utilisation anarchique et, abusive de ce matériel doit être arrêtée. Il ne saurait

être admis que le véhicule de collecte serve pour les besoins personnels des
responsables au détriment des services techniques

 Des efforts doivent être faits dans le sens de la mise en place de structures et
politiques d‟entretien du matériel roulant.

 Le personnel technique doit être suffisamment qualifié: le mode de recrutement

doit être transparent et répondre à des objectifs clairs d‟amélioration des services
rendus naturellement, les moyens, même modestes doivent être gérés de façon
rationnelle.
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 Definition
Waste management is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from
its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection,
transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation.
It also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste
management encompassing guidance on recycling etc.

The objectives of the solid waste management are to;

a.Minimize waste generation;
b.Maximize the collection efficiency of waste;
c.Reduce the volume of waste requiring disposal and maximize the economic value
of waste; and
d.Develop and adopt environmentally sound treatment and disposal methods.

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 … Waste Management

• The objectives of the solid waste management are to:

1. Minimize waste generation;

2. Maximize the collection efficiency of waste;

3. Reduce the volume of waste requiring disposal and maximize the

economic value of waste; and

4. Develop and adopt environmentally sound treatment and disposal

methods.

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Four stages of the waste management chain.

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 Functional elements of solid waste management program

The activities involved with the management of solid wastes from the point
of generation to final disposal have been grouped into six functional
elements:

1) Waste generation,

2) On-site handling, storage, and processing,

3) Collection,

4) Transfer and transport,

5) Processing and recovery and

(6) Disposal.

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 … Functional Elements of a SW Management System
Waste segregation refers
to the separation of wet
waste and dry waste, the
Waste
purpose is to recycle dry
Generation
waste easily and to use
wet waste as compost.

Waste handling,
Separation/segregation,storage and
processing at the source

Truck & routing

Small to
large truck Collection

Separation and
Transfer &
processing and
Transport
transformation of SW

Disposal 35
36
 Description of the functional elements of solid waste managements
Functional element Description
Waste generation Those activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of
value and are either thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
On- site handling, Those activities associated with the handling, storage, and processing
Storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the point of generation
Collection Those activities associated with the gathering of solid wastes and the
hauling of wastes after collection to the location where the collection
vehicle is emptied.
Transfer and transport Those activates associated with (1) the transfer of wastes from the
smaller collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and (2) the
subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over long distance to the
disposal site.
Processing and recovery Instead of mere disposal, solid waste may be considered a resource
for reclamation or by-product manufacture. Overall systems for
processing and recovery of solid waste may include three major
component subsystems: size reduction, separation and recovery
processes.: conversion products, or energy from solid wastes.
Disposal Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of solid wastes
including those wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill
site, semisolid wastes (sludge) from wastewater treatment plants
incinerator residue compost, or other substances from the wires37solid
waste processing plants that are of no further use.
Waste collection

Household level collection 38

39
 Organisation d’un système de collecte
Une bonne organisation nécessite :
• Un Personnel permanent.
• Une bonne formation du personnel
• Une valorisation financière du Poste
• Un contrôle à postiori
• Un travail d‟équipe
• Une bonne organisation du service d‟exploitation et du service de
maintenance des véhicules
• Un découpage de la ville en secteur pour une meilleure exploitation et
de contrôle véhicules.
• Un bon emplacement des dépôts de transit pour minimiser les coûts de
collecte.

Une bonne organisations opérationnelle (caractéristiques du matériel vitesse

de collecte, horaires de Collecte et de balayage, désignation des circuits de
collecte pour tous les moyens de collecte, une bonne connaissance des
quantités et qualités des déchets).
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 Mise en place de la collecte et question quotidienne
L‟organisation ou la réorganisation de la collecte des ordures ménagères se fait en
trois étapes :
• diagnostic,
• élaboration de la nouvelle organisation.
• mise en place.

Diagnostic
1l s‟agit de bien connaître la façon dont se déroule le service. Pour cela, il faut une
personne chargée de faire le point. de la situation sur le terrain :
• évaluation des quantités collectées. Faire, si possible. une campagne de
pesées sur une ou plusieurs semaine s‟il n‟y a pas de pesées systématiques :
• réaliser un état précis du personnel (nombre. affectation. temps de travail . ...).
du matériel (nombre, type. âge....) et des conditions d‟entretien et de
réparation ;
• Relever les points problématiques (circuits trop longs. Accidents fréquents sur
un secteur, récipients de collecte mal adaptés, matériel en panne. circuits de
décision trop longs....) :
• discuter avec le personnel pour connaître son point de vue.
Ce didgnostic peut durer 3 à 6 mois suivant la taille de l‟agglomération. II est
41
essentiel au reste de la mise en place.
 Mise en place de la collecte et question quotidienne……
Elaboration du projet :

Suivant les moyens financiers qui pourront être alloués, l‟ampleur de la

reorganization changera.

Certaines mesures ne coûtent rien :

• modification de l‟organigramme,
• rééquihbrage de secteurs de collecte,
• modification d‟horaires,
• amélioration des circuits de prise de décision.

D‟autres sont plus coûteuses :

• remplacement ou achat de véhicules,
• embauche de personnel,
• construction ou rénovation de garages ou ateliers,
• construction de dépôts relais ou centres de transfert.
• achat de récipients de collecte.
La réorganisation se fera d‟abord en tenant compte du constat établi précedemment
(Où sont les points faibles , Où sont les points forts ?). 42
 Mise en place de la collecte et question quotidienne…

Plusieurs points peuvent être revus :

• Centres de transfert : il faut faire une étude économique globale en fonction de la
production journalière et de la distance du centre de traitement. A partir de
l00t/jour avec un centre de traitement à plus de 20 km du centre ville (ou plus
d‟une heure aller/retour), on peut envisager un centre de transfert :
• Dépôts relais : indispensables avec des matériels de petit gabarit (utilization de
technologies traditionnelies)
• Sectorisation : le découpage de la ville en secteurs de collecte équivalents en
temps de travail (mais pas forcément en superficie) peut être nécessaire.

La première contrainte à analyser est le type d‟habitat. En effet, c‟est le type d‟habitat
qui conditionnera le matériel utilisable donc le personnel afférent. et les récipient qui
pourront être utilisés. Ensuite, en fonction de la densité des ordures ménagères. de la
production par habitant et de la vitesse de ramassage. On déterminera le secteur
collecte pour une journée de travail.

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 Mise en place de la collecte et question quotidienne…
On pourra donc avoir du matériel différent en fonction de l‟habitat d‟une part, et des
récipients utilisés d‟autre part. Attention cependant à ne pas trop multiplier les types
de materiel : il faut penser à leur remplacement en cas de panne.
• modifications des horaires : on peut envisager de commencer plutôt. réaliser
des collecte/vidage des dépôts relais. Ce nouveau plan de collecte entraînera
des investissements et des frais de fonctionnement qu‟il faudra chiffrer.

• Gestion quotidienne du service : il faut mettre en place un système de fiches

journalières, hebdomadaires, mensuelles et annuelles qui permettent de
suivre la situation pour chaque circuit.

Les fiches journalières doivent être remplies par les chauffeurs après chaque vidage.
Elles ont remises au chefs.de secteur (ou de garage de secteur), afin qu‟il les compile
sur sa fiche de journée, puis sur un tableau hebdomadaire, mensuel et annuel.

Suivant l‟importance de l‟agglomération, les chefs de secteurs envoient au chef du

service de collecte des fiches récapitulatives tous les jours ou toutes les semaines.

De même pour l‟entretien des véhicules, il faut un carnet de bord et un récapitulatif

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mensuel des consommations de l‟entretien et des réparations.
 Mise en place de la collecte et question quotidienne…
Mise en place

Après accord des autorités locales, la nouvelle organisation retenue devra être
mise en place. il faudra :

• Impliquer les populations à la gestion de leur cadre de vie.

• Faire une information auprès du personnel,
• Commander les matériels,
• Recruter le personnel,
• Informer les usagers des changements.
• Faire la mise en place.
L‟information du personnel et des usagers est importante. Il s‟agit que chacun
comprenne les nouvelles modalités quelqu‟en soit l‟ampleur. Si elles ne sont pas
comprises, elles ne seront pas appliquées et le service fonctionnera mal.

Il faut également assurer un suivi rigoureux de la situation à l‟exemple de ce qui est

indiqué précédemment tant pour les paramètres quantitatifs que qualitatifs (entretien
des véhicules). Cette gestion régulière permettra de vérifier la pertinence de la
nouvelle organisation et de la corriger au besoin, soit très rapidement après sa mise
45 en
place. soit plus longtemps après, car des améliorations sont toujours nécessaires.
 The resource cycle
The production of waste is related to the use and consumption of materials by all
sectors of society. The production of waste within a cycle of resource use, processing,
re-use and disposal (Courtesy of Professor William Powrie, University of
Southampton):

46
On-site Handling and Storage
Refers to activities associated with the handling of SW until they are placed in the
containers used for storage before collection [curb collection, direct haul, transfer
stations]

1. Curb
In this system the homeowner is responsible for placing the containers to be emptied at the
curb (road side) on collection day and for returning the empty containers back to his house.

2. Alleys
This is collection of waste from the alley ways beside houses. Who will take the containers to
the collection vehicles could be arranged between the owner of the house and the collection
crew (the organization).

3. Set-out
Waste containers are set out from the homeowner‟s property by additional collection crews that
go with the collection vehicle. The owner of the house is responsible for returning the empty
containers to their storage location.

4. Backyard/setout set-back
Collection crew that goes with the collection vehicle are responsible for bringing out stored
solid waste form the dwelling units and other activities related to collection. It is the only
satisfactory system in which the house holder does not get involved. 47
 Collection Technologies And Strategies

Key Points Concerning Main Collection Systems

System Description Advantages Disadvantages

a) SHARED: Residents can bring out waste at any time

Dumping at designated Residents and other Low capital costs Loading the waste into trucks is
location generators are slow and unhygienic. Waste is
required to dump their scattered around the collection
waste at a specified point. Adjacent residents and
location or in a shopkeepers protest about the
masonry enclosure. smell and appearance.

Shared container Residents and other Low operating costs If containers are not maintained
generators put their they quickly corrode or are
waste inside a damaged. Adjacent residents
container which is complain about the smell and
emptied or removed. appearance.

48
 … Collection Technologies And Strategies
System
b) INDIVIDUAL: The generators need a suitable container and must store the waste on their property until it is collected.
Block collection
Kerbside collection
Description
Collector sounds horn or Economical. Less waste
rings bell and waits at
specified locations for
residents to bring
waste to the
collection vehicle.
Waste is left outside Convenient. No permanent
property in a
container and picked
up by passing vehicle,
or swept up and
collected by sweeper.
(HYSACAM)
Advantages Disadvantages
If all family members are
on streets. No out when collector
permanent container comes, waste must be
or storage to cause left outside for
complaints. collection.
It may be scattered by
wind, animals and
waste pickers.
Waste that is left out may
public storage. be scattered by wind,
animals, children or
waste pickers.
If collection service is
delayed, waste may
not be collected or
some time, causing
considerable
49
nuisance.
 … Collection Technologies And Strategies
System Description Advantages Disadvantages

b) INDIVIDUAL: The generators need a suitable container and must store the waste on their property until it is
collected

Residents must be
available to hand waste
Waste collector knocks
over.
on each door or rings
Convenient for resident.
Door to door collection doorbell and waits for
Little waste on street. Not suitable for apartment
waste to be brought out
buildings because of the
by resident.
amount of walking
required.

The most expensive

Collection laborer enters
Yard collection
property to remove waste.
system, because of the
walking involved.
Very convenient for
residents. No waste in Cultural beliefs, security
street. considerations or
architectural styles may
prevent laborers from
entering properties. 50
Types of Collection Systems
 Hauled Container System: Hauled to disposal sites, emptied, and returned to
original location or some other location. It can be a hoist truck, tilt frame container
or trash trailer. In general, this type of system is suitable for areas with high waste
generation.

 Stationary Container System: The container used to store waste remains at the
point of generation, except when moved to curb or other location to be emptied. It
can a mechanized system or manually loaded collection vehicle.

The frequency of collection depends on:

 the type of waste,
 storage limitations, and
 financial status of the agencies.

51
 …Waste management Process. (Adapted from Tchobanoglous, 1993)

Waste
Generation • The problem with this diagram is that it doesn't
include waste minimization nor risk assessment
procedures.
Waste handling, separation, • From the diagram, five principal steps in solid
storage and processing waste management:
at the source 1. Generation (varies by country,
socioeconomic status, other practices);
2. Waste processing (separation, and storage so
that some might be recycled);
Collection
3. Waste collection (picking up solid wastes and
emptying containers into suitable vehicles
Transfer and Separation and processing from transport);
Transport and transformation of 4. Transfer to central storage facility or to a
solid waste processing facility; and
5. Transport and Disposal (Landfilling)
Disposal

Figure 1: The Waste Management Process 52

 … Waste management cycle

• Waste management is one of the important services provided by

most urban authorities.

• Solid wastes need to be characterized by sources, generation

rates, types of wastes produced, and composition in order to
monitor and control prevailing waste management systems while
improving the existing system.

• These data will help to make financial, regulatory and institutional

decisions. But population explosion and invention of new
materials have kept the quantitities and characteristics changing
every day. 53
 Waste Management Hierarchy
Waste hierarchy is a tool used in the evaluation of processes that protect the
environment alongside resource and energy consumption to most favourable to least
favourable actions
• The waste management hierarchy indicates an order of
preference for action to reduce and manage waste, and is
usually presented diagrammatically in the form of a
pyramid:
– waste prevention
– waste reduction
– re-use
– materials recycling
– incineration with energy recovery
– incineration without energy recovery
– landfill with energy recovery
– landfill without energy recovery

The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from
products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. 54
55
The hierarchy captures the progression of a material or product through successive
stages of waste management, and represents the latter part of the life-cycle for each
product

Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by
modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in
manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. 56
Waste Prevention:
This means avoiding the potential for waste generation in the first place. It is usually
linked with manufacturing industry, and is synonymous with :
 Reductions in resource use,
 Resources Selective,
 Avoiding certain types of resources, especially hazardous wastes

Waste Minimization:
Waste minimisation is the process and the policy of reducing the amount of waste
produced by a person or a society.
Waste minimization strategies include all actions to reduce the quantity of waste
requiring disposal. Waste minimization includes:
 Reducing waste at source
 Reusing materials
 Recycling waste materials
 Reducing use of toxic or harmful materials

Waste minimizations has the following advantages:

 Reduced volume of waste for disposal
 Reduced costs of collection and disposal
 Longer life of disposal sites
 Reduced environmental and health impacts
 Reduced costs through more efficient use of resources 57
9
…Waste management hierarchy
Other schemes utilize the 3 R's :
 reduce,
 reuse,
 recycle.
• It can be seen that there is some overlap in these ideas - some common
features, but they are very sketchy plans.

• When trying to plan waste management we are dealing with people, and
planning any human activity is a complex process. That is why we need to
have legislation.

Four Rs concept:
 Reduce,  Use containers that are already at
 Reuse, home
 Recycle,  Refuse to buy the new item when they
 Refuse are not required

58
 …Waste management: hierarchy
There are other similar strategies. For example the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in USA has a hierarchy of options:
1. Source reduction
2. Recycling (reuse and recycling wastes)
3. Treatment - destroying, detoxifying or neutralizing wastes
4. Disposal - discharging wastes.

Another possible hierarchy is the 6 R's

 Rethink,
 Refuse(Refuser),
 Reuse (Réutiliser),
 Replace (Remplacer),
 Recycle,
 Remove.

59
 Source Reduction or “Reduce”
• Preferred method: Prevents the generation of waste in the first
place
• Manufacturer: Decrease materials/energy used during
manufacturing/distribution
• Consumer: Purchase items with minimal packaging, avoid
disposable products
• Includes backyard composting

PAYT (Pay-As-You-Throw) refuse programs provide a financial incentive to reduce,

reuse, recycle. Households are charged based on the weight or volume of waste they
put out at the curb rather than a flat fee.

EPA definition of Source Reduction: the design, manufacture, purchase, or use of

materials to reduce their quantity or toxicity before they reach the waste stream
including minimizing the production of wastes during any step in the creation or use
of a product.
60
 Reuse

• Prolonging a product’s usable life

• Repairing items, selling them or donating them to charity
• Using durable rather than disposable items (i.e. reusable
shopping bags, metal spoons)
• Preferable to recycling because item does not need to be
collected/reprocessed

61
 Recycle

• Taking a product at the end of its useful life and using all or part of it to make
another product
• Benefits: Saves energy, natural resources, and landfill space, reduces
pollution, creates jobs and useful products
• Requires collection, processing, remanufacturing and purchase (Close the
Loop!)

62
Les risques sanitaires liés à la mauvaise gestion des déchets solides
Ces déchets peuvent contenir diverses formes de polluants indésirables ou peuvent
être le lieu de prolifération et de production d‟insectes et de rougeurs. Ces polluants
insectes et rougeurs sont une menace constante de la santé de l‟homme, des animaux.
En effet :

1) La présence d‟eaux stagnantes associée à l‟amoncellement des déchets

favorisent la reproduction des moustiques vecteurs du paludisme, de la dengue
et de la fièvre jaune.
2) Les tas de déchets peuvent constituer un risque d‟incendie et la fumée peut être
toxique en cas de combustion de plastiques ou de produits chimiques.
3) Les moisissures qui se développent dans les décharges peuvent causer des
difficultés respiratoires.
4) Les objets coupants ou piquants tels que les aiguilles ou les morceaux de verre
présentent un risque supplémentaire pour les personnes qui marchent dans ces
décharges.
5) Le lessivage des déchets par la pluie peut contaminer les sources d‟eau.
6) Les dépôts sauvages peuvent gêner l‟écoulement des cours d‟eau et causer des
inondations.
7) Les déchets sont inesthétiques et affectent le moral des communautés.
63
64
… Les risques sanitaires liés à la mauvaise gestion des déchets solides

 A ce stade, il convient de rappeler que le coût des mesures de restauration de

l‟environnement étant souvent très supérieur aux profits économiques réalisés, il
faut aux tous premiers stades de développement d‟une ville faire le nécessaire
pour
 assurer une bonne gestion des déchets.

 En effet, if est beaucoup plus coûteux de débarrasser les rues et les parcs des
immondices et des papiers plastiques, que de mettre préventivement en place les
installations et règlements nécessaires à leur dépôt et à leur ramassage.

” La collecte et l‟élimination correctes des déchets urbains est donc une nécessité et
une obligation pour tout un chacun”.

II existe cependant des contraintes démographiques, politiques, Réglementaires et

institutionnelles, techniques et technologiques, matérielles et humaines, d‟éducation
et de sensibilisation et les problèmes financiers.

65
 Waste Management in the Douala IV
• The low income communities (more than 75 per cent of the total population)
in the Douala IV municipality live in areas poorly served by municipal refuse
services. Uncontrolled disposal of the ever increasing amount of solid wastes
in Douala poses health and environmental risks. The potential economic
benefits of sorting and separating various kinds of plastic and glass waste are
not fully realized.

• The Douala City Council spends a lot of money (billions) per year on the
collection and transportation of municipal waste to dumpsites. It is estimated
that non-hazardous glass waste, which includes broken window louvres,
vehicle windows and bottles, is produced at a rate of 10 tons per day in the
Douala IV council area.

• Plastic waste production, which includes wrapping materials, containers,

drums and plastic buckets (but not tires), is estimated to be 20 tons a day.
Biodegradable waste (which accounts for the largest fraction of waste) could
be composted and made available for agriculture. This would help improve
the fertility of the sandy soils in the Douala municipality. The diversion of
these wastes would reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of, lowering
costs and extending the lifespan of the landfill.

66
Class discussion: Your discussion should be based on the flow chart that follows

Waste
Generation

Waste handling, separation,

storage and processing
at the source

Collection

Transfer and Separation and processing

Transport and transformation of
solid waste

Disposal
67
 HYSACAM

HYSACAM

• Hygiène et Salubrité du
Cameroun
• Pour un monde de propreté

68
Douala – Yaoundé – Bafoussam – Kribi – Limbe – Penja/Njombe – Sa’a/Obala – Soa – Sangmelima – Dschang - Mbalmayo
 HYSACAM
Marché /Villes desservies
Jusqu’au début des
années 2000: Hysacam
opère dans deux villes.
Douala - Yaoundé
En 2006:
Elle offre ses services à
une dizaine de villes
camerounaises:
Douala – Yaoundé –
Bafoussam – Kribi –
Limbe – Penja/Njombe
– Sa’a/Obala – Soa -
Mbalmayo
Ses camions travaillent
également dans les
villes de – Sangmelima
– Dschang - Tiko
69
 HYSACAM

Évolution de la collecte à
Yaoundé
Année 1999 2002 2004 2005 2006
Secteur de 18 24 30 34 35
collecte
Taux de 18 20 40 60 65
collecte
Tonnage 350 460 550 700 725
journalier

70
 Évolution de la collecte à Douala

Année Croissance Populatio Déchets Déchets Déchets Déchets Taux de Taux de

démographiqu n ménager ménagers collectés collectés collecte collecte
e s (t/an) (t/jour) (t/an) (t/jour) par an pour la
période
2008 4,53% 2176 750 47 6708 1.306 391.533 1.073 82%
2009 4,50% 2.274.704 498.160 1.365 403.653 1.105 81%
2010 4,50% 2.377.066 520.577 1.426 439.039 1.203 84%
2011 4,50% 2.484.034 544.003 1.490 445.176 1.220 62% 82%

2012 4,50% 2.595.815 568.483 1.553 467.200 1.277 82%

2013 4,50% 2.712.627 594.065 1.628 490.181 1.343 83%
2014 4,30% 2.829.270 619.610 1.698 501.603 1.374 81%
2015 4,30% 2.950.929 646.253 1.771 510.669 1.399 79%
2016 4,30% 3.077.819 674.042 1.842 522.669 1.428 78%
2017 3,67% 3.190.775 698.780 1.914 540.200 1.480 77%

71
 HYSACAM

Contrôle d’acceptation

Les déchets qui arrivent sont

contrôlées du point de vue de leur
nature.
Ne sont admis que les ordures
ménagères et assimilées. A front-loading garbage trucks

72
 HYSACAM

Pesée

Les déchets sont ensuite pesées

Dans le but d’établir une
évaluation précise des tonnages
collectés et leur répartition
géographique.

73
HYSACAM

Déversement et compactage dans des alvéoles

Dans des casiers spécialement aménagées, les déchets sont

déversés, compactés et couverts de terre (à la fin de l’exploitation
du casier).

74
 HYSACAM

Captage et traitement des effluents

Les effluents générés (en particulier les lixiviats ) par ce procédé sont
ensuite captés et traitées avant leur rejet.

75
The operational tasks for the hauled container and stationary container systems are
shown schematically in the following figure:

By separating the collection activities into unit

operations, it is possible to develop design data
and relationships that can be used to establish
vehicles and labor requirements for the various
collection systems.

The activities involved in the collection of solid

wastes can be resolved into four unit operations:
pick-up, haul, at-site, and off-routs. So, the time
required per trip, which also correspond to the
time required per container, is equal to the sum of
pick-up, at-site and haul times.

Definition sketch for waste collection 76

systems
Risks associated with poor management of solid waste

77
: Risques environnementaux lieu a collecte et le transport de déchets
Source Risques Effets Elément affectes
Coups de klaxon Gêne des populations Trouble de sommeil, Populations,
trouble de l‟audition travailleurs

Circulation des Santé et sécurité émission Maladies pulmonaires, Travailleurs, biens

engins des gaz allergies, accidents immobiliers,
Populations, animaux
Contact avec les Santé et sécurité Infection, contamination Populations,
ordures Intoxication, accident travailleurs
Enlèvement des tas Dégradation du sol, Pollution, accident, Populations,
sauvages infiltration de lixiviat, développement du travailleurs, air
paludisme, intoxication
Abandon des Santé et sécurité, Contamination, pollution Aspect esthétique de
déchets sur la voie pollution, intoxication des eaux et de l‟air la voie, sols, eau, air.
publique
Source : Audit environnementale HYSACAM 2010

78
 What should be done?
• Reduce Waste
 Reduce office paper waste by implementing a formal
policy to duplex all draft reports and by making training
manuals and personnel information available
electronically.

 Improve product design to use less materials.

 Redesign packaging to eliminate excess material while

maintaining strength.

 Switch to reusable transport containers.

 Purchase products in bulk.(Acheter des produits en vrac)

79
 …WHAT SHOULD BE DONE

Reuse

 Reuse corrugated moving boxes internally.

 Reuse office furniture and supplies, such as interoffice envelopes, file

folders, and paper.

 Use durable towels, tablecloths, napkins, dishes, cups, and glasses.

 Use incoming packaging materials for outgoing shipments.

 Encourage employees to reuse office materials rather than purchase new

ones.

80
 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Public health effect

Disease vectors and pathways: Wastes dumped indiscriminately provide

the food and environment for thriving populations of vermin, which are the
agents of various diseases.

(ii) Flies:
Most common in this category is the housefly, which transmits typhoid,
salmonellosis, gastro-enteritis and dysentery.

(iii) Mosquitoes:
They transmit diseases such as malaria, filaria and dengue fever. Since they
breed in stagnant water, control measures should centre on the elimination
of breeding places such as tins, cans, tyres, etc. Proper sanitary practices
and general cleanliness in the community help eliminate the mosquito
problems caused by the mismanagement of solid waste
81
(iv) Roaches:
These cause infection by physical contact and can transmit typhoid, cholera
and amoebiasis. The problems of roaches are associated with the poor
storage of solid waste.

(v) Rodents:
Rodents (rats) proliferate in uncontrolled deposits of solid wastes, which
provide a source of food as well as shelter. They are responsible for the
spread of diseases such as plague, murine typhus, leptospirosis,
histoplasmosis, rat bite fever, dalmonelosis, trichinosis, etc. The fleas, which
rats carry, also cause many diseases.

This problem is associated not only with open dumping but also poor
sanitation

82
(vi) Occupational hazards: Workers handling wastes are at risk of
accidents related to the nature of material and lack of safety precautions.
The sharp edges of glass and metal and poorly constructed storage
containers may inflict injuries to workers. It is, therefore, necessary for waste
handlers to wear gloves, masks and be vaccinated. The infections
associated with waste handling, include:

 skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste and from
infected wounds;
 eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust,
especially during landfill operations;
 diseases that result from the bites of animals feeding on the waste;
 intestinal infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste;
 chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting from exposure to
dust and hazardous compounds.

In addition, the accidents associated with waste handling include:

 bone and muscle disorders resulting from the handling of heavy

containers and the loading heights of vehicles;
83
 infecting wounds resulting from contact with sharp objects;
 reduced visibility, due to dust along the access routes, creates greater risk of
accidents;
 poisoning and chemical burns resulting from contact with small amounts of
hazardous chemical wastes mixed with general wastes such as pesticides, cleaning
solutions and solvents in households and commercial establishments;
 burns and other injuries resulting from occupational accidents at waste disposal
sites or from methane gas explosion at landfill sites;
 serious health hazards, particularly for children, due to careless dumping of lead-
acid, nickel-cadmium and mercuric oxide batteries.

(vii) Animals:

Apart from rodents, some animals (e.g., dogs, cats, pigs, etc.) also act as
carriers of disease. For example, pigs are involved in the spread of diseases
like trichinosis, cysticerosis and toxoplasmosis, which are transmitted through
infected pork, eaten either in raw state or improperly cooked. Solid wastes,
when fed to pigs, should be properly treated (cooked at 100C for at least 50
84
minutes with suitable equipment).
 Environmental effect
Air pollution:
Burning of solid wastes in open dumps or in improperly designed
incinerators emit pollutants (gaseous and particulate matters) to the
atmosphere. Studies show that the environmental consequences of open
burning are greater than incinerators, especially with respect to aldehydes
and particulates.

Emissions from an uncontrolled incinerator system include particulate

matter, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, carbon
monoxide, lead and mercury.

Discharge of arsenic, cadmium and selenium is to be controlled, since they

are toxic at relatively low exposure levels. Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(PCDFs), commonly called dioxins and furans, are of concern because of
their toxicity, carcinogenicity and possible mutagenicity.

85
Water and land pollution:
Water pollution results from dumping in open areas and storm water drains,
and improper design, construction and/or operation of a sanitary landfill.
Control of infiltration from rainfall and surface runoff is essential in order to
minimise the production of leachate. Pollution of groundwater can occur as a
result of:
 the flow of groundwater through deposits of solid waste at landfill sites;
 percolation of rainfall or irrigation waters from solid wastes to the water
table;
 diffusion and collection of gases generated by the decomposition of solid
wastes.

The interaction between leachate contaminants and the soil depends on the
characteristics of the soil. Soil bacteria stabilise biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), i.e., the amount of oxygen required by micro-organisms to degrade
organic matter, by anaerobic action, if toxic substances are in low
concentration.

The carbon dioxide produced keeps the pH level low, causing the water to
dissolve minerals in the aquifers. Consequently, the change in groundwater
quality may take place depending on the characteristics of the aquifer. 86
Visual pollution: The aesthetic sensibility is offended by the unsightliness of piles of
wastes on the roadside

Noise pollution:
Undesirable noise is a nuisance associated with operations at landfills, incinerators,
transfer stations and sites used for recycling. This is due to the movement of
vehicles, the operation of large machines and the diverse operations at an incinerator
site. The impacts of noise pollution may be reduced by careful siting of SWM
operations and by the use of noise barriers.

Odour pollution:
Obnoxious odours due to the presence of decaying organic matter are characteristic
of open dumps. They arise from anaerobic decomposition processes and their major
constituents are particularly offensive. Proper landfill covering eliminates this
nuisance.
Explosion hazards:
Landfill gas, which is released during anaerobic decomposition processes,
contains a high proportion of methane (35 – 73%). It can migrate through the
soil over a considerable distance, leaving the buildings in the vicinity of
sanitary landfill sites at risk, even after the closure of landfills. Several
methods are available for control of landfill gas, such as venting, flaring and
the use of impermeable barriers. 87
 “Greening” the waste sector
• Greening the waste sector refers to a shift from less-preferred waste treatment and
disposal methods such as incineration (without energy recovery) and different forms of
landfilling towards the “three Rs”: Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
• The strategy is to move upstream in the waste management hierarchy, based on the
internationally recognised approach of Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM).

• The ISWM is a strategic approach to managing all sources of waste:

– prioritizing waste avoidance and minimisation,
– practicing segregation,
– promoting 3Rs,
– implementing safe waste transportation,
– treatment, and
– disposal in an integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximising resource-use
efficiency.
This marks a departure from the usual approach where wastes are managed mainly from
a compliance point of view characterised by “end-of-pipe” treatment such as incineration
(without energy recovery) and landfilling.

88
 … “Greening” the waste sector

Under ISWM, activities of greening the sector can include:

 Resource conservation, which avoids excessive resource consumption;

 Waste reduction through resource use optimisation that minimises resource wastage;

 Waste collection and segregation, ensuring appropriate waste treatment;

 Waste reuse, which circulates waste and avoids the use of virgin resources;

 Waste recycling, which converts waste into useful products;

 Energy recovery, which harnesses residual energy from waste;

 Landfill avoidance, which conserves land and avoids risks of contamination; and

 Construction and maintenance of infrastructure for waste collection, recovery of

materials from waste streams (collection and segregation) and application of 3R
technologies and associated activities.

89
 … “Greening” the waste sector
Indicators to measure the progress of greening the sector can
include:
– Resource consumption rate (material use in kg per capita);

– Waste generation rates (kg per capita/year);

– Proportion of waste being collected and segregated;

– Proportion of materials in waste streams being reused or recycled;

– Proportion of virgin material displacement in production;

– Proportion of waste used for energy recovery;

– Proportion of materials in waste streams diverted from landfill;

– Reduction in GHG emissions due to avoided landfilling;

– Proportion of total waste disposed in landfill; and

– Extent of capture, recovery and/or treatment of polluting emissions such as leachate and landfill
gas.
90
 Exercise

1. Explain what you understand by “source reduction”, “resource recovery”

and “Solid waste management”? Why are these important in the waste
management process?

2. List the elements of a solid waste management system

3. Define the terms: combustion, pyrolysis and gasification. What is the

difference among these processes?

91
Questions
1. List three reasons why accurate waste composition information is important.
2. List six environmental, social, economic, or political factors that should be
considered before making a solid waste management plan.
3. In a community, per capita residential waste generation rate is inceasing at a
rate of 2% and the population is increasing at a rate of 10% per year. If the solid
waste generation rate is 5 Kgs per capita per day and the total solid waste
production rate is 10 tons per year in 1985, calculate the expected per capita
and total solid waste generation rates in 1990.

92
Solid Waste Quantification: Generation and
Collection Rates

93
In this lecture:
1. Importance of waste quantities
2. Measures and methods used to quantify waste
3. Waste generation rates

94
 Waste generation

Waste generation encompasses those activities in which waste, be it

solid or semi-solid material, no longer has sufficient economic value
for its possessor to retain it.

The processing of raw materials is the first stage when wastes are
generated, and waste generation continues thereafter at every step in
the process as raw materials are converted into final products for
consumption

95
… Waste generation

 Knowledge of the quantities of solid waste generated,

separated for recycling, and collected for further processing
or disposal is of fundamental importance to all aspects of
solid waste management.
Waste Generation

Waste handling, separation,

storage, and processing at the
source

Collection

Transfer and Transport Separation and

Processing and
transformation of solid
waste
96
Disposal
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/muncpl/pubs/msw06.pdf 97
 Solid Waste Composition in your municipality???

Bone & Shell,

0.92%
Yard Waste,
Glass, 1.65% Rubber &
6.07%
Leather, 1.03%
Food Waste,
44.99%

Plastic &
Foam, 26.47%

Paper, 11.79% Stone, 0.26%

Fabric, 5.20%
Metal, 1.62%
98
 99
About 136 million tons of MSW (54.2 percent) were discarded in landfills in 2010
 Importance of waste generation rates

Compliance with laws/legislation:

Legislations normally define the kind of waste products authorized and in
some cases, timetables for reduction of wastes generated..
Legislation may require that wastes be categorised:
 domestic refuse (solid waste generated by markets, food centres, households
and commercial premises etc.),
 industrial refuse (does not include hazardous and toxic waste which requires
special treatment, handling and disposal),
 institutional solid waste (solid waste from government offices, schools,
hospitals, recreational facilities etc.).

100
 … Importance of waste generation rates
A survey of local waste quantities is essential to provide data for making a waste
management plan since:
 Solid waste collection and disposal depends on the composition of the wastes;
 Comparison and analysis over time indicates the changes in composition and
density;
 Future landfill space and lives of the landfill sites must be forecasted;
 Knowledge of the composition of solid waste points toward possible recycling
and reuse methods;
 Necessary equipment for recycling centers can be designed appropriately;
 Weight and volume data are important in designing refuse storage containers and
compaction equipment; and
 Adequate refuse collection vehicles can be designed
101
 Measures and methods used to quantify waste
universally accepted units for:
 Household waste (kg/capita/day)
 Commercial waste (kg/x/day where x can be m2 of floor area of commercial establishment,
unit volume or dollar in sales, the number of employees, etc.)
 Institutional waste (kg/x/day where x can be the number of students, m2 of the area of park
or public place, number of visitors, etc.)
 Market waste (kg/x/day where x can be the number of market lots, m2 of floor area, dollar
in sales, etc.)
 Industrial waste (kg/x/day where x can be unit volume or dollar of production output, m2 of
floor area, the number of employees, etc.)
 street sweeping waste (kg/km/day)
 drain cleaning waste (kg/km/day)
 total waste (kg/capita/day)

102
 Factors affecting generation Rates
• Source reduction/recycling • Public attitudes
• Geographic location • Per capita income
• Season • Size of households
• Home food waste grinders • Population density
• Frequency of collection • Historically, increases in the generation rate
• Legislation correlate with GNP trend
• Typically population increase explains 1/3
of increase in MSW generation

Source Reduction: Waste reduction may occur through the design, manufacture, and
packaging of products with minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material, and /or a
longer useful life. Waste reduction may also occur at the household, commercial or industrial
facility through selective buying patterns and the reuse of products and materials,

Some of the other ways in which source reduction can be achieved follow:
 Decrease unnecessary or excessive packaging
 Develop and use products with greater durability and reparability (e.g., more durable
appliances and tires)
 Substitute reusable products for disposable, single-use products (e.g., reusable plates and
cutlery, refillable beverage containers, cloth diapers and towels) 103
 EU Waste Generation Study

• Studied correlation between waste generation and:

– Population
– Population density
– Age distribution
– Employment
– GDP
– Infant mortality
– Life expectancy
– Average household size
– Unemployment
– Tourism
• Waste generation has grown steadily in Europe for over 20 years

104
 Methods To Determine Generation Rates

• Three methods are commonly used to determine per capita

solid waste generation rates:

load count analysis,

weight volume analysis, and
materials balance analysis.

105
 1. Load count analysis

• This method takes into account:

 the number of individual loads,
 the corresponding vehicle characteristics, and
 weight of each load are recorded over a specified period of time.

• Unit generation rates are determined by using field or published data.

• For example, if ten compactor truckloads of 20 cubic meters each are hauled
weekly from a 1,000 home residential area, and the solid waste density is 350
kg per cubic meter, then the estimated total amount of waste produced is:

• Amount = (10 loads/week) x (20 cubic meters/load) x (350 kg/cubic meters)

= 70,000 kg/week.

106
 Example
Given: On a single day you observe the following at a landfill:
10-16 m3 compactor trucks
18-3 m3 pickup trucks hauling loose and dry leaves
56-1 m3 private cars
2-45 m3 trucks with broken concrete
If there are 3.82 Kg/cap.day with 2.7 cap/home and all the waste comes from the town,
estimate the number of homes in the town. What's wrong with the answer?

Solution
1. Compute the total weight
Item Number of Avg. Volume Specifica Total Weight
Loads (m3) Weight (Kg)
(a) (b) Kg/m3 (a)*(b)* (c)
©

Compactor truck 10 16 500 80,000

Pickup trucks with leaves loose and dry 18 3 100 5,400
private cars 56 1 220 12,320
broken concrete 2 45 2595 233,550
Total 331,270
Kg/day
107
a standard values
Number of residence =

= 32,118 Residences

3. What's wrong with the answer?

The demolition load, broken concrete may not be representative; calculate the
number of houses with the concrete

Number of residence =

= 9,475 vs. 32,118 with the broken concrete

108
1. Given: A Landfill serves approximately 50,000 homes. Find: What is the
weekly output of hazardous waste to the landfill? Assume: 2.35 capita/residence,
hazardous waste=.0063Kg/capita.day

Solution
weekly output of hazardous waste to the landfill (HW)
= 50,000 residence x 2.35 capita/residence x .0063Kg/capita.day
= 740.25 Kg/day x 7 days/wk
= 5181.75 Kg/wk

2. Given: A tire recycler has costed out his capital investment and he needs 1000
tires/day, 5 days/week in order to meet his goal of 8% return on investment. Find: How
big of a town does he need? (NB: .80tire/captia.year)

Solution
Tires needed = 1000tires/day x 5days/week
Tires needed = 5000 tires/week
People required = 5000 tires/week x 52weeks/year † 0.8 tires/capita.year
People required = 325,000capita

109
 Assignment 2
1. A town of 20,000 people in a certain country generates 0.95 Kg.(capita)-1 day-1
of MSW. A town of the same size in Cameroon generates 1.9 Kg.(capita)-1 day-1
of MSW.
1. How much MSW is generated in each town?
2. How many trucks would be needed to collect the waste twice weekly? The
trucks each have a capacity of 4.5t (metric tons) and operate 5 days per week.
Assume that the trucks average two loads per day at 75% capacity.
Version Française
Une ville de 20.000 personnes dans un pays génère 0,95 kg. (Habitant) -1 jour-1 du
DSM. Une ville de la même taille au Cameroun génère 1,9 kg. (Habitant)-1jour-1
du DSM.

1.Combien de MSW est généré dans chaque ville?

2. Combien de camions seraient nécessaires pour collecter les déchets deux fois
par semaine? Les camions ont chacun une capacité de 4,5 t (tonnes métriques)
et fonctionnent 5 jours par semaine. Supposons que les camions en moyenne
deux chargements par jour à une capacité de 75%.
110
 2. weight and volume analysis

The use of detailed weight- volume data obtained by

weighing and measuring each load will certainly provide
better information on the specific weight of the various
forms of solid wastes at a given location

111
Measures and Methods Used to Assess Solid Waste Quantities

 Weight Volume Analysis

 Weight –Volume data obtained by weighing and
measuring each load provides better information
on the specific weight of the various forms of
solid wastes at a given location.

 However, the question remains: what information

is needed in terms of study objectives.

112
 3. Materials balance analysis

• Materials balance analysis for each given source, such as an apartment

complex or a commercial unit, is the reliable way to determine generation
rates.

• A materials balance analysis can be performed by:

 drawing a system boundary around the unit to be studied (an individual
home or an industrial plant);
 identifying all the activities that cross and occur within the boundary
that affect the waste generation rate;
 identifying the rate of generation associated with these activities; and
 using a material balance to determine the quantity of waste generated,
collected, or stored.

113
 General mass balance concept

Inflow
= CinVin
Outflow
= CoutVout
Accumulation

Accumulation = inflow - outflow + generation (r)

Suppose we have:
Waste produced = 20Kg in the door,
7Kg food consumed ,
5Kg food stored , then

Waste produced = 20Kg-7Kg-5Kg 114

= 8 Kg/day
 where m = the mass(Kg) and
V = the volume (m3).

Mass loading rate, W

Mass loading rate, W is defined as the mass of
pollutant, m, discharged in the environment over time
t:

Always write rw as positive in the parent equation and make a negative substitution as required
in the final analysis.

A balance (or inventory) on a material in a system (a single process unit, a collection of units, or an
entire process) may be written in the following general way:

Input + generation − output − consumption = accumulation 115

 …Material Balance Equations: Steady-state
(without reaction)

• By definition, the accumulation term for steady-state continuous process is

zero. Thus the above equation becomes:

Input + generation = output + consumption

• For physical process, since there is no chemical reaction, the generation and
consumption terms will become zero, and the balance equation for steady-
state physical process will be simply reduced to:

Input = Output
 Mass Balance Equation for Solid Waste Systems

Generated Waste = Disposed Waste + Recycled Waste + Diverted Waste

= Disposal + (Recycling + Reuse)

Recycling Efficiency (%) Recycling rate =

= (Weight Recycled)/(Weight Generated)·100

Diversion Efficiency (%)

= (Weight Diverted)/(Weight Generated)·100

Reduction in Disposal (%)

= [(Weight Generated)-(Weight Disposed)]/(Weight Generated)·100

Reduction in Volume (%)

= [(Initial Volume)-(Final Volume)]/(Initial Volume)·100

Generated Waste = all solid waste materials generated

Disposed Waste = solid waste materials collected and taken to ultimate disposal (landfill )

Recycled Waste = solid waste materials separated for recycling (and collected by municipality?)

Diverted Waste = solid waste materials not processed through the normal (municipal) waste
management channels. 117
Review Questions

1. What is the importance of knowing solid waste quantities?

2. What are methods used to quantify solid waste quantities?

3. How can you determine waste generation rates?

4. One of the first steps in conducting a solid waste management

study is the identification of factors contributing to the generation of
solid wastes now and in the future. List the factors that affect the
generation of municipal, industrial, and agricultural solid wastes in
your community. Explain those that may affect generation in the
future.

118
SOLID WASTE DIVERTED FROM LANDFILL DISPOSAL :Complete the table that follows for Total generation and
% diversion
Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Disposal 185,545 191,065 196,652 199,945 200,564 203,301 205,770 207,936 215,840 224,000

Recycle 14,118 19,107 24,581 32,932 44,570 54,735 65,846 77,976 85,120 92,800

Reuse 2,017 2,123 2,235 2,352 2,476 2,606 2,744 2,888 3,040 3,200

Total
Generation

(Kg)

% Diversion

119
 Material balance analysis

A cannery receives on a given day 12 tons of raw produce, 5 tons of cans, 0.5 tons
of cartons, and 0.3 tons of miscellaneous materials. Of the 12 tons of raw produce,
10 tons become processed product, 1.2 tons end up as produce waste, which is fed
to cattle, and the remainder is discharged with the wastewater from the plant. Four
tons of the cans are stored internally for future use, and the remainder is used to
package the product. About 3% of the cans used are damaged. Stored separately,
the damaged cans are recycled. The cartons are used for packaging the canned
product, except for 5% that are damaged and subsequently separated for recycling.
Of the miscellaneous materials, 25% is stored internally for future use; 50%
becomes waste paper, of which 35% is separated for recycling with the remainder
being discharged as mixed waste; and 25% becomes a mixture of solid waste
materials. Assume the materials separated for recycling and disposal are collected
daily, prepare a materials balance for the cannery on this day and a materials flow
diagram accounting for all of the materials. Also determine the amount of waste per
ton of product

120
1. On a given day, the cannaery receives:
a) 12 tons of raw produce,
b) 5 tons of cans,
c) 0.5 tons of cartons, and
d) 0.3 tons of miscellaneous materials.
2. As a result of internal activity, of the 12 tons of raw produce,
a) 10 tons become processed product, 1.2 tons end up as produce waste, which is
fed to cattle, and the remainder is discharged with the wastewater from the plant.
b) 4 tons of the cans are stored internally for future use, and the remainder is used
to package the product. About 3% of the cans used are damaged.
c) 0.5 tons of cartons are used of which 3% are damaged
d) 25% of the miscellaneous materials is stored; 50% becomes waste paper, of
which 35% is separated for recycling with the remainder being discharged as
mixed waste; and 25% of the miscellaneous material are disposed of as mixed
waste
3. Determine the required quantities
a) Waste generated from raw produce
I. Solid waste fed to cattle = 1.2 tons (1089 Kg)
II. Waste produce discharged with wastewater = (12 – 10 – 1.2) ton = 0.8 tons (726 Kg)
121
b) The material balance equations are as follows;
i. Material stored = (4.0+.075 = 4.075
ii. Material input = (12+5+0.5 = 17.5ton
iii. Material output = (10.0+0.97+0.485+1.2+0.03+0.15+0.0525) = 12.7525
iv. Waste generation = (0.8+0.172) = 0.972 ton
v. The final material balance equation is:
4.075 = 17.8 - 12.7525 - 0.972 (mass balance check)
c). The material flow diagram is as follows:

122
Measures and Methods Used to Assess Solid Waste Quantities

 Statistical Analysis of Measured Waste Quantities

 In developing solid waste management systems, it is
often necessary to determine the statistical
characteristics of the observed solid waste generation
rates

 For many large industrial activities it would be

impractical to provide container capacity to handle the
largest conceivable quantity of solid waste to be
generated in a given day.

 The container capacity to be provided must be based on

a statistical analysis of the generations rates and the
characteristics of the collection system.

123
Waste Valorisation: Waste – to – Energy (WtE)

124
 Waste Valorisation: Waste – to – Energy (WtE)

The World Energy Council (2016) reports that according to the

current rate of waste generation, global waste is estimated to reach 6
million tonnes/day by 2025.
So, increasing utility scale WtE plants using MSW or agricultural
waste would be a constructive way to deal with waste.

MSW has really low calorific value and directly incinerating it will
not generate adequate thermal energy. So, pre-treating MSW into
refuse derived fuel (RDF) is more effective.

There are various methods to process waste and are classified as

follows in the figure that follows:

125
Algorithm for convenient WtE technology selection (Stehlík 2009)

126
Waste Processing Methods (Bosmans et al. 2013)

127
Waste-to-Energy technologies based on applied conversion process

128
The temperature overlapping of thermo-chemical conversion 129
technologies
 Valorisation matière
• Définition de la valorisation matière
 Terme générique recouvrant le recyclage matière et organique, le réemploi, la réutilisation et
la régénération

• Réemploi : Réemploi du déchets à l‟identique pour la même fonction

 Déchet d‟emballage - Réemploi des palettes - Renvoi des cartouches d‟imprimante -
Conteneurs d‟acide consignes (blanchisserie) + Contenants de DIS

• Réutilisation : Réutilisation du déchet en l‟état pour une autre fonction

 Cartons d‟emballage servant à la collecte des films plastiques, des cartons, des néons -
Utilisation des rebuts d‟impression comme feuilles de brouillon - Réutilisation des pneus
usagers sur les circuits automobiles

• Recyclage : Transformation passive ou active du déchet

 Réinjections des rebut ou chutes dans le process - Recyclage des vieux papiers en papiers
utilisables - Recyclage des ferrailles par refonte (idem plastiques) - Déchets inertes broyés
et utilisés en remblais routier

• Recyclage organique : Traitement aérobie ou anaérobie par des micro-organismes et dans des
conditions contrôlées des parties biodégradables de déchets avec production d'amendements
organiques : compostage 130
131
 Valorisation matière
• Cassage d‟émulsions avec traitement biologique
Les émulsions (huiles, mélanges eau/hydrocarbures) sont traités par déstabilisation de la
phase huileuse. L'opération s'effectue à haute température, en milieu acide (acide
sulfurique) et permet de séparer la phase huileuse de la phase aqueuse.
 Déchromatation
Réduction des sels de chrome hexavalent toxiques en chrome trivalent moins toxique et
précipitable en hydroxyde de chrome
 Décyanuration
Les cyanures de bains de traitement de surface sont oxydés en cyanates (par chloration
alcaline à l'hypochlorite de sodium)
 Déshydratation mécanique
Ce traitement, souvent utilisé pour les boues, consiste en une filtration, une
centrifugation ou un séchage. Plusieurs types de filtres sont utilisés : filtre continu sous
vide - filtre presse - filtre à bandes
 Neutralisation
Processus chimique consistant à traiter les acides des fumées des incinérateurs en les
faisant réagir avec une base (de la chaux en général ou de la soude). Cette réaction
provoque la formation d'eau et d'un sel. L'acide chlorhydrique étant en plus grande
quantité que les autres, on utilise souvent le terme de déchloruration pour celui de
neutralisation 132
 Valorisation thermique

 Incinération en cimenterie: Sables de fonderie + Pneumatiques

 Incinération en centrale thermique
 Distinguer l‟incinération avec valorisation énergétique qui est considérée comme
une technique de valorisation de l‟élimination simple qui est une élimination
 Pyrolyse, Thermolyse
 Pyrolyse : décomposition ou destruction par l'action de la chaleur en atmosphère
inerte. Désigne quelquefois la première étape de combustion
 Thermolyse : Synonyme de pyrolyse. S'emploie pour qualifier certains procédés de
pyrolyse à des températures plus basses, ou opérant sous pression réduite
 Autres : Gazéification, Oxydation humide, vapocraquage, Plasmas, Induction
 Gazéification : cette technique permet de transformer une biomasse en gaz
combustible, en vue d'une valorisation énergétique, sans avoir recours à la
combustion. La technologie s'applique à toute les matières organiques et biomasse
résiduaire. Le gaz obtenu peut servir directement à la production d'énergie ou en
mélange avec du gaz naturel.

 Vapocraquage : Comme le craquage catalytique, il consiste à casser les molécules

de la charge, par pyrolyse, pour obtenir des molécules plus petites. Il est réalisé en
présence de vapeur d'eau, ce qui sert à diluer les hydrocarbures pour éviter les
réactions parasites d'aromatisation des cycloalcanes aboutissant à la formation133 de
goudrons et de coke par condensation
 Sequential product generation during pyrolysis and gasification

134
Thermo-conversion processes and products (Adapted from Bridgwater
Heat of Combustion
The heating value of waste is a measure of the energy released when it is burned. It
can be estimated by: (i) combusting samples in a boiler and measuring the heat
output; (ii) using lab scale bomb calorimeter or (iii) ultimate analysis.

The heat generated from combustion in a calorimeter is:

Where:
U is the heat value of the unknown material (cal/g),
ΔT is the rise in temperature from thermogram (0C),
M is the mass of the unknown material, and
Cv is the heat capacity of the calorimeter.

 A heating value of about 11.6 X 106 J/kg is needed to sustain combustion.

 The heat of combustion increases when there is more paper, cardboard and plastic
in waste because they have a high heating value; and decreases when there is a
135
high content of organic matter, and therefore, of moisture.
 Example 4: A 15 g sample of mixed MSW is combusted in a calorimeter having a heat capacity
of 8750 cal/0C. The temperature increase on combustion is 2.750C. Calculate the heat value of
the sample

136
Schematic diagram of bomb calorimeter Laboratory set-up of bomb calorimeter
Carbon – Nitrogen [C/N] ratio
It is the ratio of the weight of carbon to the weight of nitrogen present in compost or
in materials that are being composted (preferred range: 20 – 35). Lower values
indicate the loss of nitrogen as ammonium gas and render composting impractical.

* Le Rapport C/N carbone/Azote (le Rapport C/N permet d‟apprécier aussi bien
l‟aptitude des ordures au compostage que la qualïte du compost obtenu.
Compost valable à partir d‟ordure dont rapport C/N < 35.

Heating Value of Wastes

The heat value of waste is directly proportional to the carbon content of the waste and
inversely proportional to the ash and moisture content. The heating value of wastes can
be calculated by using Dulong's formula:

𝐻𝑉(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 33801[𝐶] + 144158[𝐻] − 0.125[𝑂] + 9413[𝑆]

Where
HV is the heating value;
C, H, O, S are the compositions on dry basis.
137
Or by using Modified Dulong formula:

𝐻𝑉(𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔) =337[𝐶] + 1419[𝐻2−0.125𝑂2] + 93[𝑆] + 23[𝑁]

Where
C, H2, O2, S, and N are % by weight of each component.
Energy content from MSW as defined by Khan et al. (1991): 𝐸

(𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 0.051[𝐹+3.6(𝐶𝑃)] + 0.352(𝑃𝐿𝑅)

Where
E=energy content;
F=percentage weight of food in the waste;
CP=percentages of cardboard and paper; and
PLR=percentage of plastic, leather and rubber.

Example 5: The chemical formula for a waste mixture analyzed is

C654.95H1036.84O411.89N11.06S. Determine the energy content using
138
modified Dulong formula.
Solution:
In order to apply the modified Dulong formula, we need to know the % by weight
of each element

Energy content using modified Dulong formula is calculated as follows:

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 337(50.145)+1419(6.615−0.125∗42.047)+93(0.204)+23(0.988)

= 18230.61 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔
139
Example 6: Estimate the energy content using Khan Equation, for MSW having the
following properties:

Solution:

𝐸 = 0.051[𝐹 + 3.6(𝐶𝑃)] + 0.352(𝑃𝐿𝑅) = 0.051[19 + 3.6∗23] + 0.352∗13 = 9.77𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔

140
 High Heat Value (HHV) and Low Heat Value (LHV)
Low heat value is the net heat available for combustion of the MSW, while high heat
value includes the latent heat of vaporization also. These are estimated based on the
chemical composition of the waste materials.

𝐻𝐻𝑉(𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 0.339[𝐶] + 1.44[𝐻] − 0.139[𝑂] + 0.105[𝑆]

𝐿𝐻𝑉 (𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔) = 𝐻𝐻𝑉 − 0.0244∗(𝑊+9𝐻)

Where
W is percent mass of water and
H is the percent of H in the waste.

141
Typical data on ultimate analysis of the combustible components in municipal solid
waste Percent by weight (dry basis)

142
Typical data on inert residue and energy content of municipal solid wastes

143
Energy content: the energy content of the organic components in municipal solid
waste can be determined;
• By using a full scale boiler as a calorimeter
• By using a laboratory bomb calorimeter
• By calculation if the elemental composition is known.
Energy values as discarded basis may be converted to a dry basis by using:

144
Example: Estimate the energy content of a solid waste sample with the composition
given below:

145
SOLUTION
Set up a computation table to determine the total as discarded energy content of the
solid waste sample using the data in the previous table:

146
Determine the energy content on a dry basis
a) Moisture content is 21.0 percent (as calculated)
b) The energy content on dry basis is :

Determine the energy content on an ash –free dry basis

Assume the ash content is equal to 5%

If energy values are not available, approximate energy values for the individual waste material
can be determined by using the equation known as “modified Dulong formula’ & the data on
data on ultimate analysis of the combustible components in municipal solid waste Percent by
weight (dry basis)

147
Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rate

 Solid Waste Collection Rate

 the difference between the amount of residential and
commercial MSW generated and the amount of
wastes collected for processing and/or disposal will
typically vary from 4 to 15 percent
 the difference can be accounted for by the amount of
material
 Composted
 burned in fireplaces
 discharged to sewers
 given to charitable agencies
 sold at garage sales
 delivered to drop – off and recycling centers
 recycled directly

148
 Disposal
Disposal is the process of collecting and removing waste and
relocating it to a place where it will sit or be recycled.

The most common hazardous waste disposal practice is

placement in a land disposal unit such as a landfill, surface
impoundment, waste pile, land treatment unit, or injection
well.

Land disposal MUST be subject to well defined requirements

under law

149
 Methods of Waste Disposal

• Landfills
• Incineration
• Source reduction
• Composting
• Recycling

150
 Landfilling

• Most municipal solid waste the

world over are deposited in
landfills
• Source of groundwater pollution
• Number of municipal landfills is
declining.
– Some closed for violations,
other because full
– New landfills costly and often
resisted

151
Sanitary Landfills

152
 Waste Disposal Methods
1. Disposal by sanitary Landfill

• Definition: A sanitary landfill is a land

disposal site employing an engineered
method of disposing of solid wastes on
land in a manner that minimizes
environmental hazards by spreading the
solid wastes to the smallest practical
volume, and applying and compacting
cover material at the end of each day

• Landfill disposal is part of the last option

in the waste hierarchy. It is a method of
treating and disposing of those wastes
which, for the time being, are not possible
to reuse, recover or recycle.

• However, landfill disposal with energy

recovery from gas partially moves it up
the hierarchy.

153
MODERN SANITARY LANDFILL

154
Landfill Gas Production
It is estimated that the biological decomposition of 1 ton of MSW produces 442 m3
of landfill gas containing 55% CH4 having a heat value of 19,730 kJ/m3, but the
actual average methane yield is closer to 100 m3 due to the presence of inaccessible
waste and non-biodegradable fractions.

The Landfill Gas Emission Model (LandGEM) developed by USEPA describes gas
production in an equation:

Where,

155
156
157
MODERN SANITARY LANDFILL IN GETLINI FOR RIGA CITY

158
159
 … Disposal by sanitary Landfill
• Groundwater contamination by landfill leachate is likely to be inevitable

• Formation of leachate
– When water percolates through waste, it promotes and assists the process of
decomposition by bacteria and fungi.

– These processes in turn release by-products of decomposition and rapidly use

up any available oxygen, creating an anoxic environment.

– In actively decomposing waste, the temperature rises and the pH falls rapidly
with the result that many metal ions that are relatively insoluble at neutral pH
become dissolved in the developing leachate.

– The decomposition processes themselves release more water, which adds to the
volume of leachate. Leachate also reacts with materials that are not prone to
decomposition themselves, such as fire ash, cement-based building materials
and gypsum-based materials changing the chemical composition.

– In sites with large volumes of building waste, especially those containing

gypsum plaster, the reaction of leachate with the gypsum can generate large
volumes of hydrogen sulfide, which may be released in the leachate and may
also form a large component of the landfill gas. 160
 A leachate evaporation pond in a landfill site located in Cancún, Mexico

The generation of leachate is caused principally by precipitation

percolating through waste deposited in a landfill. Once in contact
with decomposing solid waste, the percolating water becomes
contaminated, and if it then flows out of the waste material it is
termed leachate 161
… Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site
• Precipitation maybe estimated from climatological data;
• Surface runoff maybe estimated using various engineering
techniques (beyond the scope of this lecture);
• Evaporation and transpiration from measurements/modeling
efforts;
• Infiltration from Darcy‟s law:

Q = flow rate (m3/s);

 h 
    A = Area (m2); 1ha = 104 m2;
 L  K = hydraulic conductivity (m/s);
∆h = change in head of water (m);
Volumetric flow rate is given by:
∆L = landfill liner thickness (m)

Q  A
162
 … Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site

• Measures of each of the above are used to determine the water

balance equation, a simplified version is:

Lo = I - E - aW
Where:
• Lo = Free Leachate retained at site (equivalent to leachate
production or leachate leaving the site)
• I = Total liquid input
• E = Evapotranspiration losses
• a = Absorptive capacity of the waste
• W = Weight of waste deposited

163
… Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site

• Good landfill practice normally requires that Lo≤0 and

therefore for no excess leachate to be produced i.e.
I - E < aW

An unfavourable water balance (net liquid production) at the

design stage would require the selection of an alternative site
or the redesign of engineering and operational parameters in a
way that would reduce the input (I) or increase the output (E)
in the above equation

164
 Leachate (lixiviats):Generation and Control:
• Leachate is the liquid generated by the action of water (rainwater or
infiltrating groundwater) and liquids present within the initial waste
percolating through the stored waste within a landfill cell.
• It is formed as the preventive mechanism fails. The volume of leachate
generated is obtained from the mass balance for all the water receiving and
removing from the site.
• The liquid enters the landfill from external sources such as rainfall, surface
drainage, groundwater, and the liquid in and produced from the
decomposition of the waste
Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site
Where,
ΔS  Ρ  Ε  R  G  F ∆S = change in storage,
P= Precipitation,
E = Evaporation,
G = infiltration from groundwater,
R = surface water runoff,
F = percolation from landfill as
leachate
165
 Hypothetical water balance equation:
𝐿=𝑃+𝑅𝑜𝑛+𝑈−𝐸−𝑅𝑜𝑓𝑓

Where
𝐿=𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒,
𝑃=𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑅𝑜𝑛=𝑟𝑢𝑛−𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟,
𝐸=𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
𝑅𝑜𝑓𝑓=𝑟𝑢𝑛−𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑈=𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙
 If the landfill is designed and operated properly, surface water will be diverted
from waste, 𝑅𝑜𝑛=0;
 If landfill is constructed above water table with an impermeable liner, 𝑈=0
 Here is the simplified equation for a landfill constructed above the water table
and possessing an impermeable liner:
𝐿 = 𝑃 − 𝐸 − 𝑅𝑜𝑓𝑓
A leachate collection and removal (LCR) system is situated above the composite liner to
collect, divert, and remove liquids during landfill operation and well after closure. The LCR
must be designed to limit the depth (hydraulic head) of the leachate above the liner to less than
30 cm. The leachate thus collected can be treated by biological (aerobic, anaerobic),
166
physicochemical, land application, recycling though the landfill and treatment with municipal
wastewater.
… Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site

• The factors affecting water availability include:

precipitation,
surface run-off,
groundwater intrusion,
irrigation and
refuse decomposition.
• Surface run-off, groundwater intrusion and irrigation can be
controlled through effective site design and operation.

167
 … Quantity of leachate generated from a landfill site

Surface conditions which may affect Les conditions de surface qui peuvent
leachate generation include: affecter la production de lixiviats
 vegetation, comprennent:
 cover material (density, permeability,  la végétation,
moisture content etc),
 matériau de couverture (densité,
 surface topography and
perméabilité, teneur en humidité),
 local meteorological conditions.
.  topographie de surface et
les conditions météorologiques
locales

168
Typical major flows

Rain MSW

Landfill Gas
Mainly methane and carbon dioxide, but
also non-methane volatile organic
LANDFILL compounds, hydrogen sulfide and
ammonia.

Leachate Leachate
Percolating rainfall leaches a variety of
organic and inorganic materials.

Leachate treatment onsite

System boundary

MSW: Municipal Solid Waste 169

 Chemical composition of leachate
(La composition chimique des eaux de lixiviation)
pH Cl
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) Na
BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) Mg
TOC (Total Oxygen Consumed) K
Volatile acids Ca
NH3-N Mn
NO3-N Fe
Ortho-P Cu
Zn
Pb
(all are measured in mg/L except pH) 170
Leachate Characteristics
Constituent Conc. Range,
mg/L

BOD5 9-55,000
COD 0-90,000
Total solids 6-45,000
TDS 0-42,000
TSS 6-2,700
Chloride 34-2,800
TKN 0-1,400
Sulfate 1-1,800
Phosphate 0-154
Lead 0-5
Copper 0-10
pH 171
3.7-8.5
Adapted from: McBean, E. A., F. A. Rovers, and G. J. Farquhar. Solid Waste Landfill Engineering and
Design. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall PTR, 1995. 172
 Site investigation criteria
• Sub Soil Investigation: type of soil, depth of GWT and bedrock,
permeability of various strata, strength parameters, extent of
availability of liner materials

• Ground Water / Hydro geological Investigation: Depth of GWT,

GW flow direction, Baseline GW quality parameters

• Topographical Investigation: To compute the earth work

quantities precisely

• Hydrological Investigation: To estimate the quantities of runoff

for appropriate design of drainage facilities

• Geological Investigation and Seismic Investigation: to delineate

the bedrock profile beneath the landfill base
173
 Estimation of Landfill Capacity
(Volume/height/area)
1. Waste generation rate = W tons per year
2. Active life of landfill = n years
3. Total waste in n years (T) = W x n tons
4. Volume of waste(V) = T/density cum
5. Volume for daily cover = 0.1 V
6. Volume for liner and final cover = 0.2V to 0.3V
7. Total volume(Landfill capacity) = V+0.1V+0.25V
8. Total area available = A sqm
9. Area for infrastructure = 0.15 A to 0.25A
= 0.2 A
10.Area of land filling = A-0.2A=0.8A
11.Height (+depth) of landfill = 1.35V/0.8A
17
4
 Structure of a sanitary landfill

Three common configurations of sanitary

landfills are:
 the trench method,
 the area method, and
 the canyon or depression method.

a) Trench Method

 the excavation into which the landfill is

placed is excavated specifically for the
purpose of landfilling;
 the soil is temporarily stockpiled;
 the waste is placed on a landfill liner, spread
in layers, and driven over with compaction
equipment;
 Successive layers are built up until a depth Trench Method of Landfill
of 3 to 4 m is achieved. 175
 b) Area Method
The most commonly used method of operation at sanitary landfills is called the area
method. This is used when the terrain or soil conditions are such that cells or trenches
cannot be dug.
Site preparation can include the use of liners and leachate control systems.

176
The Area Method of Landfill
 …Area method

This uses a three-step process:

1. Spreading the waste;
2. Compacting it; and
3. Covering it with compacted soil, called daily cover, at the end
of the working day.
• Use of the area method is seldom restricted by topography; flat
or rolling terrain; canyons, and other types of depressions

177
 c) The Canyon Method
• The canyon method is similar to the trench method except
natural depressions or canyons are used rather than digging
trenches. This can include filling old quarry sites .

• Our university has some miniatures of canyons

178
• The final cover for the landfill will be about 1m of soil or a
combination of soil and synthetic materials;

• The function of the final cover is to limit the entry of water

into the landfill. This results in: reduced leachate generation,
that is, the release of contaminated liquids from the base of the
waste in the landfill.

• Limiting the entry of water, however, greatly slows

decomposition; thereby extending the time period before the
waste is finally stabilized and environmental monitoring of the
site can cease.

179
 Class exercise 1

Question 1
Determine the area required for a new landfill site with a projected life of
30 years for a population of 250,000 generating 2.02 Kg.(capita)-1day-1. The
density of the compacted waste is 470 Kg/m3. The height of the landfill
cannot exceed 15m.

Déterminer la superficie nécessaire pour un nouveau site d'enfouissement d'une

durée de vie prévue de 30 ans pour une population de 250.000 génératrices de 2,02
kg. (Habitant)-1 jour-1. La densité des déchets compactés est de 470 kg/m3. La
hauteur de la décharge ne peut pas dépasser 15m

180
 Question 2

Calculate the volumetric flow rate of leachate through a

compacted clay liner if the area of the landfill is 15 ha and
the liner thickness is 1m. The hydraulic conductivity is
7.5x10-10m/s. Assume that the head of water is 0.6m.

• Calculer le débit volumétrique des eaux de lixiviation à

travers une couche d'argile compactée si la zone de la
décharge est de 15 ha et l'épaisseur de ligne est de 1m. La
conductivité hydraulique est 7.5x10-10m / s. Supposons que
la tête de l'eau est 0.6m .

181
 Question 3
Given: A recycling operation of commingled wastes. The Chief of Public Works of
HYSACAM wants to know how many sorters, jobs, will be needed on the sorting conveyor
line. You know the population is 120,000. Generation rate is 3.82Kg./capita.day

Find:
Weekly tonnage
Persons required (NB: Assume 2.5 ton/person.hour, a work week of 40 hours)

Weekly tonnage = 120,000 residents x 3.82 Kg./capita.day x days/week x 1 ton/2000 Kg.

= 16,044 tons/week
person.hour
Persons required = 16,044 tons/week x 2.5ton x 1 week/40 hours
= 160 people

182
 Question 4
• A landfill with a gas collection system is in •
operation and serves a population of
200,000. MSW is generated at a rate of
1.95Kg.(capita)-1.day-1. Gas is produced at
an annual rate of 6,2L/Kg of MSW
delivered to the landfill. The gas contains
55% methane. Gas recovery is 15% of that
generated‟ The heat content of the landfill
gas is approximately 17000Kj/m3 (a value
lower than the theoretical value because
dilution of the methane with air during
recovery). The landfill company and a
developer have proposed to build a
subdivision in the vicinity of the landfill
and pipe the methane generated to the
homes to be used for heating. The homes
are estimated to use an average of
110x106Kj of heat energy each year. Peak
usage during winter is 1.5 times the
average usage. How many homes can be
built in the subdivision?
Une décharge avec un système de collecte de
gaz est en fonctionnement et dessert une
population de 200.000 habitants. DSM est
généré à un taux de 1,95 kg. (Habitant)-
1.djpou-1. Le gaz est produit à un taux
annuel de 6,2 L / kg de déchets solides
urbains livrés à la décharge. Le gaz contient
du méthane à 55%. la récupération du gaz est
de 15% de celle générée. Le contenu de
chaleur des gaz d'enfouissement est d'environ
17000Kj/m3 (une valeur inférieure à la
valeur théorique, car la dilution du méthane
avec de l'air lors de la récupération). La
société d'enfouissement et un développeur
ont proposé de construire un lotissement à
proximité de la décharge et les tuyaux du
méthane généré à la maison pour être utilisé
pour le chauffage. Les maisons sont estimés à
utiliser une moyenne de 110x106Kj de
l'énergie calorifique de chaque année.
Utilisation maximale durant l'hiver est de 1,5
fois la consommation moyenne. Combien de
foyers peuvent être construits dans le
lotissement?
183
 Landfill design
• To estimate the volume required for a landfill, it is necessary
to know the amount of refuse being produced and density of
the in-place, compacted refuse.
• Salvato recommends a formula of the following form for
estimating the annual volume required:
PEC
 LF 
Where, Dc
LF  volume of landfill C= average mass of
Solid waste collected
P = population; Per capita per year
 sw   c
E = ratio of cover (soil) to compacted fill 
 sw
Dc = Density of compacted fill  sw =Volume of solid waste
c =Volume of cover 184
 …Landfill design, see landfill construction

• Design has many components:

 Site preparation;
 Building;
 Monitoring wells;
 size;
 Liners;
 Leachate collection system;
 Final cover; and
 Gas collection system

Composite Liner System: The composite liner system consists of an upper synthetic geo-
membrane liner (also known as a flexible membrane liner, FML) and a lower layer of
compacted soil at least 0.61 m (2 ft) thick with a hydraulic conductivity of not greater than
1x10-7 cm/s. The clay used is naturally available clay – durable, with low hydraulic
conductivity. Geo-membrane liners are liable to chemical reactions, as well as loading and
settlement stresses. 185
Types of liners:
 High density poly-ethylene (HDPE)
 Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Flexible polypropylene (FPP)
 Chloro-sulphonated polyethylene (CSPE)

The surface of the compacted soil liner must be smooth and sufficiently strong to
provide continuous support to the geo-membrane liner. At the time of installation,
the geo-membrane liners are rolled out or spread out over the soil liner with each
sheet overlapping the adjacent sheets and seamed together to create the effect of a
single impermeable layer. [Thickness: 0.75mm to 3 mm (1.5mm for HDPE liner)]

186
What types of waste are accepted at landfills for disposal?

 Household refuse.
 Tree and yard trimmings.
 Concrete and asphalt.
 Furniture.
 Construction, demolition, and renovation waste including wood,
metal, roofing, etc. ...
 Preapproved liquid waste (Badlands, Lamb Canyon and Blythe
landfills only)

Landfills Are a Good Thing… ... In many cases, the waste people
create and send to a landfill can generate enough energy to power an
entire community and often, revenues generated from a successfully
operating landfill can be used to improve schools, roads, and the
quality of life for all who live near the site.
187
 Landfill closure
• The major function of the final cover is to prevent moisture from
entering the finished landfill.
• If no moisture enters, then at some time the leachate production will
reach minimal proportions and the chance of groundwater
contamination will be minimized.

• Modern final cover design consists of :

1) a surface layer (to provide suitable soil for plants to grow),
2) biotic barrier ( to prevent the roots of plants from penetrating the
hydraulic barrier),
3) drainage layer (provides an easy flow path to a grid of perforated
pipes),
4) hydraulic barrier (prevent movement of water into the landfill),
5) foundation layer (composite liner consisting of a geomembrane and
low conductivity soil. This soil also protects the geomembrane from
the rough aggregate in the gas control layer) , and
6) gas control layer (of coarse gravel that acts as a vent to carry the
gases to the surface).
188
The requirement of the final cover system:
 Have permeability less than 1x10-5cm/sec Minimize infiltration through the
landfill using a barrier layer [at least 46 cm of soil]
 Minimize erosion of the final cover using an „erosion layer‟ [15 cm of soil]

Post-closure care activities

• Maintaining the integrity and effectiveness of erosion controls
• Maintaining and operating the leachate collection system
• Maintaining and operating the gas venting system
• Monitoring groundwater for contamination

189
 Site selection for landfill

In choosing a location for landfill, consideration should be given to the following

variables:
1. Restricted locations such as wetlands, flood plains, and seismic impact areas;
2. Public opposition;
3. Proximity to major roadways;
4. Load limits on roadways and bridges;
5. Underpass limitations;
6. Traffic pattern and congestion;
7. Location of the groundwater table and sole-source aquifers;
8. Soil conditions and topography;
9. Availability of cover material;
10. Climate (e.g., floods, mud slides,…);
11. Buffer areas around the site (e.g., high trees on the site perimeter);
12. Location of historic buildings and endangered species
190
Siting criteria

191
 Example

• How much landfill space does Douala city require for 20 years
of operation. You may assume that 142000 people are being
served by this landfill and that each person generates 2.0Kg
per day of waste. The density of the uncompacted waste is
106Kg/m3 and a compaction ratio of 4.2 can be used. The ratio
of cover to compacted fill is 1.9.

192
 Advantages and disadvantages of landfills

Advantage
 Probably the biggest advantage of sanitary landfills, when
compared to open dumps, is the protection of public health
and the environment.
 A properly designed and operated landfill will offer
advantages in the following areas:
(1) aesthetics, especially litter;
(2) decomposition gases and leachate;
(3) birds;
(4) fires and odours
(5) pests;
(6) rats; and
(7) injury from scavenging.
193
Aesthetics: They include an attractive entrance with good roads and easy-to-read
signs.
Gas and leachate: landfills control gas generated by the decomposition of solid
wastes; and leachate formed as water migrates through the solid wastes, picking
up a variety of biological and chemical contaminants.

Birds: These can be a nuisance or even cause problems with planes if the landfill is
near an airport.

Fires and Odours: Odours are best controlled by daily cover, as well as by adequate
compaction. Daily cover also forms cells which are thought to reduce the ability
of fires to spread throughout the landfill.

Pests: Flies and mosquitoes are best controlled by daily cover of the solid wastes
along with the elimination of any open standing water.

Rats: These can be a problem at open dumps, but the use of cover, insuring that all
food wastes are buried, eliminates rat problems at a sanitary landfill.

Scavenging: While recycling may be desirable, the scavenging of material from a

landfill is usually prohibited. Scavenging is the uncontrolled picking through
waste to recover useful items, as contrasted to salvaging, which is the controlled
separation of recoverable items.. 194
Disadvantages of landfills
The major objections to sanitary landfills are:
 initial costs for design and construction,
 public opposition when siting, and
 increasingly, the concern for recovery of material instead of
disposal.

195
196
Sources, pathways, emissions and potential effects

197
Sources, pathways, emissions and potential effects

198
 2. Incineration
• Prior to 1940, incineration was
common in North America and
western Europe.
 Many incinerators were eliminated
because of foul odours and gritty
smoke
 Currently, about 5% or more of
Cameroon municipal solid waste is
incinerated.

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances
contained in waste materials. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems
are described as “thermal treatment” .

Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue gas, and heat. The ash is
mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste, and may take the form of solid
lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas.

The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed
199
into the atmosphere..
 … incinération

 Principe
 S‟effectue dans des installations classées soumises à autorisation : ICPE
 Normes de rejets atmosphériques draconiennes
 Surveillance obligatoire
 Process : Thermolyse, Combustion en lit fluidisé, Fours classiques

 Bilans massiques, énergétiques, et financiers

 1/3 de mâchefers + des gaz + des effluents liquides
 Concentration des caractéristiques de dangerosité
 Rentabilité : traitement ou valorisation de l'énergie produite ?

 Traitement des effluents

 Les lixiviats : proviennent de la maturation des mâchefers
 Les REFIOM : résidus issus du dépoussiérage et de la neutralisation des fumées
des incinérateurs
 Les Mâchefers : stockage en CSDU 2 ou 3, valorisation en remblais
200
 .. Incineration
Combustion Process
 Definition: Chemical reaction in which the elements in the fuel
are oxidized in the presence of excess oxygen
 Major oxidizable elements in the fuel/solid waste are Carbon
and Hydrogen. Sulphur and Nitrogen also present in smaller
quantities
 Products of oxidation:
C:→ CO2;
H:→H2O;
S:→ SO2
 Some fraction of the nitrogen may be oxidized to nitrogen
oxides
 Combustion reactions are function of oxygen, temperature, time
and turbulence 201
 … Incineration

• Within the waste industry incineration is the controlled high temperature

destruction of combustible material. It is usually done for 3 reasons:

 the destruction of waste,

 the production of energy from waste
 the disposal of hazardous (sometimes called intractable or scheduled)
waste.

• During incineration the oxygen in air is used to convert or oxidize

wastes to simple gases and solids. The vast majority of incinerable
wastes are organic in nature, i.e.. they contain carbon.

• What happens in incineration?

 Formation of CO2, H2O, SOx, POx, HF, HCl, HBr, I2, also present are
metal oxides and traces of unburnt waste.
 The solid products of incineration are referred to as ash, and this
202
comprises metals, oxides and non-combustibles.
 Fluidised Bed
 Often used for sewage sludge also
plastics and pharmaceutical
industry wastes;

 Cylindrical vessel containing an

inert bed of granular material which
is fluidised by an air feed;

 Waste is pumped into or above the

bed;

 Good combustion efficiency. But

operating costs relatively high and
not suitable for irregular, bulky or
tarry washes.

Fluidised Bed incinerator 203

 …Incineration

Effective incineration requires:

1) sufficient temperature
2) sufficient residence time at that temperature
3) maximum turbulence
4) excess oxygen

Temperature
 900 - 1100°C: destroys hydrocarbon waste,
 1100 to 1300°C: chlorinated solvents and other wastes which are difficult to incinerate,
 >1200°C: needed for bond breakup,
 below 900°C: hazardous by products can be formed. These include dioxins and
dibenzofurans,
 <800°C incomplete combustion is likely to occur and soot formation will result.

204
 …Incineration
• Residence time (θ). It is necessary to hold the waste at high temperatures
for sufficient time to ensure destruction. The longer the material is held at
high temperature the more likely it is to be destroyed. The residence time
for gaseous substances is a minimum of 2 seconds. For solids the residence
time could be minutes or even hours.

• The resilience times for solid wastes are based on rotational speed of the
kiln and its angle.

• For volatilize waste, θ is controlled by the gas velocity

• The retention time of the solids in the incinerator can be estimated from the
following:
Where,
0.19L θ = retention time (minutes)
θ L = kiln length (m);
N*D*S
N = kiln rotational speed (rev./min)
D = kiln diameter (m),
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S = kiln slope (m. m-1)
 …Incineration

• Turbulence enables waste and air to be well mixed.

Turbulence should be maximized so that contact
between the waste and the oxygen In air Is as high as
possible.

• Excess oxygen must be present to ensure that the

oxidative processes predominate and the pyrolytic
processes are minimized. Generally oxygen should be
present at 50-100% higher concentration than is
theoretically required to decompose the waste.

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…Incineration

• Hazardous waste incinerators must meet three performances:

1) Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents (POHC)
The Destructive And Removal Efficiency (D.R.E) for a given
POHC is defined as the mass percentage of the POHC
removed from the waste.

Win  Wout  * 100

D.R.E 
Win
Where,

Win = mass feed rate of one POHC in the waste stream

(or concentration of that compound in the waste feed x volumetric flow
rate of stack gas),

Wout = mass emission rate of the same POHC present in exhaust

emissions prior to release to atmosphere (or concentration of207that
compound in stack gas x volumetric flow rate of stack gas )
 …Incineration
2) Hydrochloric acid. An incinerator burning hazardous waste and producing
stack emissions of more than 1.8 Kg/hour of hydrogen chloride (HCL)
most control HCL emissions such that the rate of emission is no greater
than the larger of either 1.8 Kg/hour or 1% HCL in the stack gas prior to
entering any pollution control equipment.

3) Particulates. Stack emissions of particulate matter are limited to 180

mg.dscm-1(milligrams per dry standard cubic meter) for the stack gas
corrected to 7% of oxygen.

The adjustment is made by calculating a corrected concentration:

14
Pc  Pm
21  Y 
Where,
Pc = corrected concentration of particulate (mg.dscm-1),
Pm = measured concentration of particulate (mg.dscm-1), and
Y = percent oxygen in the dry flue gas
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209
 Exercise
• A test burn waste mixture consisting of three designated Principal
organic hazardous constituents (POHC): chlorobenzene, toluene,
and xylene is incinerated at 10000C. The waste feed rate and the
stack discharge are shown in the following table. The stack gas
flow rate is 375.24 dscm/minute (dry standard cubic meters per
minute). Is the unit in compliance?

Compound Inlet (Kg/hour) Outlet (Kg/hour) Compound Inlet (Kg/hour) Outlet (Kg/hour)

Chlorobenzene 153 0.010 HCl 1.2

(C6H5Cl)

Toluene (C6H8) 432 0.037 Particulates at 3.615

7% O2

Xylene (C8H10) 435 0.070

Outlet concentration were measured in the stack after Air Pollution Control (APC)
equipment. (NB: The DRE for each designated POHC must be atleast 99.99%.)210
 Applicability of incinerator systems to waste type

Waste Type CementKiln Rotary Kiln Multi Multi Hearth Fluidised Liquid Injection
Chamber Bed
Solids
granular homogeneous X X X X
irregular bulky (pallets) X X
low melting points (tars) X X X X X
organics with fusible ash X X
Gases
organic vapour laden X X X
Liquids
aqueous contaminatied X X X X
with organics
Solids/Liquids
Waste with halogens X X X X X
aqueous/organic sludges X X X X X X

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 Energy from Waste

The four main ways of energy recovery from waste are:

• incineration in a waste to energy plant
• selected wastes can be processed as fuel
• methane produced by decomposition can be burned
• controlled anaerobic digestion as at many sewage treatment
works
Of these, energy from landfills and sewage sludge digestion are
the most important sources of energy from waste

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 Heat Value
• Heating value is defined as the amount of energy released when a fuel is
burned completely in a steady-flow process and the products are returned to
the state of the reactants.
• Estimates of heat values of solid wastes are often obtained from heat value
of major components contain in the every source of wastes collected. This
estimation is done by referring past researches and journals:

Heat Value and Efficiency of Component of Solid Wastes

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215
 Potential energy generation

**The value of 3412 Btu/hour is being used to obtain value in electrical energy produced
that is kWh.

1 kWh = 3412 Btu/hour or 1.341 hp (Pulkrabek, 1997).

Example of calculation:

To calculate potential energy of solid waste from residential area in a certain year:
 Total average of solid waste generation per hour = 8.2836 lb/hours
 Heat value (residential) = 4,300 Btu/lb
 Thermal Efficiency = 0.7

Therefore; NB:
Energy, P = 8.2836 lb/hours * 4,300Btu/lb * 0.7 1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
3412 (lb)
Btu = British thermal unit ≈1055 joules
= 7.3076 kWh
Advantages and disadvantages of energy recovery from
incineration
Advantages
• produces no methane, unlike landfill
• a renewable source of energy
• reduces the volume of waste for final disposal by about 90%
• yields five times greater useful energy per tonne of waste than energy
recovery from landfill
• converts organic wastes to biologically less active forms
• can increase energy efficiency by about 30% through waste fired
community heating schemes - not as relevant in some parts of Australia
• materials recovery is possible from the solid wastes produced in the
incineration process
• suitable for many highly flammable, volatile, toxic and infectious waste
streams which should not be landfilled.

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Disadvantages
• Costs are generally higher than landfill
• reliance on incineration could restrict the choice of future
disposal options because the high fixed costs of waste to
energy plants require long-term contracts
• for some materials, such as paper, inclusion in collection for
incineration may make it harder to establish materials recovery
• some emissions contain pollutants
• some incinerators generate a liquid effluent which may need to
be treated before being discharged to sewers
• incineration significantly reduces, but does not eliminate, the
volume of material to be disposed
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219
 3. RECYCLING

• Recycling involves processing waste to produce a useable raw

material or product.

• Recycled material can, in principle, be re-used many times (a

product made from recycled material often can itself be
recycled), unlike material which has been burnt to have the
energy recovered from it or composted.
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 Recycling

• Recycling initiatives have grown rapidly in Cameroon like

elsewhere in the world.

– Bottle Bills (10 states)

– Mandatory recycling laws

(non existent in Cameroon???)

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 Recycling Benefits

• Resource Conservation

• Pollution Reduction
– Crushed glass reduces energy required to
manufacture new glass by 50%.

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 Recycling

Recycling is the recovery and reuse of a product which

would otherwise be thrown away.
Preliminary steps for a recycling program:
• An accurate analysis of the sources and content of the solid waste
stream.
• Evaluation of any existing recycling programs. Existing programs
must be integrated into the new or expanded program.
• Identification of public attitudes about recycling.
• Determine what markets exist for the potential recycled materials. (It
does no good to collect materials for recycling if no market exists for
their use!)
• Determine the best recycling options.
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 Advantages of Recycling
• Recycling can defer or avoid altogether some waste materials
entering the natural environment. For instance, in Australia the
recycling of about 90 per cent of old car batteries avoids some
dangerous pollution in landfill. Used oils, solvents and many
other chemicals and dangerous substances are treated for further
use. Until such time as the use of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) is
eliminated, recycling of CFCs can avoid further damage to the
ozone layer,

• Recycling can also help in litter abatement, but bigger anti-litter

gains may be achieved by other means. Compared with
production from virgin materials, the processing of recovered
materials can lead to less use of energy and less pollution. This is
because reprocessing starts with a material which is already
refined,

224
 … Advantages of Recycling
• Energy savings are possible through the recycling of many
materials from many sources. Indeed, the savings in energy
during reprocessing help to determine whether the recycling of
many products is commercially worthwhile.

• Recycling can reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

Whether the benefits are significant in global terms, or there
are more effective ways of reducing these emissions, are issues
which extend well beyond this lecture.

225
Benefits of Recycling

226
227
 Disadvantages of Recycling

• The reprocessing of recovered materials is not always

pollution free. Certain reprocessing technologies create
residues which are difficult to treat. The acid-clay process for
re-refining waste oil is one example where the residual sludge
has contaminated land.

• The costs of collection, transport and reprocessing may be a

disadvantage. This also results in higher costs for recycled
materials

228
Sources, pathways, emissions and potential effects

229
 Composting
• “Composting is the biological decomposition of the biodegradable organic
fraction of MSW under controlled conditions to a state sufficiently stable for
nuisance-free storage and handling and for safe use in land applications
(Golueke et al., 1955; Golueke, 1972; Diaz et al., 1993).”

• About 3800 composting facilities currently in use in the United States.

Advantages and Disadvantages????

Factors affecting the composting process
• Nutrient levels (macro- C, H, and O and micro- N, P, K, Mg, S, Fe, Ca, Mn,
Zn, Cu, Co, and Mo)
• Nutrient balance (C/N ratio)
• Aeration (When acids accumulate during the early stages of composting,
aeration can be done to return the compost pH to an acceptable range.)
• Moisture & Temperature
• pH (between 5.5 and 8.5)
• Particle size of the feedstock material
Carbon and nitrogen are required for the catabolic and anabolic processes of the
microbes. A larger part of carbon substrate is oxidized to CO2 during metabolic
activities and the remaining carbon is converted into cell wall or membrane,
protoplasm, and storage products.

The principal use of nitrogen is in the synthesis of protoplasm (proteins, amino

acids, nucleic acids). The optimum C/N ratio for soil and compost microorganisms
has been established at roughly 30:1. A ratio much higher than this will slow down
the decomposition by oxidizing the excess carbon to CO2.

231
If the ratio is lower than 25, composting will be inhibited due to low-energy supply
and nitrogen will be lost both by leaching and volatilization as ammonia.

The composting of a substrate in the presence of oxygen can be represented by the

following balanced chemical reaction:

𝐶𝑎𝐻𝑏𝑂𝑐𝑁𝑑 + 0.5(𝑛𝑦+2𝑠+𝑟−𝑐)𝑂2 → 𝑛𝐶𝑤𝐻𝑥𝑂𝑦𝑁𝑧 + 𝑠𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑟𝐻2𝑂 + (𝑑−𝑛𝑧)𝑁𝐻3

where
𝑟 = 0.5[𝑏−𝑛𝑥−3(𝑑−𝑛𝑧)] and 𝑠=𝑎−𝑛𝑤.

CaHbOcNd and CwHxOyNz represent the substrate and product respectively

Vermicomposting – Introducing worms into SW to aid in decomposition of organic

matter (end product called vermicast). These worms are however sensitive to
sunlight, citrus content and cooked food leftovers.

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 233
Flow diagram of University of New Hampshire heat recovery
Heat generation during composting

234
Sources, pathways, emissions and potential effects

235
 5. Source reduction

• Most fundamental method of reducing waste is to prevent it

from being produced (Waste Prevention).

• Reduce and reuse – Individuals and Industry

– Saves natural resources.
– Reduces waste toxicity
– Reduces costs
Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by
modifying industrial production.

 Source reduction methods involve changes in manufacturing technology, raw

material inputs, and product formulation.

 At times, the term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.

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Recycling
 Benefits
 Saves money, raw materials, and land.
 Encourages individual responsibility.
 Reduces pressure on disposal systems.
 Japan recycles about half of all household and
commercial wastes. Cameroon???
 Lowers demand for raw resources, e.g., wood.
 Reduces energy consumption and air pollution.

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Risques liés à l’usage des différentes méthodes.

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