DR.

J
OEL S
EEDMAN

M O V EM EN T
REDEF NED
TRANSFORMI
NGEXERCI
SEFORADVANCEDHUMANPERFORMANCE
 ABOUT
Table of
Contents
Movement Redefined
Having embarked on the
formidable journey of writing
this book nearly a decade ago,
Movement Redefined represents
my life’s work in the field of
kinesiology. Throughout this
600+ page book I lay out, step-
by-step, the science and
practical application of my 15+
years of extensive research and
industry experience, including
my far-reaching hands-on work
with professional athletes to
general populations. To high-
light, Movement Redefined re-
DR. JOEL SEEDMAN | AUTHOR presents the cornerstone of my
work with eccentric isometrics
and neuromuscular re-education. Movement Redefined is guaranteed to change
your views and approach to training, performance, health, exercise, and fitness,
as it will undoubtedly challenge everything you’ve ever learned and read in the
fitness industry. Indeed, Movement Redefined will teach you how to transform
exercise for Advanced Human Performance.

The fitness industry has been largely responsible for perpetuating many lies, myths,
and misconceptions over the years that have unfortunately facilitated a number of
physiological consequences that not only impede performance, joint health, and
quality of movement, but have also promoted inflammation-induced pathological
conditions that impacts our entire physiology. Movement Redefined exposes these
lies and uncovers the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. Simply,
Movement Redefined will lead the reader step by step through hundreds of
research studies as well as experiential data demonstrating just how important
proper movement mechanics are and how it impacts everything from quality of
life, performance, physique appearance, and overall health and wellness.

Movement Redefined
 ABOUT
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Movement Redefined
Movement Redefined also demonstrates why and how I developed eccentric
isometrics as well as other advanced training methodologies. Just be warned, once
you go down this path it will be impossible to have a neutral viewpoint on training
principles as this book works to uncover profound hidden truths and physiological
mysteries that have perplexed not only the exercise science community but also the
medical field for decades. To paraphrase from a famous film, “You take the blue
pill and decide you’re not interested in this book, the story ends. You wake up in
your fantasy world and believe whatever you want to. You take the red pill and
read this book, you stay in reality, and I show you how deep the rabbit hole goes.
Remember, all I'm offering is the truth.”

Book Highlights
600+ BOOK: 600+ page book on eccentric isometrics and Dr.
Seedman’s groundbreaking work on movement transformation
30+ TRAINING PROGRAMS: Holistic eccentric isometric training
templates workout programs with accompanying instructions and protocols
100+ EXERCISE VISUALS: Over 100 figures and detailed illustrations
demonstrating proper mechanics, joint angles, and body positioning for
all the basic human movement patterns and eccentric isometrics
DR. SEEDMAN’S DISSERTATION: Contains Dr. Seedman’s
original doctoral dissertation, examining the physiological and
neuromuscular mechanisms of resistance training and effects of
eccentric isometric protocols on transient measure of muscle function

Thank you for your purchase and support! I hope you enjoy this book and I
certainly look forward to hearing about your result!

LIve Well – Train Hard!

DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

Movement Redefined
 Table of
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Contents

Copyright © 2018 by Dr. Joel D. Seedman

Advanced Human Performance, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced or used in any manner without
written permission of the copyright owner
except for the use of quotations in a book
review. For more information, address:
info@advancedhumanperformance.com

FIRST EDITION

www.AdvancedHumanPerformance.com

Movement Redefined
 Table of
Acknowledgements
Contents
This book, Movement Redefined, represents an incredible experience and
journey for me personally as I began this arduous task nearly 7 years ago.
Throughout this time period I’ve had incredible support from family and friends,
particularly my immediately family which includes my mom Terrye, my dad
Ronald, and my brother Joshua. They’ve provided immense support, prayers,
and encouragement for me not just during the 7 years I’ve worked on this book
but throughout my entire life for which I am eternally grateful. In addition, the
first 4 years of work on this book represents my time as a doctoral student at
UGA. I know if it had not been for their loving kindness and generous support
I would never have completed my Ph.D. in kinesiology. Thanks so much Mom,
Dad, and Josh, I love you all so much.

I also want to express my deepest gratitude to my many professors, teachers, and

instructors throughout my collegiate education, particularly my primary graduate
professor and advisor, Dr. Michael Horvat. Besides providing continual
guidance, mentorship, instruction, and education, Dr. Horvat was incredibly
encouraging and supportive of my research ideas, and methods throughout my
four years as a doctoral student. Thank you so much Dr. Horvat, for everything
you did for me during my time at UGA, it was truly a blessing to be under your
tutelage.

I also want to personally thank my wonderful client and very dear friend Dr.
Leslie Petch for helping me edit this book as well as her continuous support over
the years. Leslie began training with me over 7 years ago, as I was just beginning
my journey to discover what proper movement truly entailed and had gradually
begun creating the foundational principles for what would eventually represent
the cornerstones for Movement Redefined. As a result, Leslie has witnessed
firsthand my evolution as a coach and trainer and watched me refine and mold
the theories discussed in this text. Leslie, I can’t thank you enough for all of your
support, kindness, generosity, and friendship.

I would also like to express my gratitude and most sincere thanks to my

incredible brother and best friend Dr. Joshua Seedman. Josh provided immense
support and encouragement as well as assistance with many components of this

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book including conceptualization, formatting, layout, illustrations, editing, and
other key elements that would have been impossible to replicate without his
incredible expertise and multidimensional talents. Thanks Josh, for all you’ve
done for me not only for this book but for so many things in my life that I’ve
lost count.

Most importantly I want to thank my Heavenly Father Yahveh, the God of

Israel, for His blessings, guidance, grace, mercy, patience, and love which have
been evident in my life since my earliest existence. Every bit of wisdom,
understanding, knowledge, creativity, and insight I was blessed to receive while
on this journey was made possible only through Him. In fact, I refuse to accept
any of the glory, praise, or accolades anyone may think I deserve or have earned,
as everything I’ve ever accomplished in this lifetime has occurred only through
His guidance and wisdom. Every idea, moment of inspiration, and creative
concept I’ve ever come up with has been divinely imparted as He’s ordained
every footstep and direction in my life. Therefore, it is Yahveh, God Almighty
who gets all of the praise, honor, and glory. This book and my life are His and I
offer them back to Him as a sacrifice, with inexpressible gratitude for all that
He’s continually done for me.

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Chapter 1 : The Journey Page 26
Dr. Seedman lays out his personal journey in the fitness industry starting from
his undergraduate days all the way through the completion of his PhD in
kinesiology and beyond. He also explains how he arrived at his various
movement concepts, training protocols, and methods as well as what led him to
eventually question everything he ever learned about training, exercise, and
fitness.

Chapter 2 : M ovem ent, M uscle

Function, Inflam m ation, & Disease Page 41
While definitely the most scientifically complex chapter of Movement
Redefined, Chapter 2 is in many ways the most critical for understanding why
muscle function matters and the impact it plays on health, performance, aging,
disease, physique appearance, and more. It’s a paramount chapter that lays out
the foundational elements of his training in scientific detail.

Chapter 3 : Defining
Proper M uscle Function Page 93
The fitness industry has yet to provide a tangible definition for what constitutes
as proper muscle function. In this chapter, Dr. Seedman provides in depth
research and undeniable scientific literature demonstrating the inescapable
conclusion that there is in fact a concrete definition of optimal muscle function
for the human body. Furthermore, this definition is based on principles of
neurophysiology, structural physiology, biomechanics, and more. Additionally
he demonstrates how these principles are key for minimizing pain,
inflammation, joint trauma, and injuries.

Chapter 4 : Eccentric
Isometrics Defined Page 148
Dr. Seedman explains how and why eccentric isometrics involve every critical
element and tenant of what we currently understand to be scientifically sound
movement parameters while detailing step-by-step instructions for performing
eccentric isometric movements. He also illustrates how eccentric isometrics are
the single most effective training methodology in existence not only for certain
populations but also for all individuals including elite athletes and general
populations.

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Chapter 5 : Eccentric Isom etrics
Foundation & Physiological Benefits Page 172
This chapter gives further support for the implementation of eccentric
isometric training protocols by explaining how it fits into all aspects of
performance, fitness, physiological function, and health. Dr. Seedman merges
the science and practical elements together, illustrating how eccentric isometrics
are the ultimate tool for maximizing one’s genetic potential, physical
performance, physiological function, and quality of life as well as overall
muscularity and body composition.

Chapter 6 : The Big Seven Page 226

Perhaps the most practically applicable chapter of Movement Redefined,
Chapter 6 provides in-depth specifics on each of the seven key movement
patterns of human movement and why perfecting these movements are vital for
mastering movement. Dr. Seedman also lays out step-by-step instructions on
every cue and coaching pointer needed to perfectly master each of the big seven
foundational movement patterns. Think of this as your guide to mastering
eccentric isometrics on all the foundational exercises.

Chapter 7 : Eccentric Isom etric

Training Protocols & Programming Page 309
Dr. Seedman highlights every key element needed to properly design, customize,
and build the ultimate eccentric isometric training routine that’s guaranteed to
help each individual master their own body mechanics all while making
continuous and indefinite improvements. This represents the area of literature
Dr. Seedman has received the most questions on over the years and he’s included
everything the reader will need throughout their journey of movement mastery.

Chapter 8 : Training Program s

Eccentric Isom etrics In Action Page 332
Dr. Seedman provides not just 1, 2, or even 10 training programs but 30+
programs and training templates meticulously designed and refined over the years
to maximize the practical implementation of eccentric isometrics for every
training goal and fitness level. Not only does this represent an incredibly in depth
eccentric isometric training routine but this also might very well be the most
extensive and in depth training program offered in the fitness industry period.

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Chapter 9 : Pain Science, M uscle
Function, and Eccentric Isometrics Page 366
The pain science community has unfortunately perpetuated many myths and
misconceptions regarding the topic of biomechanics, muscle function, and
movement. Dr. Seedman explains just how optimizing body mechanics and
muscle functional via eccentric isometrics ties into the topic of pain science and
neuroscience pain education. He also uncovers the various lies and myths
commonly preached in the industry.
.
Chapter 10 : Question and Answ er Page 396
Over the years, Dr. Seedman has received many questions and inquiries regarding
eccentric isometric training protocols as well as other common training questions.
The aim of this chapter is to address any and all questions the reader might have after
reading the previous 10 chapters, ensuring the highest degree of success for each
individual seeking to master their movement mechanics, performance, and health.

Chapter 11 : Unlocking the

M ysteries & Connecting the Dots Page 449
One of the deepest sections of Movement Redefined, Chapter 11 provides
detailed information for connecting the dots and unlocking clues that have left
many experts in the medical field and exercise science industry baffled. Dr.
Seedman put on his Sherlock Holmes cap for this chapter by using deductive
reasoning and pragmatic thinking to illustrate how eccentric isometrics and
muscle function tie into most, if not all, areas of exercise science as well as
many areas of medicine and physical science.

Chapter 12 : The Journey Thus

Far - Quotes and Final Thoughts Page 523
While the journey is oftentimes long and arduous, it never ends as the process of
mastering one’s movement is ongoing throughout one’s entire lifespan. In this
final chapter, Dr. Seedman highlights key truths and tenants as well as provide
final words of wisdom to equip the reader with any and all tools necessary to
successfully embark on their own personal journey of movement mastery.

Bonus: COM PARISON OF RESISTANCE

TRAINING - DR. SEEDMAN’S DISSERTATION Page 550
In this bonus chapter, Dr. Seedman’s groundbreaking PhD dissertation
examines physiological and neuromuscular mechanisms of resistance training,
including effects of eccentric isometric protocols on muscle function.

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CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................. 27
The Journey .............................................................................................................................................. 27
A Tale of Two Journeys .................................................................................................................... 27
Part I The First Seven Years ............................................................................................................ 28
How It All Began ............................................................................................................................... 28
Repeated Occurrences of Training-Induced Pathology ......................................................... 28
The Pain and Inflammation Quandary ..................................................................................... 31
My Personal Battle ....................................................................................................................... 32
Part II The next Seven years ............................................................................................................ 34
A Reversal of Trends ................................................................................................................... 34
The Cure ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Proper Mechanics: The Equalizer of Individual Differences ................................................ 36
Limits to My Understanding....................................................................................................... 38
Other Lifestyle Factors ................................................................................................................ 38
The Merging of My Physical and Spiritual Journey ...................................................................... 39

Chapter 2 ................................................................................................. 42
Movement Muscle Function Inflammation and Disease .................................................................. 42
Section 1: Research on Muscle Use, Function and Movement ................................................. 43
Section 2: Muscle Function, Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Disease ............................. 44
Section 3: Muscle Endocrine Function, Myokines & Inflammation ........................................ 46
Putting It All Together Summary Of Key Points ......................................................................... 50
Section 4: Muscle dysfunction, Postural Abnormalities, Inflammation & Aging .................... 51
Hypothetical Preface .................................................................................................................... 51
Important Note On Strength Training Research .................................................................... 51
C-Reactive Protein, Myokines, and Muscle-Induced Inflammation .................................... 53
CRP, Musculoskeletal Pain, and Injury ..................................................................................... 55
CRP and Muscle Function .......................................................................................................... 56
Posture, Spinal Positioning, and CRP ....................................................................................... 57
Musculoskeletal Dysfunction & Low Back Pain ..................................................................... 58
Posture, Neck And Cervical Spinal Pain .................................................................................. 60
Postural Mechanics, Osteoarthritis, and Inflammation .......................................................... 61
Postural Abnormalities, Aging, and Cognition ........................................................................ 63
Proprioception, Muscle Function, And Posture ..................................................................... 63
Posture, Body Mechanics & Endocrine Function .................................................................. 64
Muscle Function, Posture, And Digestion ............................................................................... 65
Improving Posture ....................................................................................................................... 65
Traditional Exercise Programs & Muscle Dysfunction.......................................................... 66
Muscle Function in Dancers And Gymnasts ........................................................................... 67

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Section 5: Eccentric Exercise Induced Muscle Damage & Its Physiological Implications .... 68
Traditional Strength Training, Inflammation and CRP.......................................................... 71
Strength Training and Autonomic Nervous System Function ............................................. 72
AMPK, Inflammation and Aging .............................................................................................. 73
Telomeres, Inflammation, and Aging ....................................................................................... 74
Section Six Muscle spasticity and Hypertonicity ........................................................................... 74
Common Treatments for Muscle Spasticity and Muscle Dysfunction ................................ 82
References ..................................................................................................................................... 84

Chapter 3 ................................................................................................. 94
Defining Proper Muscle Function ........................................................................................................ 94
The Biomechanical, Neurophysiological & Structural Basis of Muscle Function, & Functional
Training Implications for Optimal Performance ............................................................................... 94
Proper Muscle Function Undefined? ........................................................................................ 94
Section 1: Current Guidelines for Movement Parameters in Strength and Conditioning...... 95
Section 2: Biomechanical, Neurophysiological & Structural Basis of Muscle Function......... 98
Proprioceptive Feedback and Function .................................................................................... 99
Proprioception and Muscle Stiffness ........................................................................................ 99
Anatomical levers ....................................................................................................................... 102
Section Three Functional Implications for Optimal Performance .......................................... 104
Neuromuscular Pliability ........................................................................................................... 104
Changes in Optimal Length for Contraction of Muscle Fibers .......................................... 106
Movement Patterns and Spasticity .......................................................................................... 110
Flexibility-Induced Muscle Opposition .................................................................................. 111
Heeding the Warning Signs of Autogenic Inhibition: Non-Clinical Clasp Knife Reflex
Response ...................................................................................................................................... 113
Co-Contraction: Agonist and Antagonist Coupling for Maximal Concentric Reciprocal
Inhibition ..................................................................................................................................... 117
Key Points on Autogenic Inhibition, Reciprocal Inhibition & Clasp Knife Reflex ........ 120
Fatigue, Proprioception, and Range of Motion (ROM) ....................................................... 122
Barefoot Running: Implications For Optimal ROM ............................................................ 123
Squat Depth Analysis and Optimal ROM .............................................................................. 124
90-Degree Joint Angles and Muscle Activation .................................................................... 125
The Truth About Shear Forces and Compressive Forces ................................................... 127
Practical Research Studies Demonstrating Faulty Muscle Function .................................. 129
Anecdotal Cases Demonstrating Faulty Muscle Function ........................................................ 133
The Anti-Extension Fad ........................................................................................................... 133
The Concentric-Only Fad ......................................................................................................... 135
Therapeutic-Induced Pathology ............................................................................................... 139
Section Four Putting It All Together ............................................................................................ 141
References ................................................................................................................................... 142

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chapter 4 ................................................................................................149
Eccentric Isometrics Defined .............................................................................................................. 149
Eccentric Isometrics: The Key to Proper Muscle Function ................................................ 149
Overview of Eccentric Isometrics ............................................................................................... 150
The Ultimate Rep ....................................................................................................................... 150
Duration Of The Eccentric Phase ........................................................................................... 151
Eccentric Isometric Duration ................................................................................................... 152
Use Natural Range Of Motion Not Maximal Range Of Motion ....................................... 152
Proper Breathing ........................................................................................................................ 154
Go Barefoot and Activate Your Feet ...................................................................................... 157
Use Your Muscles and Not Gravity To Perform The Eccentric ....................................... 158
Don’t Rush Through Your Reps ............................................................................................. 159
Lift By Feel, Not By Sight......................................................................................................... 159
Keep A Strong Grip................................................................................................................... 161
Maintain Tension Throughout Every Area of The Body .................................................... 162
Avoid Fatigue By Using Lower Rep Ranges .......................................................................... 162
Use Appropriate Loads and Training Intensity ..................................................................... 162
Feel the Stopping Point ............................................................................................................. 163
When it Doubt Stop Short........................................................................................................ 164
Imagine A Puzzle ....................................................................................................................... 164
Master the form with Bodyweight and Basic Variations ...................................................... 164
Reach Strong Depth .................................................................................................................. 165
Understand Internal Stability vs. External Stability .............................................................. 165
Think Powerful Yet Smooth Reps .......................................................................................... 166
Be Your Own Coach ................................................................................................................. 166
Optimize Your Posture and Spinal Alignment ...................................................................... 166
Understand The Subtleties of “Extremity Based Spinal Positioning” ............................... 169
Begin and End With a Snap...................................................................................................... 170
References ................................................................................................................................... 171

Chapter 5 ................................................................................................173
Eccentric Isometrics Scientific Foundation & Physiological Benefits .......................................... 173
Anecdotal and Experiential Data ............................................................................................. 173
Doctoral Studies ......................................................................................................................... 174
Section I: Scientific Underpinnings of Eccentric Isometrics ................................................... 174
Enhanced Muscle Function Through Increased Proprioception ....................................... 175
Enhanced Post Activation Potentiation ................................................................................. 176
Optimization of The Closed Loop Model and Sensory Integrated Movement ............... 179
Optimization of Muscle Stiffness and Muscle Spindle Sensitivity ..................................... 182
Co-Contraction and Muscle Stiffness ..................................................................................... 184
Optimization of Titin and Elastic Energy .............................................................................. 185

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Optimization of The Natural Length Tension Relationship ............................................... 186
Optimization of Lever Arms and Biomechanics................................................................... 187
Optimization of the Stretch Reflex (The Real One) ............................................................. 188
Optimization of Mobility and Stability ................................................................................... 189
Optimization of The Internal Structural Physiology of Muscular Contractions .............. 190
Optimization of The Power Output Equation ...................................................................... 190
Transfer To and Impact On All Other Movements ............................................................. 192
Teaching Active Movement Instead of Passive Movement ................................................ 192
Optimization of Joint Centration ............................................................................................ 194
Section II: Additional Physiological Benefits of Eccentric Isometrics .................................... 198
Improve Recovery and Increase Training Frequency........................................................... 198
Enhance Mobility ....................................................................................................................... 199
Maximize Hypertrophy, Strength, Power, and Overall Movement.................................... 200
Increase Functional Strength That Transfers To Muscle Growth ..................................... 201
Produce Functional Muscle Tissue While Limiting Non-Functional Hypertrophy ........ 201
Activate the mTOR Pathway of Muscle Growth .................................................................. 202
Enhances Mental Concentration and Cognition ................................................................... 203
Decrease Inflammation and Improve Insulin Resistance .................................................... 203
Address Correct Vs. Corrective Exercise ............................................................................... 205
Eliminate The Need For Soft Tissue Modalities Or Corrective Exercises ....................... 205
Mitigate Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Associated with Dysfunctional Movement
....................................................................................................................................................... 206
Correct Technique...................................................................................................................... 206
Reinforces Correct Motor Unit Recruitment ......................................................................... 206
Increase Neuro-Sensitivity of Pain .......................................................................................... 206
Correct Concentric Movement ................................................................................................ 207
Improve Force Absorption Capabilities ................................................................................. 207
Increase Health Through Proprioceptive Feedback ............................................................. 207
Teach The Lifter To Become Their Own Coach .................................................................. 208
Reinforce Optimal Range Of Motion, Not Maximal Range Of Motion ........................... 208
Provide the Ultimate Self-Diagnostic Tool ............................................................................ 208
Improve Autonomic Nervous System Function ................................................................... 209
Improve The Body’s Ability to Handle Carbohydrates ....................................................... 209
Enhance Digestive Function .................................................................................................... 211
Improves Ability to Buffer Lactic Acid and Increases Time to Fatigue............................ 211
Improve Physiological Oxygenation ....................................................................................... 213
Boost Immune System Function ............................................................................................. 213
Induce Physiological Rewiring Via neuromuscular Re-Education ..................................... 213
Mitigate Programming Paralysis ............................................................................................... 214
Help Minimize Injuries .............................................................................................................. 215
Improve Collagen Synthesis ..................................................................................................... 215

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Improve Force Absorption Capabilities ................................................................................. 216
Allow Individuals to Avoid Surgery and Work Around/Eliminate Injuries..................... 217
Eliminate Muscle Cramps ......................................................................................................... 218
Enhance Endocrine Function .................................................................................................. 219
Improve Sleep ............................................................................................................................. 221
References ................................................................................................................................... 223

Chapter 6 ............................................................................................... 227

Master The Big Seven ........................................................................................................................... 227
Practical Application of Eccentric Isometrics................................................................................... 227
Movement Is Simple and Similar .................................................................................................. 228
Mastering Exercise vs Movement ................................................................................................. 230
The Movements ............................................................................................................................... 231
Lower Body Movement Patterns ........................................................................................................ 233
The Squat .......................................................................................................................................... 233
1. Reach Optimal Depth Not Maximal Depth ...................................................................... 234
2. Focus On The Hip Hinge ..................................................................................................... 235
3. Focus on Producing Equal Levels of Hip and Knee Flexion ......................................... 236
4. Sit Back .................................................................................................................................... 236
5. Maintain Neutral Spinal Alignment..................................................................................... 236
6. Keep A Tall Head Position .................................................................................................. 237
7. Brace and Hollow The Core ................................................................................................ 238
8. Valsalva Maneuver ................................................................................................................. 239
9. Feel the Stopping Point......................................................................................................... 239
10. Avoid Excessive Toe Flare ................................................................................................. 240
11. Activate Your Feet ............................................................................................................... 240
12. Sit Back .................................................................................................................................. 240
13. Keep The Knees Out and Butt Out ................................................................................. 241
14. Create A Strong Natural Stance ......................................................................................... 241
15. Choose The Appropriate Squat Stance ............................................................................ 242
16. Nail The Depth but When in Doubt Stop Short ............................................................ 242
17. Pull Yourself Down ............................................................................................................. 242
Squat Variations ............................................................................................................................... 243
The Hip Hinge ................................................................................................................................. 243
1. Bend At The Hips .................................................................................................................. 244
2. Keep The Hips Tall Throughout......................................................................................... 244
3. Maintain a Soft Knee Position ............................................................................................. 245
4. Don’t Use An Excessively Large Range Of Motion ........................................................ 246
5. Maintain A Rigid and Neutral Spine ................................................................................... 247
6. Keep The Core Tight ............................................................................................................ 248
7. Push the Knees Out Laterally But Not Excessively ......................................................... 249

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8. Keep The Feet Straight ......................................................................................................... 249
9. Think Broad Jump ................................................................................................................. 249
10. Think About A Strong, Coiled Hip Position ................................................................... 250
11. Control The Negative ......................................................................................................... 251
12. Keep The Weight Close To The Body/Center Of Mass .............................................. 251
13. Flex the Lats Throughout ................................................................................................... 252
14. Avoid Kyphotic Posture During The Top Extension Phase ........................................ 252
Foundational Hip Hinge Movements ........................................................................................... 253
The Lunge, Split Squat, and Bulgarian Squat .............................................................................. 254
1. Optimize The Starting Position ........................................................................................... 254
2. Get Tall and Don’t Sag ......................................................................................................... 255
3. Use Hip Hinge Mechanics with Forward Lean ................................................................. 255
4. Hollow The Core and Brace The Abs ................................................................................ 256
5. Optimize Weight Distribution ............................................................................................. 256
6. Create a Semi-In-Line Foot Stance ..................................................................................... 257
7. Create Proper Spinal Alignment and Head Position ........................................................ 258
8. Don’t Squeeze The Glutes ................................................................................................... 258
9. Avoid Anterior Front Knee Drift ....................................................................................... 259
10. Avoid Valgus Knee Collapse By Optimizing Medial-Lateral Hip Mechanics ............ 260
11. Find The Optimal Range of Motion: Avoid Collapsing ............................................... 261
12. Beware of Deficit Lunges ................................................................................................... 262
13. Stop Doing Walking Lunges .............................................................................................. 262
14. Avoid Back Leg Drift .......................................................................................................... 263
15. Don’t Let Stance Length Dictate Alter Your Mechanics .............................................. 264
16. Don’t Try to Overstretch the Hip Flexors ...................................................................... 264
17. Produce Multiple 90-Degree Joint Angles ....................................................................... 265
18. Move Straight Up, Straight Down .................................................................................... 265
19. Strengthen Your Feet First ................................................................................................. 266
20. Go Barefoot or Minimalist ................................................................................................. 266
21. Produce Strong Lunge Mechanics and Assess Your Strength ...................................... 267
22. Incorporate The Eyes Closed Rule ................................................................................... 267
23. Use the Lunge-to-Squat-to-Lunge Test ............................................................................ 267
24. Employ Higher Frequency To Master Your Lunge ....................................................... 268
25. Apply The Correct Method ................................................................................................ 268
What About Other Lunge Positions? .......................................................................................... 269
Lunge Variations .............................................................................................................................. 269
Other Important Lower Body Cues ............................................................................................ 270
1. Keep The Feet Relatively Straight ....................................................................................... 270
2. Always Hip Hinge .................................................................................................................. 270
3. Allow Extremity Based Spinal Positioning ........................................................................ 271
4. Keep The Knees Out ............................................................................................................ 271

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Upper Body Movement Patterns ........................................................................................................ 272
The Horizontal Pull And Row ....................................................................................................... 272
1. Lock Your Spine In ............................................................................................................... 272
2. Keep A Tall And Elongated Head, Not A Short And Compressed Head ................... 273
3. Lock Your Shoulders In........................................................................................................ 273
4. Use Proper Range Of Motion and Don’t Over Row ....................................................... 273
5. Stop At 90 Degrees............................................................................................................... 275
6. Think Big Chest With Stomach In ...................................................................................... 275
7. Keep The Core Tight ............................................................................................................ 276
8. Keep Your Elbows Close To Your Body .......................................................................... 276
9. Feel The Lower Lats Activate .............................................................................................. 276
10. Eliminate Tension In The Upper Traps And Neck ....................................................... 277
11. Remember the “At & Up” Rule ........................................................................................ 277
12. Pause And Squeeze At The Top ....................................................................................... 278
13. Press During The Eccentric ............................................................................................... 278
Horizontal Pulling Variations ................................................................................................... 279
Horizontal Press ............................................................................................................................... 279
1. Keep The Elbows Close To The Body .............................................................................. 279
2. Don’t Crowd The Shoulders By Keeping The Elbows Excessively Close ................... 280
3. Keep The Chest Out Throughout....................................................................................... 281
4. Avoid Excessive Lumbar Arch ............................................................................................ 281
5. Make Sure The Feet Are Perfectly Straight ...................................................................... 281
6. Don’t Overstretch Or Go Too Deep ................................................................................. 281
7. Don’t Let The Hands Drift In Front Of The Elbows ..................................................... 282
8. Keep The Head Pushed Back And Tall On The Spine ................................................... 282
9. Don’t Aim For Your Chest .................................................................................................. 282
10. Screw The Elbows Forward ............................................................................................... 283
11. Don’t Pull The Bar Apart. .................................................................................................. 283
12. Use A Neutral Grip When Possible................................................................................. 283
Horizontal Pressing Variations ................................................................................................ 284
The Vertical Pull .............................................................................................................................. 284
1. Do Not Use An Excessive Range Of Motion ................................................................... 285
2. Lean Back ............................................................................................................................... 285
3. Aim For The Sternum But Don’t Touch It ....................................................................... 286
4. Screw The Elbows Forward ................................................................................................. 286
5. Keep The Feet Under The Torso........................................................................................ 287
6. Dorsiflex The Ankles ............................................................................................................ 287
7. Keep The Lower Body Still .................................................................................................. 288
8. Don’t Overstretch .................................................................................................................. 289
9. Avoid An Excessively Wide Grip........................................................................................ 290
10. Push During the Eccentric ................................................................................................. 290
Vertical Pulling Variations ........................................................................................................ 291

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The Vertical Press ............................................................................................................................ 291
1. Nail The Eccentric Phase with The Hips and T-Spine .................................................... 292
2. Nail The Concentric Phase ................................................................................................... 293
3. Dial-In The Core and Lumbar Spine .................................................................................. 293
4. Don’t Stay Overly Upright ................................................................................................... 294
5. Use The Hat Trick ................................................................................................................. 296
6. Optimize Scapula Positioning .............................................................................................. 296
7. Don’t Go Excessively Deep or Collapse............................................................................ 297
8. Understand The Relationship Between The Hips and Torso ......................................... 298
Note on Overhead Athletes and Shoulder Health ..................................................................... 300
Vertical Pressing Variations ...................................................................................................... 302
Other Important Upper Body Cues ............................................................................................ 303
1. Keep The Elbows Tucked. ................................................................................................... 303
2. Avoid Pseudo Elbow Tuck .................................................................................................. 303
3. Keep The Stomach In And Chest Out ............................................................................... 304
4. Keep The Feet Activated And Relatively Straight ............................................................ 304
5. Don’t Allow Grip Or Stance Width To Dictate Mechanics. .......................................... 304
Other Movement Patterns And Exercises ................................................................................... 307

Chapter 7 ................................................................................................310
Programming & Periodization ............................................................................................................ 310
Practice Makes Perfect .............................................................................................................. 311
Focus On Full Body................................................................................................................... 311
When and How to Incorporate Heavy Loads ....................................................................... 311
Practice Perfect Posture Daily .................................................................................................. 312
Simulate Movement Patterns Multiple Times Per Day ........................................................ 313
Avoid Excessive Fatigue ........................................................................................................... 313
Rep Ranges .................................................................................................................................. 314
Sets ................................................................................................................................................ 314
Rest ............................................................................................................................................... 315
Circuits ......................................................................................................................................... 315
Pair Up Antagonistic Movements And Non-Overlapping Exercises ................................ 315
Contextual Interference ............................................................................................................. 317
Frequency Of Workouts ........................................................................................................... 318
The Ultimate Program For Mastering Movement ................................................................ 319
Intensity ....................................................................................................................................... 322
Back-Off Sets .............................................................................................................................. 323
Programming Isolation Movements ........................................................................................ 323
Muscle Targeting and Exercise Programming ....................................................................... 324
Note On Periodization .............................................................................................................. 325
The Relationship Between Technique and Programming ................................................... 327
Exercise Variety .......................................................................................................................... 328

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The Ultimate Program Template................................................................................................... 329
Circuit 1........................................................................................................................................ 329
Circuit 2........................................................................................................................................ 329
Circuit 3........................................................................................................................................ 330
Circuit 4........................................................................................................................................ 330
Circuit 5 (Optional) .................................................................................................................... 330
References ................................................................................................................................... 331

Chapter 8 ............................................................................................... 333

Training Templates ............................................................................................................................... 333
Eccentric Isometrics in Action ............................................................................................................ 333
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 1 (Squat & Horizontal Push & Pull Emphasis) .. 335
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 2 (Squat & Vertical Push & Pull Emphasis) ....... 336
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 3 (Lunge & Horizontal Push & Pull Emphasis). 337
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 4 (Hip Hinge Emphasis) ........................................ 338
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 5 (Upper Body Emphasis) ..................................... 339
Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 6 (Lower Body Emphasis) ..................................... 340
Core Emphasized Eccentric Isometric Routine .............................................................. 341
Stabilization and Balance Eccentric Isometric Routine .................................................. 342
Speed and Power Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine ............................................. 343
Endurance and Conditioning Based Eccentric Isometric Routine ............................... 344
Advanced Eccentric Isometric Routine (Full Spectrum) ............................................... 345
Heavy Lower & Light-Explosive Upper Body Eccentric Isometric Routine ............. 346
Heavy Upper & Light-Explosive Lower Body Eccentric Isometric Routine ............. 347
Lower Body Eccentric Isometric Routine ........................................................................ 348
Upper Body Eccentric Isometric Routine ........................................................................ 349
Biceps and Triceps Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine .......................................... 350
Chest Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine ................................................................. 351
Upper Back Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine ...................................................... 352
Shoulders and Traps Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine ....................................... 353
Quad and Thigh Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine .............................................. 354
Glute & Hamstring (Posterior Chain) Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine ......... 355
Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine A ....................................... 356
Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine B ........................................ 357
Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine C........................................ 358
Beginner Eccentric Isometric Routine .............................................................................. 359
In Season Eccentric Isometric Routine ............................................................................. 360
Active Recovery Eccentric Isometric Routine ................................................................. 361
Travel, On-Road, Minimal Equipment Eccentric Isometric Routine .......................... 362
Advanced Contextual Interference Eccentric Isometric Routine A ............................. 363
Advanced Contextual Interference Eccentric Isometric Routine B ............................. 364
Rapid Eccentric Isometric Routine .................................................................................... 365

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Chapter 9 ............................................................................................... 367
Pain Science Muscle Function, & Eccentric Isometrics .................................................................. 367
Pain and Inflammation Research ............................................................................................. 368
Asymptomatic Spinal Degenerative Disease .......................................................................... 368
1. Test Reliability Issues ............................................................................................................ 369
2. Severity of Degenerative Changes ....................................................................................... 370
3. Timescale of Degenerative Changes. .................................................................................. 370
4. Pain Desensitization .............................................................................................................. 371
5. Individual variability and the role musculoskeletal and neuromuscular factors ........... 371
Misinterpretation of Neuroscience Pain Education ................................................................... 373
The Truth About Neuroscience Pain Education .................................................................. 374
The Real Reason NPE Works .................................................................................................. 376
Obvious Conclusions About Pain Science, Body Mechanics, and NPE........................... 376
Error Leads to More Error ....................................................................................................... 376
Dangerous Advice Leads To Dire Consequences ................................................................ 379
Scales of Movement Intensity .................................................................................................. 380
So lets recap the main takeaway points about Neuroscience Pain Education. ................. 381
The Obvious Solution ............................................................................................................... 381
My Own Anecdotal Experience ............................................................................................... 382
Key Points, Random Thoughts, and Personal Rants ................................................................ 387
References ................................................................................................................................... 395

C hapter 10 ............................................................................................................ 397

Question & Answer .............................................................................................................................. 397
Question 1: strength Training versus Inflammation .................................................................. 397
Question 2: Loaded Carries ............................................................................................................ 398
Question 3: Warm-up Protocols ................................................................................................... 399
Question 4: Concentric Phases ...................................................................................................... 400
Question 5: Optimal Stopping Point in Exercise Patterns........................................................ 401
Question 6: Does Eccentric Replace Concentric Phases .......................................................... 403
Question 7: Eccentric Isometrics and glute Development ....................................................... 404
Question 8: Training Books and Role MOdels ........................................................................... 407
Question 9: Posture Optimization ................................................................................................ 409
Question 10: Joint Locks in Eccentric Isometrics ...................................................................... 410
Question 11: Psychological vs Physiological Pain ...................................................................... 413
Question 12: Athletes and Extreme Body Positions .................................................................. 413
Question 13: Eccentric Isometric and Muscle Mass .................................................................. 414
Question 14: Eccentric Isometrics for Injury Prevention ......................................................... 415
Question 15: Physiological Rewiring via Neuromuscular Re-education ................................. 416
Question 16: Progression protocols and Periodization ............................................................. 418
Question 17: Optimal Squat Depth vs ATG Mechanics ........................................................... 419

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Question 18: Eccentric isometrics with Bodyweight Exercises................................................ 420
Question 19: Progressive Overload & Eccentric Isometrics .................................................... 421
Question 20: Eccentric Isometrics and Strength Transferability ............................................. 422
Question 21: Tightness & Stretching ............................................................................................ 422
Question 22: Eccentric Isometrics vs Crossfit ............................................................................ 422
Question 23: Unstable Variations of Eccentric Isometrics ....................................................... 423
Question 24: Frequency of Eccentric Isometrics ....................................................................... 426
Question 25: Ninety Degree Angles and Joint Health ............................................................... 427
Question 26: Muscle Hypertrophy with Ninety Degree Joint Angles ..................................... 429
Question 27: Strategy for Increasing Exercise Intensity ............................................................ 429
Question 28: Results Assurance Using Eccentric Isometrics ................................................... 430
Question 29: Mitigating Pain and Inflammation......................................................................... 431
Question 30: Truth or Fiction | Stretching & Corrective Exercises ....................................... 432
Question 31: Movement Mastery .................................................................................................. 432
Question 32: Using Other exercise modalities with Eccentric Isometrics ............................. 433
Question 33: Working through INjuries ...................................................................................... 434
Question 34: Form Perfection and eccentric Isometric Viability ............................................. 435
Question 35: Below Ninety Degree Joint Angles ....................................................................... 436
Question 36: Natural vs unnatural Movement & Biomechanics ............................................. 437
Question 37: Yoga Training ........................................................................................................... 439
Question 38: Over-Under Ranges for Ninety Degree Angles .................................................. 440
Question 39: Heavy versus Light Loads for Optimizing Muscle Function and Movement
Mechanics .......................................................................................................................................... 440
Question 40: Mastering Body Mechanics without Eccentric Isometrics ................................ 447
References ................................................................................................................................... 448

Chapter 11 .............................................................................................. 450

Unlocking the Mysteries Connecting the Dots................................................................................. 450
The Recovery and Volume Dilemma ...................................................................................... 450
The Physical Activity And Strength Training Quandary...................................................... 451
Real World Anecdotal Evidence Vs. Empirical Research ................................................... 451
Muscle Zoning Vs. Movement Mastery.................................................................................. 452
Correct Coaching Vs. Corrective Craziness ........................................................................... 456
Elimination Of Physique Imbalances and Disproportionality ............................................ 456
The Inevitable Result of Proper Coaching ............................................................................. 457
Maximizing Genetic Potential Based on The Scale System ................................................. 458
The Ripple Effect And Serial Distortion Patterns ................................................................ 462
Managing Allergies And Other Daily Health Issues ............................................................. 463
Classification Of Body Durability ................................................................................................ 464
Category 1 .................................................................................................................................... 464
Category 2 .................................................................................................................................... 465

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Category 3 .................................................................................................................................... 466
Category 4 .................................................................................................................................... 467
The Worst Case Scenario .......................................................................................................... 468
Mental Disorders, CRP, And Muscle Function ..................................................................... 469
Posture, Depression, and Daily Activation Drills ................................................................. 469
IQ, Intelligence, And Muscle Function .................................................................................. 470
Leaky Gut Syndrome and Extreme GI Issues ....................................................................... 470
Hypermobility Syndrome And Implications For Human Mechanics ................................ 471
Limited Mobility: A Blessing In Disguise ............................................................................... 472
Posture And Daily Living ......................................................................................................... 473
System Reboot ............................................................................................................................ 473
Pseudo Eccentric Isometrics .................................................................................................... 474
Pseudo 90-Degree Joint Angles ............................................................................................... 474
Living On The Edge .................................................................................................................. 475
Living On The Edge With Faulty Ergonomics ..................................................................... 476
The Over-Cueing Scenario ....................................................................................................... 477
Extreme Cueing .......................................................................................................................... 478
The Ketogenic Craze ................................................................................................................. 478
Maximizing Our Genetic Potential.......................................................................................... 479
Performance Training Vs. Health Training ............................................................................ 479
A Simple Truth ........................................................................................................................... 480
Trap Bar Implications: More Than Meets The Eye .............................................................. 480
An Obvious Lesson From Powerlifters.................................................................................. 480
The Futility Of Coaching Dynamic Speed Movements ....................................................... 481
The Re-Education Period: A Game Of Patience .................................................................. 482
Reaction Time And Response Time ....................................................................................... 483
The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly of Movement Transfer ............................................... 484
The No Warm-up Test .............................................................................................................. 484
Rethinking Eccentric Movement ............................................................................................. 486
Breathing: Help Or Hindrance ................................................................................................. 488
Thinking Beyond Pain ............................................................................................................... 488
The Truth About EMG ............................................................................................................ 489
Being “In The Zone”................................................................................................................. 490
Blanket Statements ..................................................................................................................... 490
Simple Personal Example ......................................................................................................... 491
Eccentric Isometrics, Endurance, And Long Distance Events. ......................................... 492
Conditioning and Cardio ........................................................................................................... 493
The Simplicity of 90-Degree Joint Angle Overload.............................................................. 493
Foot Mechanics And Aging: Larger Implications ................................................................. 494
Muscle Assessments and False Positives ................................................................................ 494
True Mental And Physical Toughness .................................................................................... 496
Movement Mastery Vs. Movement Elimination ................................................................... 497

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The Truth About Butt Wink .................................................................................................... 497
Reflexology, Pressure Points, and Meridians ......................................................................... 498
3 Reasons for Impaired Range of Motion .............................................................................. 498
The “Exercise More” Prescription: A Fitness Industry Dilemma .................................... 499
A New Mobility Trend .............................................................................................................. 499
Extreme Muscle Soreness: The Implications For Training ................................................ 499
The Ultimate Rep Range ........................................................................................................... 500
The Core Craze ........................................................................................................................... 504
The Cost Benefit Analysis of Movement ............................................................................... 504
Don’t Run Before You Can Walk ........................................................................................... 506
Athletic Performance, Eccentric Isometrics And Movement Mechanics ......................... 506
Advanced Eccentric Isometrics ............................................................................................... 508
Rapid Eccentric Isometrics ....................................................................................................... 509
Comparing Effort Levels on ATG Squat vs. 90-Degree Squat .......................................... 509
The Complexity Of Pain ........................................................................................................... 510
Limits To My Understanding ................................................................................................... 510
Music: A Help Or Hindrance ................................................................................................... 511
Faulty Mechanics And Musculoskeletal Issues ...................................................................... 512
Low Grade Non-Clinical Spinal Lesions ................................................................................ 513
The Diminished Value Of Research On Training Volume And Protocols ...................... 514
An Interesting Phenomenon .................................................................................................... 515
First Steps First ........................................................................................................................... 516
Evolution: Fact Or Fiction ....................................................................................................... 517
References: .................................................................................................................................. 521

Chapter 12 ............................................................................................. 524

The Journey Thus Far | Connecting the Dots ................................................................................. 524
Quotes Final Thoughts........................................................................................................................ 524
Eccentric Isometrics ........................................................................................................................ 525
Movement, Form, and Body Mechanics ...................................................................................... 526
Muscle Function and Health .......................................................................................................... 530
The Big Seven ................................................................................................................................... 532
Mobility, Stretching, and Range of Motion ................................................................................. 533
Injury, Rehab, and Tightness ......................................................................................................... 535
Foot and Ankle Health ................................................................................................................... 536
Pain, Pain Science, and Inflammation .......................................................................................... 537
Programming, Exercise Intensity, and Rep Range ..................................................................... 541
Strength Training and Performance .............................................................................................. 543
Lifting Form, Technique, and Optimal ROM ............................................................................. 544
Coaching and Training Advice ...................................................................................................... 546
Recovery Time and Overtraining .................................................................................................. 548
Closing Thoughts ............................................................................................................................. 549

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Bonus ............................................................................................................551
Comparison of Resistance Training: Protocols & Their Transient Effects on Muscle Function
& Performance ....................................................................................................................................... 551
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 551
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... 555
Chapter One ..................................................................................................................................... 556
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 556
Statement of the Problem ......................................................................................................... 558
Research Questions .................................................................................................................... 559
Specific Aim’s and Purpose of the Investigation .................................................................. 560
Significance of the Topic .......................................................................................................... 560
Hypotheses .................................................................................................................................. 561
Delimitations ............................................................................................................................... 562
Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 562
Assumptions................................................................................................................................ 562
Definitions ................................................................................................................................... 563
References ................................................................................................................................... 564
Chapter Two ..................................................................................................................................... 567
Review of Related Literature .................................................................................................... 567
PAP Research ............................................................................................................................. 568
Mode of Exercise ....................................................................................................................... 570
Upper Body PAP ........................................................................................................................ 571
Isometric Training ...................................................................................................................... 571
Range of Motion......................................................................................................................... 572
Vibration Training ...................................................................................................................... 572
Isokinetic Exercise ..................................................................................................................... 573
Training intensity and Loading Parameters ............................................................................ 573
Rest and Fatigue: The Perfect Balance ................................................................................... 573
Repetition Protocol .................................................................................................................... 575
Training Volume......................................................................................................................... 575
Performance Outcome Measures and Dependent Variables .............................................. 576
Static Stretching and Its Anti-Potentiation Effect ................................................................ 577
Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 577
References ................................................................................................................................... 578
Chapter Three................................................................................................................................... 583
Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 583
Participants .................................................................................................................................. 583
Setting........................................................................................................................................... 583
Outcome Measure ...................................................................................................................... 584
Testing Instrumentation ............................................................................................................ 584
Testing Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 585

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List of Tests/Assessments.............................................................................................................. 585
Weight Bearing Squat ................................................................................................................ 585
Pushup Hold ............................................................................................................................... 586
Bosu Ball Squat. .......................................................................................................................... 586
Bosu Ball Pushup Hold ............................................................................................................. 586
Vertical Jump .............................................................................................................................. 587
Power Pushup ............................................................................................................................. 587
Experimental Design ....................................................................................................................... 587
Independent Variable ................................................................................................................ 590
Training Program and Protocols ............................................................................................. 590
Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 593
Interpretation and Comparison ............................................................................................... 595
References ................................................................................................................................... 597
Chapter Four .................................................................................................................................... 599
Results .......................................................................................................................................... 599
Power Output Results ..................................................................................................................... 600
Power Composite Results (Lower and Upper Body Power combined) ............................ 600
Lower Body Power (Vertical Jump Test) ............................................................................... 600
Table Two: Lower Body Mean Values and Standards Deviations ..................................... 601
Figure 1: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 602
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 603
Table Three Mean Difference Between Pre & Post Test Assessment Values ................. 603
Upper Body Power (Power Pushup Assessment) ................................................................. 604
Table Five: Upper Body Mean Values and Standards Deviations ...................................... 605
Figure 2: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 606
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 607
Results For Symmetry Measures .................................................................................................. 608
Symmetry Composite Results (Lower and Upper Body Symmetry combined) ............... 608
Lower Body Symmetrical Loading (Bodyweight Squat) ...................................................... 608
Figure 3: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 609
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 610
Upper Body Symmetrical Loading (Bodyweight Pushup) ................................................... 610
Figure 4: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 611
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 612
Results for Stability Measures ....................................................................................................... 613
Stability Composite Results (Lower and Upper Body Stability combined) ...................... 613
Results for Lower Body Stability (Bosu Ball Squat).............................................................. 613
Figure 5: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 614
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 615
Results for Upper Body Stability (Bosu Ball Pushup) .......................................................... 615
Figure 6: Main Effect for Group Results ............................................................................... 616
Interaction (Group x Time) and Individual Comparisons................................................... 617

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Post Hoc Addendum ................................................................................................................. 617
References ................................................................................................................................... 618
Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 619
Power ........................................................................................................................................... 619
Symmetrical Loading ................................................................................................................. 620
Lower and Upper Body Symmetrical Loading ...................................................................... 620
Stability: Lower and Upper Body Stability ............................................................................. 621
PAP............................................................................................................................................... 622
Rationale of Findings ................................................................................................................. 623
Conclusion and Future Research ............................................................................................. 624
References ................................................................................................................................... 625
Informed Consent ...................................................................................................................... 627
Participant Screening Form ...................................................................................................... 630
Par-Q Form ................................................................................................................................. 631
Chapter Six ........................................................................................................................................ 632
Pilot Study Examining Reliability of Various Measures of Muscle Function ................... 632
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 632
Introduction and Brief Review of Literature ......................................................................... 633
Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 635
Subjects/Participants ................................................................................................................. 636
Setting, Outcome Measures, and Experimental Design ....................................................... 637
Testing Procedures and Instrumentation ..................................................................................... 638
NeuroCom Force Platform Tests ............................................................................................ 638
Myotest Pro Performance Tester ............................................................................................. 639
Weight Bearing Squat ................................................................................................................ 639
Single Leg Stand and Hold ....................................................................................................... 639
Single Leg Squat.......................................................................................................................... 639
Lunge Hold ................................................................................................................................. 640
Pushup Hold ............................................................................................................................... 640
Pushup Stability Ball Plank Hold (feet) .................................................................................. 640
Single Arm Pushup Plank Hold ............................................................................................... 641
Stability Ball Pushup Plank Hold (hands)............................................................................... 641
BOSU Ball Pushup Hold .......................................................................................................... 642
BOSU Ball Squat. ....................................................................................................................... 642
Power Pushup ............................................................................................................................. 643
Vertical Jump .............................................................................................................................. 643
Statistical Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................................................... 643
Results ................................................................................................................................................ 645
Figure 1. ....................................................................................................................................... 647
Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 651
Practical Application .................................................................................................................. 654
Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... 655
References ................................................................................................................................... 656

Movement Redefined
 - CHAPTER 1 -
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MOVEMENT REDEFINED | DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

Chapter 1

The
Journey

Movement
HELPING Redefined
YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD 26
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MOVEMENT REDEFINED | DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

CHAPTER 1
The Journey
y professional fitness journey began at the age of 18 when I

M
first became a personal trainer at Indiana University. Prior to
this, while in high school, I had spent several years strength
training and educating myself on various fitness and
kinesiology topics, as I desperately tried to overcome
scoliosis and a fairly frail physique. However, it wasn’t until I
actually became a trainer that I fully devoted myself to the science of exercise and
human movement, coincident with the pursuit of my kinesiology degree. As a
personal trainer I not only began meticulously logging each of my clients’
workouts, I also created a very detailed training journal of everything I observed in
my clients, myself, and other gym members, as well as what other trainers wrote
about in articles and online postings. My goal was to track, progress, and analyze
the results in order to understand firsthand how the human body responds to
various stimuli and protocols, all in the hopes of mastering the art of training.

My ultimate goal when I first began reading about fitness, and even before I
became a trainer, was to find the “Holy Grail” of strength training, assuming it
existed in the first place. Now, before I go any further, I’m going to come right
out and say that after more than 15+ years of hands on experience, combined
with an undergraduate, masters, and doctoral degree in kinesiology, and after
extensive study of the scientific literature, I believe I have found what I consider
to be the closest thing to the “Holy Grail” of exercise and strength training:
eccentric isometrics. But before I begin to expound on the scientific literature
that supports this I want to first lay out how my own, personal journey, led me
to this inescapable conclusion.

A Tale of Two Journeys

My career in this industry can be divided into 2 key phases: phase 1, my first 7
years as a trainer, before I began investigating the eccentric isometric protocol,
and phase 2, the subsequent 8+ years, beginning with my early investigation and
refinement of the eccentric isometrics protocol.

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Part I
The First Seven Years

How It All Began

When I first began as a personal trainer I followed very precisely the protocols
and procedures developed by top fitness organizations, certification groups, and
“expert trainers” in the fitness industry, most of which are still, to this day,
considered ideal. In fact, although at the time I was a relative newbie with
regards to personal training, I was considered by all accounts an excellent trainer,
even winning several prestigious awards. Yet, despite applying the “industry
standards” or what was generally considered proper training methodologies, I
consistently and repeatedly noticed a variety of physical issues in both my clients
and myself, that were seemingly the result of this training.

I also began to notice similar, recurring issues in other trainers’ clients, as well as
in various accounts on the internet, and in articles written by other expert
trainers chronicling the physical struggles experienced by their athletes and
clients as a result of exercise and strength training. Prompted to more thoroughly
investigate and research the subject I eventually concluded that if I and other
trainers and advanced lifters repeatedly and consistently noted a similar range of
physical ailments across populations, despite meticulously following industry
standards, perhaps the issue lay with the recommended protocols and
recommendations for exercise.

I firmly believe, as do many researchers, kinesiology practitioners, and

neuromuscular scientists, that movement and physical activity are meant to be
therapeutic on the body. Therefore, if physical activity is associated with
unwanted symptoms and physical ailments, it stands to reason that the
movements, activities, or protocols are being performed incorrectly, or are
themselves counterproductive.

R epea ted O c c u r r en c es o f Tr a in in g -
In d u c ed Pa th o lo g y

As mentioned above, early on as a personal trainer I noted a number of

consistent trends in my own body as well as in that of my clients, other trainees,
and in expert accounts in magazines and online sources. Not all of the symptoms

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occurred at the same time in any one client but, over the years, I noticed most
clients occasionally experienced at least several of these while training.

For instance, after the first several months of training nearly every measure of a
new client’s physical conditioning showed significant improvement. This was
most likely a result of transitioning from low levels of physical activity to an
organized routine with strict instruction. After 3-9 months, as the client gained
experience their traditional measures of fitness such as strength and muscularity
improved. However, I also noticed with increasing frequency, a number of
unusual characteristics and trends, many of which appeared to worsen over time.
In essence, the more consistently an individual trained, the worse these symptoms
became. Below is a brief breakdown of some of the physical conditions and
pathological symptoms I witnessed during that time. I should note that many of
these were fairly subtle yet still noteworthy with regards to long-term effects.

Increased joint and muscle soreness including delayed onset

muscle soreness. Instead of improving an individual’s ability to handle
intense training, the longer the individual trained, and the more
experience they gained, the less they were able to handle further training
stress and workout stimulus.
Increased and more frequent compensation patterns such as
postural aberrations, muscular imbalances, and asymmetries, many of
which seemed unexplainable at the time.
Decreased proprioceptive feedback, reduced body awareness and
decreased kinesthetic awareness.
Greater number of muscle tweaks, increased muscle stiffness,
tightness and spasticity.
Significant increase in neck and upper shoulder pain and stiffness.
Increased incidence of symptoms of dry mouth.
Increased incidence of arthritic-like symptoms.
Increased need for stretching, foam rolling, soft tissue work,
massaging, breathing exercises, pelvic re-alignment drills, and
chiropractic adjustments.
Greater need for lengthy warm-ups to reduce stiffness and
tightness.

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Unexplained increases in body fat despite strict dietary regimens

and ample caloric expenditure.
Periodic workouts with extreme decrements in strength, verging
on neuromuscular shutdown.
Frequent bacterial infections and upper respiratory illnesses, etc.
During the first 7 years of my training career I had at least a 15%
cancelation rate due to clients suffering from varying forms of illness or
infection. Once I began implementing proper mechanics with eccentric
isometrics, this number dropped to under 2% and has remained there since.
Increased inability to handle carbohydrates. Many clients reported
extreme fatigue or bloating with even a moderate amount of carbs. As I
will describe in later chapters, this was most likely a consequence of the
inflammation and soreness that results from poor body mechanics and the
fact that inflammation decreases the body’s ability to absorb carbohydrates.
Increased physical discomfort with increasing range of motion
(ROM). As clients gained and improved ROM, mobility, and flexibility
they increasingly felt more tension in their bodies. Simply put they
became more and more capable of moving their bodies into these
oftentimes extreme and contorted ROM positions, yet doing so led to
greater physical discomfort.
Increased incidence of gastrointestinal disorders and poor
digestive function.
Increased incidence of sleep disturbances.
Greater frequency of urination.
Increased incidence of strength and muscle building plateaus and
unusually long periods of physiological and physique stagnation
regardless of how dialed in other components were, e.g. training
consistency, nutrition, rest, recovery, supplements etc.
Increased frequency of headaches and migraines.
Periodic development of food allergies where there had previously
been none.
Increased incidence of allergies and sinus issues in individuals
with no prior history of such issues.

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Increased incidence of symptoms associated with an overactive

sympathetic nervous system, e.g., anxiety, dry mouth, twitches,
fidgeting, and unexplained nervousness.
More frequent reports of general fatigue and exhaustion as well as
lack of motivation to train.
Increased incidence of symptoms associated with overtraining
despite meticulous and close monitoring of training volume and
intensity. These symptoms rarely if ever significantly improved or fully
diminished even when volume, frequency, and intensity were decreased
in an effort to rule out over-training.
Lack of improvement in any of the aforementioned physical issues
regardless of the level of precision and control in body mechanics.
Efforts to perfect technique according to accepted industry standards
did not improve these conditions including the various forms of pain. In
other words, precise execution of what I now believe are faulty
mechanics, only led to more pain and a greater incidence of all of the
symptoms highlighted above.

Note: Many of these issues will be discussed in greater depth in subsequent sections both in
terms of why they occurred and how to remedy them.

Th e Pa in a n d In fla m m a tio n Q u a n d a r y

The presence of physical pain related to joint and muscle inflammation was
something I noticed early in my training career. Physical exams and blood work
done on several of my clients while they were experiencing musculoskeletal pain
often showed increased levels of inflammatory markers, which appeared to
correlate with training-induced joint and muscle inflammation. Initially I
assumed there were a number of reasons for this including over-training, genetic
limitations in joint structure and connective tissue, lack of proper warm-up,
excessive load, stress, and many other factors described in training books,
research journals, magazines, and online sources. Thus, unless it was greatly
amiss and blatantly wrong I initially ruled out the idea that technique was an
issue seeing as I was simply following accepted industry standards as much as
possible when teaching movement patterns and execution of exercises.

At this point in my career, given the lack of available educational resources

addressing proper body mechanics, I was not yet able to determine exactly what

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proper mechanics entailed, particularly the more subtle, yet just as critical cues.
However, upon closer examination I began to suspect that the pain and
inflammation experienced by myself and my clients was directly associated with
improper movement and body mechanics, and that perhaps it was the current
guidelines, including the expert opinion of top professionals in the field that I
had relied on to teach form and technique that were, in fact, causing the host of
negative consequences I had observed.

It was this then that led me to investigate the topic of optimal human mechanics.

M y Pers o n a l B a ttle

Although the symptoms and body ailments I observed in my clients and other
trainees were quite fascinating, not to mention very concerning and troubling, it
wasn’t until I reached my early to mid 20’s that this took on a more personal
connection. Soon after I completed my Master’s degree at the age of 23 my
body began to break down quite rapidly and I began to experience firsthand, but
in a more magnified and extreme fashion, the various physical ailments and
symptoms I had semi-casually taken note of in others during the previous 5
years. The symptoms included extreme joint pain particularly in my hips, knees,
ankles, low back, shoulders, elbows, neck, and wrists.

Furthermore, although my diet and all other lifestyle factors were on cue I also
began developing anxiety, depression, sleep issues, prostate issues, pre-diabetic
symptoms, general fatigue, low energy, gastrointestinal issues, sinus issues, brain
fog, frequent upper respiratory infections, bacterial infections, allergies, and
more. However, I also noticed a strong correlation between these symptoms
and my movement and joint pain. The more I performed movements during
training that hurt and caused pain, the worse all of these symptoms became, as if
they were directly connected.

The more I investigated the problem the more confused I became yet I refused
to seek medical attention as I felt doctors would only add to this confusion. In
addition, the more I relied on expert opinion and advice in terms of how to
remedy my physical ailments (i.e. foam rolling, soft tissue work, dietary
manipulations, anti-inflammation supplements etc.) the worse the issues became.
It is this that prompted me to re-evaluate everything I had previously learned and
start over from scratch based on my own investigation. I had to ignore
everything I had previously learned in the field and rather than trust the opinion

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of any coach, expert trainer, certifying body, sports science organization, or

medical expert, I had to learn to think for myself based on science, critical
reasoning, research, and prayer.

Finding myself in such dire circumstances and extreme physical discomfort, and
faced with an ever-growing list of physical limitations that were preventing me
from training as well as impacting my ability to train clients, I became quite
desperate and actually began to pray to The Almighty that He would heal my
body. However, for well over several years these health issues not only persisted,
they gradually worsened. By the time I turned 25 I could only squat and deadlift
once every several weeks at most, as my hips, knees, back, ankles, and neck, not
to mention the other physical issues I was dealing with, continued to worsen.
Physical activity including sports became more and more difficult and painful.

Fortunately, my prayers were not answered directly with miraculous healing.

Instead, in His infinite wisdom, God answered my prayers indirectly, and in a far
more beneficial way, by leading me down the exact path I needed to go down: a
journey of investigation that lasted several years and during which I stumbled
across various bodies of research that would ultimately provide the medical and
physiological answers and explanations I needed to heal my own body, as well as
the knowledge to help heal and improve the health, performance, and fitness of
my clients and other individuals in my life.

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Part II
The next Seven years

A R ev er s a l o f Tr en d s

Up to this point my professional training career had been largely marked by the
consistent and repeated manifestation of a number of physical problems in both
my clients and myself that I had come to believe were a result of improper
training. Once I began to research proper mechanics and implement the correct
adjustments based on eccentric isometrics protocols not only did I notice that
my clients began to move and feel significantly better, I also noticed a complete
reversal of trends compared to the previous 7 years in terms of changes in
digestion, immune function, sleep patterns, mental health, joint pain, energy, etc.
In other words, instead of gradually noticing subtle contra-therapeutic changes in
their physiology as a result of training, my clients began to notice therapeutic
changes almost exclusively. It was as if anything but perfect mechanics actually
promoted sickness and physical ailments, while perfect mechanics acted as the
very medicine and natural remedy they needed to heal their bodies and eliminate
ailments they had struggled with for many years, if not decades, of their life. This
is something I also noticed quite significantly in my own body.

The journey of discovery that eventually led me to the conclusion that perfect
mechanics was the key to a healthy body is described in the next section. This
was not an easy journey. It was, in fact, a physical and mental battle to say the
least.

Th e C u r e

Once I began heavily researching body mechanics and neurophysiology I refused

to use my clients as guinea pigs, and soon became my own test subject,
experimenting extensively with hundreds of subtle adjustments and science-
based modifications. Each time I discovered a new aspect of neurophysiological
research in the science archives I would quickly apply it in a practical scenario
and incorporate it into my own training routines. Through trial and error, and
meticulously documenting and logging every workout down to the most subtle
and minute adjustments in body mechanics and joint positioning, I quickly
accumulated hundreds of mini-experiments on myself.

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This 3-year trial and error process which began 2 years before my Ph.D. (at age
24-25) and continued through the first year of my doctoral program (age 26),
was far from enjoyable and entertaining. Rather it became quite frustrating due
to the exponentially high number of failed adjustments compared to successful
ones, and the fact that I tweaked and injured myself to varying degrees over 200
times during this several year experimental process. I should note that many of
these injuries were quite painful.

Although these were perhaps three of the most mentally difficult, physically painful,
and spiritually challenging years of my life, it was during this period that I began to
comprehend what proper body mechanics entailed and what was necessary from a
training standpoint to produce positive results. Thanks to the grace of The
Almighty not only did my body heal itself as a result of mastering my movement
and implementing the necessary adjustments in mechanics and neuromuscular
physiology, I also came to understand how to teach others to do the same. While I
was quick to realize early in my career how important proper body mechanics was,
it was during this several year process that my understanding and awareness of just
how critically important proper movement was grew exponentially.

In essence, I came to the realization that pushing our bodies neuromuscularly or

biomechanically outside the boundaries within which God created us literally
destroys the body and produces sickness and disease. In contrast, using our
bodies and moving the way God intended us to move brings not only healing
and health, it restores our entire physiology. These boundaries and protocols are
very precise and allow for little if any deviation regardless of individual
differences. Simply put, individual differences only indicate the broad range of
dysfunctional positions unique to each individual, while proper mechanics are
nearly identical from person to person.

During this experimental period I also learned something quite interesting about
my own body. Up to this point I had been quite frustrated by the fact that my
body was so highly sensitive to faulty mechanics and movement that any
movement even remotely incorrect from a biomechanical standpoint would lead
to mild to semi-severe pain. However, I came to see this heightened sensitivity as
a true blessing in disguise not a curse. I can now say with great certainty that I
have been blessed with a body that I consider has the perfect “experimental
genes” and “lab rat physiology”. Simply put, if I move or use my body in any
way other than that which is perfect, optimal, and ideal, or most importantly
counter to the way The Almighty created us as human beings, it will rebel and
produce almost immediate negative symptoms. However, if I use my muscles

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and move with precisely executed body mechanics based on these new-found
neurophysiological principles, my body not only feels incredible, the negative
physical consequences dissipate at an even faster rate than their initial onset.

Pr o per M ec h a n ic s : Th e Eq u a lizer o f
In d iv id u a l D iffer e n c es

Once I began to understand that body mechanics were in fact the key to
optimizing my own physiology as well as that of my clients the single most
fascinating finding for me was the comparison of movement strategies across
clients. Although I won’t delve too deeply into the application of eccentric
isometrics in this chapter (this will be covered in later chapters), when I first
began implementing eccentric isometric protocols one of the keys for me was
coaching clients to find their own optimal body mechanics based on sensory
feedback received from their muscles and proprioceptive mechanisms.

Although this strategy is a fundamental principle of eccentric isometric training, I

fully admit that when I first implemented it with my clients I had only recently
embarked on the journey to perfect this system, and I myself was in the midst of
my own re-education process. Thus, my understanding of what proper
mechanics and technique entailed was fairly limited. Seeing as I was unable to
give more precise instruction on proper movement mechanics or how I wanted
each client to move, I chose instead to use a few basic cues to simply guide
them, allowing them to act essentially as their own coaches and respond to their
bodies’ sensory feedback by finding their ideal position based on what
minimized pain and body discomfort, yet maximized force and power.

Given my lack of specific knowledge at the time the process inevitably involved
some degree of trial and error. That is no longer the case. The reason for this is
that as vague and general as I was with each client in terms of tuning into their
body’s natural sensory feedback using basic tenets of eccentric isometrics such as
slow and emphasized eccentrics, what I observed was that the position each
client eventually gravitated to not only maximized force and power it also
eliminated joint pain, inflammation, and physical discomfort. It also ended up
being remarkably similar from person to person. I noticed the same
phenomenon in my own training as my own ideal positions and mechanics were
very much in keeping with that of my clients. Simply put proper form and
optimal mechanics ended up being essentially the same from person to person,
minus a few negligible and very subtle individual differences.

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Once I began pursuing my PhD and began to research and explore the science
of neurophysiology, structural physiology, and biomechanics these findings made
perfect sense. I came to understand that the human body is very similar from
person to person and what constitutes ideal movement and optimal body
mechanics is more or less constant from person to person. In fact, this ideology
is, in a nutshell, the fundamental basis of kinesiology and sports science. As with
any science there are basic principles and tenets that remain constant regardless
of individual differences. This is one of them.

As various aspects of human physiology became clearer to me, the scientific

principles of human movement seemed to be perfectly congruent with what I
noticed firsthand in my clients and myself. That is, the ideal movement
strategies and optimal mechanics I witnessed in my own training and that of my
clients were in complete agreement and validated what my research and the
scientific literature were simultaneously suggesting. In addition, I found that
every time I unearthed a new piece of scientific evidence that supported the
concept of optimal body mechanics, application of those principles to my own
training and that of my clients only enhanced performance and physiological
function. Thus, the science continued to build upon the practical application and
vice versa.

As both the practical application and scientific investigation of the literature

unfolded and I continued to refine and perfect the various aspects of my
eccentric isometric training protocol, I began to understand that what I had
previously labeled as acceptable individual differences in my clients were in fact
specific compensation patterns unique to each person. Once proper movement
was instilled in each client and compensation patterns, which manifest
themselves differently from person to person, were eliminated, every movement
from person to person was nearly identical, minus a few insignificant differences.
If, however, I allowed deviations to slide, simply ruling them as acceptable
individual differences that did not need to be addressed, the end result was
invariably some form of pain, body tweak, or physiological issue that coincided
with faulty mechanics. Therefore, I came to understand that even the smallest
deviations in body mechanics commonly considered normal are, in fact,
significant problems that when left unattended and unchecked almost always
result in further issues. Furthermore, I learned that the time it took for these
issues to become problematic varied greatly from person to person. It could take
as little as several days or as long as several months, and occasionally as long as
several years, for the various forms of movement dysfunction to spiral into
further physiological issues. The key was that left unchecked, each movement

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aberration and muscle dysfunction would eventually take its toll on the human
body to some degree or another.

Lim its to M y U n d er s ta n d in g

It’s important to note that I don’t claim to understand exactly why each of these
physiological issues occur or what triggers the various symptoms. In fact, we
may never be able to explain all these findings. All I can say from repeated
observations is that when muscle function is off, the symptoms I’ve described
are much more likely to occur. In contrast, with proper muscle function, when
the body functions as close to optimal as possible for a given individual, these
symptoms are much less likely to occur

O th er Lifes tyle Fa c to r s

I should point out early on in this text that I am in no way downplaying or

ignoring the importance of other lifestyle and environmental factors such as diet,
nutritional habits, sleep patterns, alcohol consumption and stress, and the impact
these have on health, quality of life, and overall physiological function. In fact,
when possible, each of these should be optimized and attended to in order to
fully maximize health, fitness, performance, physique, and wellness. Neglecting
these components can be disastrous to any person’s health and well-being.

What I am suggesting is that as important as these lifestyle factors are, an equally,

if not more important piece of the puzzle is muscle function. From my 14 years
of experience in this industry I strongly believe that muscle function and body
mechanics have a greater impact on health, wellness, fitness, performance, and
physiological function than any other factor or lifestyle component. Although I
will highlight various forms of research to help support this notion in subsequent
chapters, a significant part of this thesis is based on my own personal experience
working with hundreds of clients and athletes.

For instance, I’ve witnessed dozens of cases of individuals who were doing
everything to optimize every lifestyle factor including nutrition, sleep, and
supplementation, were monitoring their stress levels, had eliminated alcohol
consumption and foreign substances, had eliminated allergy-inducing food, and
were consuming various supplements to counter chronic inflammation and
oxidative stress, etc., yet continued to have numerous forms of physical issues.
Oftentimes this included joint pain, digestive issues, immune dysfunction,

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extreme allergies, upper respiratory issues, chronic fatigue, various

musculoskeletal injuries and more. Ironically, in most of these cases, these same
individuals had for years consistently engaged in organized and meticulously
planned strength training programs and exercise routines while continuing to
stay incredibly active. In fact, quite a few of the individuals I encountered
displayed significant levels of strength and muscular development such that to
the naked eye they appeared to be genetically gifted specimens or at least very fit,
healthy, and athletic individuals.

While it may seem counterintuitive, individuals such as those described above

can be just as prone to a variety of health issues and physical maladies as those
who appear to be physically ill, elderly, inactive, obese, or very unhealthy in their
lifestyle decisions. What I’ve consistently and repeatedly noticed however, is that
teaching these individuals to master their body mechanics, form, and movement
through proper eccentric isometrics is the most effective way to remedy these
symptoms. It is important to highlight that if other factors such as sleep,
nutrition, diet, stress management etc. had not been in place the improvements
in muscle function most likely not have produced the same magnitude of results.
The key is that in order to fully reap the benefits of all other lifestyle factors,
muscle function and movement mechanics must be attended to and perfected.
In other words, mastering one’s body mechanics and learning to move the way
God intended us to is the final, yet most important piece of the puzzle when it
comes to healing and maximizing the health, wellbeing, physical attributes and
optimal physiological function of our bodies.

The Merging of My Physical

and Spiritual Journey
Before I go any further I should point out, if it’s not already quite obvious, that I
am both a scientist and a firm believer in Almighty God. Many scientists claim
that science and religion/spirituality conflict and contradict each other. I fully
disagree. In fact, I view science as a way of explaining and understanding God’s
incredible creation including our human body and its function. I’m a firm
believer that when we use our bodies the way God intended them to be used and
move the way we were designed to move, our bodies and overall physiology
function at optimal levels, positively impacting our health and overall quality of
life. I have believed this throughout my life yet had not tuned into it quite as
deeply until the last decade.

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The years I’ve now spent studying the human body from a neurophysiological,
biomechanical, and applied kinesiology point of view, as well as the various
research topics I lay out in this book, have only strengthened this thought
process and viewpoint. In fact, my research and my investigation of the
scientific literature served to reinforce and bolster my faith in God as it became
undeniably obvious to me that we are masterfully and perfectly created in His
image, as is stated in the Bible. Every aspect of literature I lay out in this book
provides strong support for this and will show the reader how precisely designed
our bodies are and how incredibly complex yet masterfully crafted we are. It is
only when we begin to function outsides the boundaries of what our bodies were
created to do that we begin to breakdown physiologically and suffer negative
consequences.

After years of rigorously examining the science and practice of human

movement and neurophysiology, it is impossible for me to reconcile the level of
precision with which we move and function with the notion that such an exact
and complex arrangement of atoms and cells as that which constitutes our
bodies is the product of random evolution. I firmly believe that for our bodies to
function as they do required an all-knowing Master Crafter of divine wisdom and
power to oversee our creation and development to His exact specifications.

My goal with this book is to show the reader not only how important proper
movement is and what it entails but also guide them through various areas of
research and the scientific literature on human physiology, neurophysiology,
biomechanics, and biochemistry such that it becomes impossible to deny that
something as remarkable as our human bodies was created by anything or
anyone other than God.

I realize that after reading the previous paragraphs some of you may refuse to
read further. However, for those of you willing and inquisitive enough to press
on, let us continue.

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Chapter 2

Movement,
Muscle
Function,
Inflammation, and Disease

Movement
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CHAPTER 2
Movement
Muscle Function
Inflammation and Disease

i
t is generally accepted that physical activity has numerous beneficial
effects on overall health and wellness. Less well understood
however, is how physical activity, particularly athletic performance
and resistance training, is related to specific health and disease
outcomes. In this and subsequent chapters I will provide evidence
that points to a direct and mutual relationship between optimal
athletic performance, strength and fitness, and overall health and
wellness, with each benefiting the other. Furthermore, based on extensive
research, as well as personal experience and education, I will make the case that
the single most important factor that ties all of these components together is the
optimization of muscle function. Thus, maximizing muscle function is critical
not only for athletes and fitness enthusiasts but for all individuals looking to
optimize their health, wellness, and quality of life.

After years of study, deliberation and hands on experience, I have found that the
most effective way to improve muscle function and body mechanics is through
eccentric isometrics. But before I lay out the basic tenets of eccentric isometrics,
how to perform them, and the reasons why they have such a profound impact
on muscle function and body mechanics, I want to discuss the relationship
between muscle function and inflammation which I believe is central to the
argument that muscle function is critical for health. By outlining the arguments
and evidence linking muscle function to inflammation I hope to lay the
groundwork to convince the reader that eccentric isometrics is not only a novel
form of exercise to optimize performance and fitness, it can also be an effective
treatment for various diseases and disorders and a means of optimizing health
and wellness.

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The following pages contain what some may view as bold, and perhaps even
extreme and dogmatic claims and statements. Until a decade ago, I too would have
probably considered them outlandish and preposterous. However, after years of
scientific investigation and education, a thorough review of hundreds of research
studies and supporting literature, and after witnessing such a high number of cases
and trends consistent with these conclusions, I feel I simply cannot ignore them,
and it is my responsibility to inform the general public. Many of the conclusions I
have come to cannot be definitively proven or disproven, as it would be
impossible to perform individualized research studies to empirically support these
concepts. However, my goal has never been to prove or disprove these
hypotheses, as such an endeavor would be just as impossible and as futile as trying
to prove or disprove the existence of God. Instead, my objective in writing this
book was to lay out the relevant areas of science, and present to the reader the
same “breadcrumbs” and “trail-clues” I was privy to find along my own journey
that helped me connect the dots. By tying together the research, anecdotal data,
and information that was pivotal in terms of furthering my understanding of these
concepts, I will provide what I believe are strong arguments in favor of these
conclusions. My hope and belief is that after careful analysis of this text, the reader
will come to similar, if not the same, conclusions I did.

Section One
Research on Muscle Use,
Function and Movement

Note: Many of the sections in Chapters 2-3 contain detailed discussions of various scientific
topics and related research. Although this is critical for some readers and kinesiologists, for
those less interested in each and every component of the scientific rationale, you may want to
initially skip to Chapter 4 and circle back to Chapters 2-3 after completing the final chapters.

A great deal of research over the last several decades has examined the
relationship between physical activity, body composition, improved movement,
and overall health and wellness [1]. From minimizing cardiovascular disease to
diabetes, as well as a host of other beneficial effects, regular physical activity
appears to be a crucial component not only for maintaining health and wellbeing
but for maximizing it as well.

It is important to point out that most of the research related to this topic reflects
the process of “muscle use” which underlies all physical activity. In other words,

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physical activity involves activation of muscles in the body, which in turn,

generates human movement. The greater the activation or recruitment of muscle
fibers and motor units, the higher the intensity of the activity [2]. Thus, physical
activity and muscle movement have largely been examined on a scale of intensity
or quantity based on how much effort individuals channel into the activation of
their muscles. Very little research has been performed, however, on the quality of
movement and on actual muscle function in terms of its relationship to health.

For example, numerous studies have shown that compared to low intensity
training, higher intensity cardiovascular training elicits an even greater response
on the cardiopulmonary system, suggesting that such training protocols have a
more desirable effect on overall health [3, 4]. Therefore, generally speaking,
higher intensity physical activity leads to greater overall fitness levels and, by
extension, greater health benefits. However, while much of the research in this
area has focused on how the general use of muscles in strength or cardiovascular
training affects health and performance, much less is known about how muscle
function, or how the actual state of an individual’s muscles, regardless of the type
of physical activity they participate in, may affect their health, fitness, and overall
human performance. That is, qualification of muscle function has been based
primarily on quantifiable means (i.e. intensity, load, fatigue etc.) rather than
essential descriptive measures of quality of movement (i.e. technique, position,
motor recruitment patterns, osteokinematics, arthrokinematics and movement
mechanics) and the effects derived from these, all of which may truly determine
muscle function or dysfunction [1].

Section Two
Muscle Function, Inflammation,
Oxidative Stress and Disease

Many health issues and age-related diseases and disorders, such as cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, cancer, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, arthritis, and mental
health issues, as well as numerous others ailments including bacterial infections,
allergies, immune system suppression, digestive disorders, chronic fatigue,
fibromyalgia, sleep disorders, migraines, and sinusitis, have all been linked to
oxidative stress and chronic inflammation [5] [6, 7]. While a comprehensive list of
conditions associated with inflammation is beyond the scope of this text, the key
point is that many diseases and disorders of the human body, from bacterial
infections to some forms of cancer, can be traced back to inflammation and

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oxidative stress. In fact, additional research demonstrating the relationship between

aging and inflammation is so significant there is now a scientific term describing this
physiological phenomenon known as “inflammaging.” Unfortunately, the list
continues to grow. In fact, recent data shows an increasing incidence of cases
associated with chronic inflammation, as well as a steadily increasing number of
diseases associated with oxidative stress and inflammation [8, 9] [5, 7, 10]. While
numerous hypotheses, ranging from pollution to food treatments, pesticides,
overmedication, stress, societal and other factors have been put forth as possible
explanations for this trend, many of these are based on conjecture and anecdotal
information rather than concrete evidence.

Accompanying the increase in chronic inflammation and associated oxidative stress

is a rapidly growing market of anti-inflammatory medications, as well as
supplements, herbs, and dietary remedies that are also touted as having anti-
inflammatory effects [11]. Television, radio, magazine and internet advertising of
products such as NSAIDS, corticosteroids, statins, and other pharmaceuticals, as
well as herbal remedies and anti-inflammatory diets, routinely target the growing
number of individuals with chronic inflammation. However, many of these so-
called remedies are largely ineffective for treating chronic inflammation, and those
that do provide temporary relief fail to address the root cause of the issue. In other
words, the latter remedies are treating the symptoms not the cause of inflammation.
Thus, despite an ever present and increasing need, as well as efforts to devise cures
or treatments for inflammation and oxidative stress, it appears an effective remedy
for the treatment of inflammatory related disorders is still sorely lacking

Given the number of health issues associated with chronic inflammation it is

obvious why eliminating, lowering, or at least managing levels of inflammation in the
human body is such an area of emphasis for nutrition and supplement companies as
well as the medical and pharmaceutical industries. If, indeed, a successful treatment
or remedy for this condition were developed it would not be farfetched to assume
that such a developmental milestone could provide the solution, and possibly a cure,
for many other associated diseases including but not limited to cardiovascular
disease, cancer, arthritis, diabetes, and many other ailments.

The lack of an effective treatment for inflammatory disorders is likely due to the
fact that while there is no shortage of literature supporting a link between chronic
inflammation and the various health issues mentioned above, the underlying
cause of inflammation and its relationship to various diseases, despite extensive
research, is largely unknown [12, 13]. Several bodies of research suggest,
however, that the root cause of inflammation may be found in human skeletal

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muscle function and muscle health. Based on extensive research and personal
experience, I strongly believe that the underlying cause of much of the chronic
inflammation and oxidative stress experienced in our society does, indeed, lie in
skeletal muscle function and muscle health and, in fact, a majority of it stems
from faulty muscle function and poor muscle health. This is entirely independent
and unrelated to physical activity per se (i.e. intensity or quantity of movement),
and is instead dependent on quality of movement. In fact, it’s quite possible and
very common to consistently engage in physical activity yet do so with faulty
mechanics which would result in increased levels of chronic inflammation,
thereby reducing or counteracting the otherwise beneficial effects of physical
activity. In other words, while compared to no movement, some physical activity
is beneficial, it is the quality of movement, rather than the quantity of movement,
that tips the scale towards more positive health outcomes. In the next several
sections I will provide evidence to support this hypothesis by linking together
various aspects of muscle physiology and showing the connection between
muscle function and inflammation-related diseases.

Section Three
Muscle Endocrine Function,
Myokines & Inflammation

It has long been known that skeletal muscle is the largest tissue in the body [14].
However, in the last decade a new paradigm has emerged demonstrating that
skeletal muscle is in fact an endocrine organ. This makes skeletal muscle the largest
endocrine organ in the human body [14]. It is also well known that the body
produces proteins called cytokines, cell signaling molecules that mediate immune
responses. A number of studies examining the endocrine effect of muscles have
shown that skeletal muscles express and produce many of these cytokines, which
are now referred to as myokines [15]. Through paracrine, autocrine and endocrine
mechanisms these myokines ultimately exert an effect both locally, on the muscles
themselves, and peripherally on other organs and tissues throughout the body [13].

Many of the endocrine effects produced by myokines released from muscles

have only recently begun to be studied and thus are not fully understood. What
is clear is that skeletal muscle, as the largest endocrine organ in the human body,
may represent one of the more powerful determinants of an individual’s health
status. Simply put, healthy muscles are likely to exert endocrine effects that are
physiologically beneficial, while the endocrine effects of unhealthy muscles are
likely to be physiologically detrimental.

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Numerous studies, including a recent study by Haugen et al., have shown that
skeletal muscle produces and releases a number of myokines. These include
interleukin-6 (IL-6), a pro-inflammatory cytokine associated with obesity and
impaired insulin function, interleukin-7 (IL-7), which may play a role in muscle
development, and interleukin-15 (IL-15), an anabolic cytokine that has an anti-
inflammatory effect [9] [15]. Although interleukins play a pivotal role in adaptive
and protective responses, such as the acute inflammatory response seen during
post-exercise bouts, many interleukins have also been directly linked to oxidative
stress and chronic inflammation. Some interleukins, such as IL-6, have been
shown to have both anti- and pro-inflammatory effects. For example, chronically
elevated levels of IL-6 are believed to lead to increased levels of inflammation,
linking IL-6 to a plethora of health issues and diseases related to chronic
inflammation and oxidative stress, including muscle wasting and apoptosis.
Consistent with their pro-inflammatory role in muscle wasting and apoptosis,
repair and rebuilding of atrophic muscle is associated with a down-regulation of
various interleukins including IL-6 [16]. However, studies have also shown that
IL-6 is released by contracting muscle and acts as an energy sensor with
beneficial effects on muscle metabolism. This occurs in the absence of
observable inflammatory markers suggesting IL-6 may also play an anti-
inflammatory role in response to exercise [13].

Skeletal muscle cells have also been shown to produce interleukin-6 in response
to reactive oxygen species (ROS). While ROS are a byproduct of normal oxygen
metabolism, and transient elevation is associated with skeletal muscle adaptation
to exercise, excessive levels lead to oxidative stress which has ultimately been
linked to cellular deterioration, muscle damage and aging [13, 17] [18, 19]. The
role of IL-6 in ROS mediated effects however, remains to be determined.

Although as noted above the acute myokine response from exercise appears to
produce a favorable anti-inflammatory response, excessive muscle damage
(commonly associated with faulty muscle function and flawed movement
mechanics) has been shown to produce a pro-inflammatory myokine response
that can last several days or longer [20-23]. Because high levels of inflammatory
cytokines have been linked to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, as well
as muscle wasting and apoptosis [16], and because a state of heightened and/or
prolonged inflammation and oxidative stress can leave an individual susceptible
to tissue damage and disease, a number of studies have focused on ways to lower
the levels of pro-inflammatory related interleukins released by muscles. A study
by Vassilakopoulos et al. demonstrated that supplementation with antioxidants

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(vitamins A,C, and E), before and after moderate intensity exercise, lowered the
levels of several interleukins produced and released by skeletal muscles including
interleukin-6 [24]. Similar studies have shown that antioxidant supplementation
leads to reduced levels of interleukin-6 being produced after a single bout of
exercise suggesting this may enhance recovery and attenuate the inflammatory
response produced by exercise [25].

However, these protocols also interfere with the acute inflammatory response
immediately following exercise which may be necessary for improved
performance. As a result, such protocols may not be ideal for long-term
treatment, as the goal is to decrease the chronic elevation of pro-inflammatory
cytokines post–exercise, rather than minimize the acute response. The latter
point highlights what appears to be the paradoxical effect of myokines such as
IL-6, i.e. the transient elevation of IL-6 levels immediately post-exercise (most
likely a beneficial response) vs. the chronic systemic elevation of IL-6 levels
associated with obesity, inactivity, aging, diabetes, hyperlipidemia cardiovascular
disease, metabolic syndrome, cancer and other detrimental health effects [13].

Taken together, these data suggest that skeletal muscle, and specifically muscle
derived myokines, may play a key role in the regulation of inflammation and
oxidative stress, as well as muscle metabolism. Furthermore, while IL-6 is the
classic and best studied myokine, skeletal muscle cells are now known to actively
secrete several hundred myokines that act locally to regulate muscle function,
and peripherally, to mediate crosstalk between skeletal muscle and other organs
including adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, cardiovascular system, brain, bones and
skin, and the immune system, highlighting the pivotal role muscles play not only
in locomotion but also as a key endocrine organ in the human body [26, 27]

While much is known about inflammation in response to infection or injury, the

mechanisms that lead to low level systemic chronic inflammation associated with
many diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease are less well
understood. In fact, it has been proposed that the standard view of inflammation
as a response to infection or injury may need to be expanded to account for
inflammatory responses induced by other adverse conditions as an adaptive
response to tissue malfunction and stress, in an effort to maintain or reestablish
tissue homeostasis. The magnitude of the response can vary depending on the
degree of tissue (i.e. muscle) malfunction or stress, but is generally of lower
magnitude than the classic inflammatory response induced by infection and tissue
injury and may not be detectable using common biomarkers. This response has
been termed para-inflammation, i.e. an intermediate inflammatory response

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between that elicited to maintain tissue homeostasis, and the inflammatory

response to damaged or infected tissue. It has been further proposed that it is
dysregulation of this para-inflammatory response that may be responsible for the
systemic chronic inflammation associated with many diseases [28].

The fact that skeletal muscle is the largest endocrine organ in the body, and
produces hundreds of myokines that mediate cross talk between muscle and other
organs, underscores what is likely a central role in the maintenance of whole body
homeostasis. Furthermore, the notion that tissue dysfunction or stress may lead to
a para-inflammatory response, which if left unchecked could ultimately result in
low-level systemic chronic inflammation and disease, supports the idea that the
state of muscle function or dysfunction may be a key factor dictating whether or
not the endocrine response of the muscles is of a therapeutic or contra-therapeutic
nature. That is, while contraction or activation of skeletal muscle may trigger the
production and release of cytokines and produce an acute bout of inflammation as
a therapeutic response to exercise, muscle dysfunction or stress may lead to contra-
therapeutic endocrine effects unique to the general state of muscle health and
metabolism and distinct from the acute contraction-related effects.

The idea that skeletal muscle plays a key role in whole body homeostasis suggests
that the endocrine response is likely not limited to periods of physical activity but
occurs throughout the day regardless of activity levels. Thus, if the state of muscle
function determines the nature of the endocrine response, it is essential that
skeletal muscle be maintained in a healthy and optimally functional state such that
physiologically beneficial endocrine effects are maximized, and physiological
detrimental endocrine effects are minimized or eliminated. It is important to note
here that while physical activity is beneficial to overall health and wellbeing, it
does not necessarily equate to proper or optimal muscle function. In other words,
muscle use itself does not necessarily translate to proper or optimal muscle function.
One can postulate, therefore, that consistent yet improper muscle function,
through participation in exercise programs where, for example, movement
mechanics and muscle function are not addressed, could lead to muscle tissue
stress and a para-inflammatory response, as described above. If not corrected, this
response could result in systemic chronic inflammation with negative
physiological consequences and/or predisposition to disease. If this is indeed
true, the next logical step is to qualify and define what constitutes healthy and
optimally functional muscle vs. unhealthy, dysfunctional muscle and the
circumstances that may lead to each.

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Putting It All Together

Summary Of Key Points

Skeletal muscle, the largest endocrine organ of the body, produces numerous
cytokines known as myokines. Myokines mediate cross-talk between skeletal
muscle and nearly all other organs in the body, underscoring the central role that
skeletal muscle plays in the maintenance of whole body homeostasis. Myokines
are also key factors that control and mediate oxidative stress and inflammation.
Because chronic, systemic inflammation and oxidative stress have been linked to
a large number of diseases and disorders, limiting or minimizing the level of
inflammation in the body is of the utmost importance in order to maximize
health and physical performance.

Skeletal muscle derived myokines act in an autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine

fashion both locally, on the skeletal muscle tissue itself, and peripherally, on
nearly all tissues and organs in the body. Myokines produced and released by
skeletal muscle include both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory myokines.
A single bout of physical activity causes the muscles to produce an acute anti-
inflammatory myokine response that appears to be a healthy adaptive response
to exercise. In contrast, pro-inflammatory myokines appear to be produced in
response to excessive muscle trauma, which is typically the result of poor muscle
function and muscle health. As their name implies, these myokines promote a
longer term inflammatory response and oxidative stress. This chronic response
is not the result of physical activity per se, rather it is associated with muscle
dysfunction, and muscle tissue stress, regardless of activity level.

As the largest endocrine organ of the body, the consistent production of pro-
inflammatory myokines by skeletal muscle could lead to a continuous state of
chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. This unfavorable physiological
environment could predispose individuals to any of a number of illnesses linked
to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress. The opposite would also be true,
however, as skeletal muscle can produce anti-inflammatory myokines when
healthy and functioning optimally. Thus, determining what proper muscle
function is becomes paramount to the discussion of health and physical
performance.

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Section Four
Muscle dysfunction, Postural
Abnormalities, Inflammation & Aging

H ypo th etic a l Pr efa c e

As noted above, skeletal muscle produces numerous myokines that exert an

endocrine effect throughout the body. Unfortunately, when dysregulated and
chronically elevated, many of these myokines promote negative physiological
consequences, including inflammation, which if not controlled enhance an
individual’s susceptibility to a variety of health issues such as cardiovascular
disease, cancer, diabetes and many others. However, determining the underlying
cause(s) of muscle induced positive vs. negative endocrine effects, and more
specifically that which leads to a maladaptive chronic response, is not simple due
to the lack of conclusive research. It is therefore critical to look beyond the
obvious and examine the deep underlying root of the problem. By peeling away,
layer by layer, each component of muscle function, it is possible to connect the
dots and uncover key determinants that maximize health, performance, and
overall quality of life. The subsequent sections summarize a large number of
studies linking dysfunctional movement patterns, faulty muscle function, and
postural abnormalities with inflammation and aging in an effort to put together
pieces of the puzzle and propose a complete yet simple solution to what could
be considered the physiological debacle of the century.

Im po r ta n t N o te O n S tr en g th Tr a in in g
R es ea r c h

Before we go any further it is important we address a critical aspect of

kinesiology research, that is, the proper application of resistance training
protocols and “technique coaching” in research and laboratory-based settings.
This is oftentimes greatly downplayed if not altogether ignored, yet is perhaps
the single most important component when determining how we extract, gather,
analyze, and interpret data from various kinesiology studies. This is also an
important recurring theme throughout this text that readers should keep in mind
as they read.

Simply put, in very few, if any kinesiology studies, are the participants taught or
required to use proper strength training mechanics. That’s because most

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research studies that involve resistance training are carried out by those who
have little knowledge of what constitutes proper training, whether it be training
themselves or coaching other individuals through basic movements. The lack of
proper coaching and cuing in kinesiology studies is something I’ve personally
had the opportunity to witness in various university settings. Unfortunately, this
significantly, and negatively, impacts what we can extract and glean from these
studies

Most individuals will naturally exhibit faulty and dysfunctional movement

patterns when strength training unless properly coached or instructed for at least
several sessions, the minimum time frame for gaining the most basic level of
movement competency. Thus, in many studies (including those that involve
high level athletes) the participants are likely to incorporate the compensation
patterns and various other forms of dysfunctional movements they’ve relied on
for years. In fact, as will be discussed in subsequent chapters, a number of
studies, as well as my own 15 years of training experience and analysis, have
shown that individuals who consistently strength train demonstrate greater levels
of dysfunctional movement and neuromuscular aberrations than those who
don’t strength train. This is something I’ve witnessed first-hand as I’ve yet to
encounter a single individual who, without prior training by an experienced
coach, could perform strength training movements properly. Yet, even with
prior training, they oftentimes exhibit faulty mechanics as a result of ineffective
and faulty coaching.

Proper strength training should eliminate dysfunctional movement patterns.

Therefore, it must be assumed that it’s not the strength training itself that causes
dysfunction but instead the incorrect application of training protocols. The main
point is that it is often these individuals with significant levels of muscular
dysfunction who routinely participate in strength training studies.

And yes, I appreciate the irony of citing research studies of individuals who
consistently participate in strength training routines to argue that strength
training studies are generally flawed. However, in the studies I am referring to
that showed greater levels of dysfunction in recreational weight lifters vs.
untrained individuals, study participants were not subjected to training protocols.
Instead, investigators assessed levels of muscular function and dysfunction in the
trained vs. untrained populations through more objective measures such as
strength, active range of motion (AROM), and posterior shoulder tightness
(PST) tests [29].

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So, what does this mean and what are the implications?? This may sound harsh
and is perhaps a radical statement but, simply put, it must be assumed that the
results of most, if not all strength training studies are obtained from incorrectly
applied training protocols performed by participants with faulty and
dysfunctional movement mechanics, thus calling into question most of the
conclusions drawn from such studies.

Additionally, any negative consequences (e.g. joint pain, increased inflammation,

loss of mobility, decreased stability, degraded movement mechanics, loss of
strength, atrophy etc.) that result from studies examining strength training are
most likely a result of incorrect form and technique, as resistance training should
be therapeutic, with few if any negative side effects, when properly executed.
Thus, one can presume that elimination of these movement aberrations would
have minimized if not altogether eliminated the side effects.

The same can be said of any positive/therapeutic outcomes from strength

training studies (decreased joint pain, enhanced mobility, increased joint stability,
increased strength, muscular hypertrophy, and improved performance). That is,
it is likely that similar, or in many cases superior results would have been attained
had proper implementation and execution of training techniques been employed.

Thus, each time the reader encounters a resistance training research study, they
should keep in mind the fact that the results were obtained from participants
who likely performed the specific strength training protocol with dysfunctional
movement mechanics and aberrant technique.

The subsequent sections will demonstrate the importance of this premise and
why it’s so critical to the reader’s understanding.

C -R ea c tiv e P r o tein , M yo k in es , a n d
M u s c le-In d u c ed In fla m m a tio n

As mentioned above, studies have shown that exercise-induced, transient and

short-term increases in IL-6 levels are beneficial. Unfortunately, certain factors
including injury, trauma, and even intense exercise can lead to a prolonged or
chronic elevation of circulating IL-6. This has been linked to various diseases
and disorders, many of which are associated with chronic inflammation.
Although much remains to be learned about myokines and their systemic effects,
a closer look at muscle-induced inflammation and its relationship to muscle

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function and myokines, should help shed additional light on the topic.

C-reactive protein (CRP), is a protein found in blood plasma, whose levels rise in
response to inflammation. Measures of CRP levels appear to be a reliable
indicator and marker of levels of inflammation in the body with levels of CRP
>3mg/dl being associated with increased oxidative stress, and chronic
inflammation. Therefore, the identification of any particular factor that could
modulate CRP levels, and ultimately inflammation, would be of great interest to
many.

Although there appears to be a relationship between elevated CRP levels and

many illnesses, levels of CRP and inflammation are unusually high in physical
conditions that involve movement and joint or muscle pain such as rheumatoid
arthritis [30] and fibromyalgia [31]. In addition, a substantial proportion of
individuals suffering from these conditions have CRP levels that are associated
with a high or very high risk of cardiovascular disease. Likewise, individuals with
chronic fatigue (which also appears to be linked to joint pain and fibromyalgia)
exhibit similarly elevated levels of CRP and inflammation [32].

Unfortunately, the exact cause of the aforementioned muscle/joint pains and

movement-related disorders remains to be determined, and treatments are
limited to retarding disease progression or inducing remission. However, a
thorough examination of the scientific literature on myokines and the endocrine
effects of muscle tissue, raises the plausible hypothesis that muscle function and
muscle health are key factors underlying these movement related disorders, the
severity, and perhaps even general onset of which, could be mitigated
substantially with proper muscle function.

In fact, many of these health issues appear to be highly correlated with postural
abnormalities as well as significant foot and gait abnormalities, much of which
likely occur to varying degrees before the onset of the disease [33]. Postural, foot,
and gait mechanics are some of the most important factors that determine one’s
level of muscle function, and/or muscle health, as evidenced by the rapid onset of
aging-like physical manifestations once these factors begin to deteriorate.

Although it would be impossible to demonstrate a direct cause and effect

relationship between muscle function prior to illness and the onset of illness, there
is strong correlative data and anecdotal evidence suggesting that these diseases are
indeed associated with, or at least exacerbated by, faulty muscle function and poor
muscle health, and the ensuing negative myokine/endocrine response.

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C R P, M u s c u lo s k eleta l Pa in , a n d In ju r y

Studies examining the relationship between CRP levels and musculoskeletal pain
and injury, help us further understand the impact that muscle function plays on
inflammation and ultimately overall health.

Several studies have shown that musculoskeletal pain including local pain,
chronic pain, tenderness, body aches, peripheral nerve irritation, weakness,
limited motion, and tension produced from various musculoskeletal-related
activities (i.e. repetitive tasks, faulty mechanics, poor postural alignment, and
inefficient ergonomics) in otherwise healthy participants, is associated with an
increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines and myokines, as well as increased CRP
levels [34-37]. In addition, there appears to be a strong correlation between the
severity of chronic pain/tenderness and CRP levels, directly linking
inflammation to poor musculoskeletal health. Furthermore, as the number of
anatomical sites associated with pain increases (i.e. shoulders, neck, knees, hips)
etc. the levels of CRP also seem to rise. In fact, the levels of CRP in many of
these individuals, particularly those with higher levels of chronic pain, were so
elevated that it placed them in “high risk” category of cardiovascular disease.
However even “mild pain” that often goes unreported, undetected, or
undiagnosed was associated with moderately high levels of systemic
inflammation and CRP.

These results further support the notion that musculoskeletal pain, discomfort,
and injury, produced from faulty mechanics, postural dysfunction, and inefficient
movement, are linked to increased inflammation which, in turn, increases the
risk of physiological derangements and disease (e.g. increased inflammation leads
to increased cortisol levels which leads to increased insulin resistance and
decreased testosterone levels, which in turn can lead to dementia and metabolic
syndrome to name a few).

That the aforementioned studies were carried out on otherwise healthy subjects
with no previous incidence of disease or illness, other than the reported work-
related musculoskeletal pain and body aches that is oftentimes considered quite
normal in society, underscores the fact that inflammation is a very relevant and
relatable topic for any and all individuals, as most of the population suffers from
varying degrees of musculoskeletal aches and pain. In fact, a recent report from
the World Health Organization (WHO) on the burden of major musculoskeletal
conditions lists the following five key facts

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Musculoskeletal conditions are the second largest contributor to

disability worldwide, with low back pain being the single leading cause
of disability globally.

Musculoskeletal conditions and injuries are not just conditions of older

age – they are relevant across the life-course. Between one in three and
one in five people live with a painful and disabling musculoskeletal
condition.

Musculoskeletal conditions significantly limit mobility and dexterity,

leading to early retirement from work, reduced accumulated wealth and
reduced ability to participate in social roles.

The greatest proportion of persistent pain conditions is accounted for

by musculoskeletal conditions.

Highly prevalent among multi-morbidity health states, musculoskeletal

conditions are prevalent in one third to one half of multi-morbidity
presentations, and very commonly linked with depression.

Given the link between pain and systemic inflammation (as well as many
diseases), finding any and all means necessary to reduce this inflammation by
addressing musculoskeletal function and body mechanics is of the utmost
importance.

C R P a n d M u s c le Fu n c tio n

Although CRP levels and inflammation have empirically been shown to increase
as a result of musculoskeletal pain, it appears that muscle function is the key
factor that determines whether or not pain, and ultimately inflammation, is
produced in the first place. Several studies have shown a strong relationship
between CRP levels and movement/muscle dysfunction including mobility, gait
mechanics, grip strength, stability, shoulder mechanics, posture, walking speed,
and general fitness issues, with each being strong predictors of CRP levels [38,
39] [36, 40-42]. That is, greater levels of muscular and movement dysfunction
are correlated with higher levels of systemic inflammation and CRP. These
findings provide further evidence in support of the idea that musculoskeletal
pain and inflammation may stem in large part from faulty body mechanics and
poor muscle function. The notion that this pain is produced from excessive use

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or over-use is in fact false, as over-use is rarely an issue. Instead, the symptoms

are more likely a result of faulty or improper use which are more likely to occur
when mechanics are amiss and very rarely present themselves when muscle
function is ideal.

In summary, because poor muscle function appears to contribute significantly to

increased levels of systemic inflammation, and systemic inflammation is linked to
many known physical ailments and disorders, it follows that poor muscle
function is likely to cause illness, physiological degeneration and acceleration of
the aging process as well as increase the risk of developing a number of diseases
and disorders. Any training program that does not address or eliminate these
faulty mechanics, and instead only reinforces faulty mechanics as most training
programs do, is only further contributing to this destructive pathologic effect.

Po s tu r e, S pin a l Po s itio n in g , a n d C R P

Posture and muscle function are directly related for several reasons.

Muscles around the spine are what directly controls postural alignment and
spinal positioning, just as limb position is dictated by the muscle recruitment and
muscle activity around a specific joint or limb. In fact, studies have confirmed
the relationship and interplay between various muscles such as the lats, shoulder
stabilizers, and hips, and their impact on the spine and postural alignment [43,
44].

Spinal positioning itself also directly impacts the function of other muscles.
From a biomechanical standpoint, posture is of paramount importance for
optimizing limb mechanics, arthrokinematics (internal movement of joints and
joint surfaces), and osteokinematics (external movements of joints and body
segments). For instance, improper spinal alignment directly impacts the
structure of the hips by shifting the positioning of the entire lumbopelvic hip
complex which in turn impacts low back, knee, and ankle function. Similar
effects occur in the upper body with particular impact on the glenohumeral joint.

Furthermore, muscles cannot receive optimal signaling and, therefore, optimally

activate when postural positioning is faulty. That is because the spine is the
signaling highway that provides innervation and activation to and from other
muscle groups in the body. Improper positioning of the spine short-circuits the
signaling to, and activation of, all muscles throughout the body, thereby

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negatively impacting every joint, limb, and muscle.

Spinal positioning is critical, therefore, for muscle function. Given that spinal
alignment goes hand in hand with movement mechanics, muscle function and
ultimately musculoskeletal health, spinal misalignment is likely to lead to some
form of muscle dysfunction and musculoskeletal pain. The increased levels of
CRP and increased inflammation associated with musculoskeletal pain and
dysfunction, in turn, increase the potential risk for many diseases. Underscoring
the importance of spinal health, numerous studies over the last several decades
directly support the idea that spinal positioning, and ultimately muscle function,
are critical not only for movement but for overall health and physiological
function.

M u s c u lo s k eleta l D ys fu n c tio n & Lo w

B a c k Pa in

Low back pain is one of the most common forms of physical discomfort and
musculoskeletal pain in our society. While there are many factor that contribute
to low back pain, one of the most critical, yet oftentimes overlooked, factors
contributing to persistent spinal pain is faulty body mechanics, including poor
postural alignment and spinal positioning. In fact, a number of research studies
have examined spinal mechanics and posture in relation to low back pain. In
many cases a strong relationship appears to exist between back pain and
posture/spinal alignment, with more frequent and severe cases of back pain
being associated with faulty postural mechanics, while more neutral/proper
spinal positions are associated with reduced low back pain [45-48] [49].

It is not inconceivable, therefore, that the many factors that contribute to low
back pain are more likely to cause persistent problems and, likewise, the pain
associated with these factors is likely to be exacerbated, if spinal mechanics are
poor, as even the slightest form of dysfunction may trigger pain and/or an
inflammatory response. On the other hand, low back pain associated with these
and other factors, can most likely be mitigated, or at least minimized, by
optimizing spinal mechanics and muscle function.

Significantly, more recent research has shown a positive association between

inflammation/CRP levels and low back pain, with increased levels of pain and
more extreme low back conditions being associated with higher levels of CRP
[50, 51].

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It should be noted that while many studies have found a strong correlation
between low back pain and postural abnormalities, some studies have shown
only a limited association. Ironically, most of the low back pain studies that
failed to find an association between postural aberrations and low back pain
involved self-reporting elderly patients. It has been postulated that much of the
pain experienced in the elderly populations oftentimes goes unreported, as many
older adults believe that pain is a normal part of the aging process and don’t
report it unless the levels are inordinately high.

Another plausible explanation for the lack of association between low back pain
and postural abnormalities is that elderly individuals, as well as those who live
with heightened levels of chronic pain and or inflammation, have a blunted
response to pain due to desensitized pain receptors, decreased sensitivity to pain,
and an increased pain threshold [52, 53]. In fact, it is well documented that
sensory system sensitivity, as well as overall somatosensory feedback, decreases
with age, in part due to reduced numbers of specialized peripheral receptors
along with a deterioration of supporting tissues. Additionally, peripheral nerves
show a reduction in both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers, as well as signs of
damage and degeneration. The number and size of sensory neurons in dorsal
root ganglia also decreases with age, further contributing to age-related changes
in nociception [53]. Therefore, the fact that pain isn’t reported by individuals
with postural abnormalities, or those who have suffered structural trauma, does
not necessarily rule out the presence of an associated inflammatory response or
existing pathology that could lead to more serious physiological consequences.

Of particular concern is the fact that a reduction in sensory system sensitivity

may make individuals more prone to serious injury due to their reduced ability to
sense harmful stimuli. In other words, while they may be aware of the sensation
of pain in response to an injury, or physiological warning sign of potential injury,
it may not be associated with significant physical discomfort, or the level of
physical discomfort one might expect relative to the severity of injury. When
thought of as a survival mechanism, this physiological response is quite
understandable. That is, the body has learned to adapt and cope with the
heightened levels of inflammation and injury by blunting the pain response.

In fact, it has been hypothesized that in the absence of any such adaptation,
perfectly healthy individuals would be unable to cope with the levels of
inflammation that many elderly and ill populations consistently experience.
Similarly, if the pain receptors in these elderly and ill populations were not
desensitized the levels of pain would likely be incapacitating. For those who are

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extremely ill, or elderly, this may be advantageous for everyday survival.

However, for the average person looking to stay physically active, healthy, and
fit, such a condition is far from desirable as it increases the potential for
disastrous joint and tissue trauma to occur at a moments’ notice with few, if any,
warning signs, ultimately leading to potentially serious consequences.

This physiological response can be viewed in one of two ways: (1) the increased
pain threshold and desensitization of pain receptors is in fact a blessing, as it
allows the individuals to live their lives without the continual sensation of
unbearable pain and discomfort or, (2) the increased pain threshold and pain
receptor desensitization is a potentially dangerous condition that results in the
masking of the symptoms of physical discomfort associated with chronic
systemic inflammation, aging, and other pathologies which are, in fact, slowly
degrading and deteriorating the body. Perhaps the best remedy from a clinical
standpoint then, is to treat the root cause of the inflammation and associated
pathologies and prevent the negative and potentially serious physiological
ramifications that may result from a blunting of the pain response.

Po s tu r e, N ec k A n d C er v ic a l S pin a l
Pa in

Together with low back pain, neck pain has been ranked the 4th leading cause of
disability globally, with significant social and economic consequences. While the
causes of neck pain are unclear, most uncomplicated neck pain is associated with
postural or mechanical factors including sporting related activities, prolonged
sitting, faulty body mechanics, environmental factors, occupational activities,
neck strain, and cell phone usage [54-57].

Although as mentioned earlier poor posture may or may not immediately lead to
low back pain, it appears that poor posture has a very direct and almost
immediate impact on neck and cervical spinal pain. In fact, many studies have
found a strong relationship between postural aberrations such as forward head
tilt (associated with tight pectorals and anterior shoulder as well as weak upper
back muscles) and cervical neck pain. Other forms of pain including headaches
and shoulder pain, have also been linked directly to these same postural
abnormalities. [56-60]. Therefore, studies of cervical pain and its relationship to
posture give even further credence and validity to the importance of posture and
muscle function in injury prevention and overall health.

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As is the case with low back pain, neck and cervical spinal pain associated with
the postural abnormalities mentioned above also appears to be associated with
increased inflammation as reflected by increased CRP levels [34, 36, 37]. Thus,
here again, given the link between systemic inflammation and disease, individuals
who exhibit faulty posture and its associated pain symptoms (which is a very
common occurrence in most of the population) are likely to be more susceptible
to the many diseases linked to chronic inflammation and to accelerated aging.

Po s tu r a l M ec h a n ic s , O s teo a r th r itis ,
a n d In fla m m a tio n

Recent studies in the area of osteoarthritis also appear to support the notion that
muscle function and postural mechanics have a significant impact on systemic
inflammation. While the exact cause of osteoarthritis remains to be elucidated, a
number of studies suggest that poor body mechanics and muscular dysfunction
may be key contributors to the onset of this very common disease. In fact,
several areas of research are now showing such strong correlation between
muscular dysfunction and osteoarthritis that it is difficult to deny the impact that
body mechanics has on the occurrence of osteoarthritis [61].

For instance, studies show that poor spinal alignment, faulty gait/walking
patterns, and aberrant postural mechanics are strongly associated with
osteoarthritis in the knee joint. Biomechanical analysis also shows that such
postural aberrations and spinal misalignment issues create additional stress and
torque on the knee joints [62, 63]. Thus, while it may be impossible to prove
direct causation, it’s likely that the aberrant body mechanics strongly contribute
to the onset of osteoarthritis or at least the severity of it.

Furthermore, studies showing a strong relationship between altered

biomechanics, pro-inflammatory cytokines, pain, and cartilage degeneration
strongly support the notion that poor mechanics and faulty muscle activation
lead to, or at least contribute to cartilage degeneration and osteoarthritis, as well
as the associated systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, suggesting a
complex interplay amongst a number of factors, including biomechanical factors,
inflammation, and cartilage degeneration, in the development of osteoarthritis
[64].

Similarly, other studies have concluded that inflammation is one of the key
factors leading to the destruction of cartilage in osteoarthritis via a similar

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inflammatory mechanism as that of rheumatoid arthritis [65]. However,

biomechanical stress was also found to be a likely contributor. Similar results
were obtained in studies showing a strong relationship between poor foot and
ankle alignment (i.e. ankle pronation) and osteoarthritis of the knee as well as
other joints. The authors further suggest that foot and ankle mechanics may be
a key factor in terms of delaying the onset and/or preventing symptoms of
osteoarthritis in various lower body joints [66].

Taken together, these findings, as well as those described in prior sections

regarding the impact of poor body mechanics on joint health and inflammation,
provide significant evidence in support of the notion that muscular dysfunction
and faulty body mechanics may be significant contributors to osteoarthritis and
the destruction of joint cartilage.

It is important to note that the impact of biomechanical loading on cartilage and

joint health is a complex process. In fact, depending on the mode, magnitude,
duration of application, and combination of other biomechanical and
physiological factors, it appears that mechanical loading can have either
beneficial or detrimental effects on joint health and connective tissue [64].
However, based on the findings discussed in earlier sections, as well as current
research on osteoarthritis, it appears that muscle function and body mechanics
may be key factors that determine whether or not loading, impact, and tension
produces a therapeutic or contra-therapeutic effect on the joints and cartilage.

Significantly, the effects of osteoarthritis may not be limited to the

musculoskeletal system. Studies now show that osteoarthritis is strongly
associated with hypertension, a risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular
disease. While the mechanism underlying vascular comorbidities in osteoarthritis
remain unclear and are likely multifactorial, it has been suggested that
chronically, or intermittently elevated levels of inflammation may link
osteoarthritis and vascular disease [67].

In summary, recent finding suggest that further research in the area of

osteoarthritis may provide key insights linking the effects of faulty body
mechanics, aberrant posture, and muscular dysfunction on systemic
inflammation, joint health and associated diseases and disorders, including
cardiovascular disease and cognitive impairments.

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Po s tu r a l A b n o r m a lities , A g in g , a n d
C o g n itio n

As noted in the preceding sections, proper spinal alignment and positioning are
critical for muscle function, as well as optimizing limb mechanics,
arthrokinematics and osteokinematics. Furthermore, poor spinal alignment,
aberrant posture and faulty gait/walking mechanics are strongly associated with
osteoarthritis and cartilage degeneration [61-63]. Degeneration in spinal
positioning and ultimately body mechanics, posture, and joint health have also
been shown to be associated with aging, dementia, and cognitive degeneration
[68, 69]. In fact, it has been suggested that musculoskeletal diseases, particularly
osteoarthritis, and vascular diseases, including cerebrovascular disease, may share
overlapping disease mechanisms. Furthermore, it has been postulated that
chronically, or intermittently elevated systemic-inflammation may be an
additional link between osteoarthritis and vascular disease [67]. For example,
elevated levels of CRP have been found to be associated with cardiovascular
disease progression, and negatively correlated with cognitive function. Similarly,
elevated serum levels of various interleukins, including IL-6, have been found in
individuals with osteoarthritis, and also associated with incidental vascular related
dementia in those with vascular risk factors.

Although a causative relationship would be difficult to prove, it seems plausible

that improving posture, and body mechanics could significantly slow the aging
process, including signs of impaired cognition, dementia, and cerebrovascular
disease. Therefore, individuals should be making every effort to minimize
postural issues and dysfunction that may accelerate the aging process and
associated conditions, and put them at greater risk of contracting the numerous
diseases associated with increased levels of inflammation. In essence,
maintenance of spinal health is likely to be critically important for the
maintenance of overall health and quality of life.

Pr o pr io c eptio n , M u s c le Fu n c tio n , A n d
Po s tu r e

Proprioception describes the innate ability of the body to sense the position of
its various limb movements in space and make the necessary adjustments to
body mechanics and movement. Some also describe this as kinesthetic
awareness. The proprioceptive system is a complex system and a vital feature of
our nervous system that helps ensure we produce the most efficient movement.

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When proprioceptive feedback is distorted or impaired movement mechanics

and body positioning suffer, ultimately leading to increased joint pain, injury, and
potential musculoskeletal trauma. Impaired proprioception therefore, negatively
impacts muscle function in much the same way as spinal misalignment.

Many of the studies showing the effect of postural aberrations on body

mechanics have also shown a significant effect on proprioceptive function.
More specifically, postural aberrations appear to disrupt proprioception and
somatosensory feedback, most likely due to poor neural signaling and the short-
circuiting of these signals along the spinal pathway as a result of faulty spinal
alignment [70-72]. In fact, several studies have shown that assuming faulty
postural alignment for as little as 5 minutes is enough to disrupt and distort
proprioception [71, 72]. These findings beg the question, if as little as 5 minutes
of faulty postural alignment is enough to disrupt proprioception, what are the
consequences of continuous and consistent postural aberrations?

Poor proprioception is likely to result in further impairment of body mechanics,

kinesthetic awareness and overall muscle function, which are likely to lead to
joint pain and associated increases in CRP levels and systemic inflammation.
Given the association between musculoskeletal system pain and dysfunction and
systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, it follows that impaired
proprioception would also increase individuals’ susceptibility to the various
pathological issues and physical maladies linked to systemic inflammation, as well
accelerate the aging process. Therefore, improving proprioception and
kinesthetic awareness, thereby improving body mechanics and movement
efficiency, is of critical importance.

Po s tu r e, B o d y M ec h a n ic s & En d o c r in e
Fu n c tio n

The effects of proper body mechanics including correct postural positioning and
spinal alignment are not limited to joint health. Posture and body mechanics
also appear to have a rapid and powerful impact on endocrine function and
hormone levels. In fact, assuming proper posture and tall spinal alignment can
cause an increase in testosterone and a decrease in cortisol within minutes [73].
The opposite is also true, that is, poor posture and faulty spinal alignment can
have an immediate negative impact on endocrine function and hormone levels
including testosterone and cortisol. Of note, decreased testosterone and
increased cortisol also appear to be linked to inflammation as well as impaired

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glucose tolerance and insulin issues. In essence, faulty posture and poor muscle
function can lead to an immediate, deleterious endocrine response that creates a
detrimental cascade of physiological effects.

M u s c le Fu n c tio n , P o s tu re, A n d
D ig es tio n

Consistent with the notion that posture and ultimately muscle function
associated with postural mechanics have a tremendous impact on the body at
multiple levels, experimental and anecdotal data also suggest that faulty posture
and improper spinal alignment may have a negative impact on gastrointestinal
health and impair digestive function [74, 75]. Gastrointestinal issues in turn can
have a significant effect on a number of physiological process in the body
including overall physical health, energy, mental health, and immune function.
Ironically, bodybuilders and individuals who frequently participate in resistance
training programs are commonly prone to gastrointestinal distress and stomach
issues. This may largely be due to the fact that these populations often perform
intense movements with faulty mechanics and improper muscle function which
contribute to their gastrointestinal distress.

In summary, postural aberrations and faulty spinal alignment are linked to

musculoskeletal pain and dysfunction which in turn, lead to numerous negative
physiological consequences. The results of the research studies mentioned thus
far suggest that optimizing movement mechanics and muscle function (as well as
diet, lifestyle, and environmental factors) would be key factors to address in
treating these conditions. Although these posture abnormalities may not be as
consistently or as strongly linked to pain as once thought (given it can often take
years for the pain to become present), it appears the negative ramifications
associated with poor posture are far more dire and severe than previously
thought. In fact, the health implications extend beyond the issues of pain and
body discomfort and into aspects of human physiology related to aging, quality
of movement, mental health and cognition.

Im pr o v in g Po s tu r e

Perhaps the single most eye-opening body of literature regarding the impact of
posture on the human body are studies that examine interventions aimed at
correcting postural aberrations. Multiple recent investigations have shown that

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exercise programs aimed at correcting postural aberrations not only improve

posture but also help eliminate pain associated with postural aberrations. [44, 56,
76, 77]. It is particularly noteworthy that in several of these studies, the exercise
routines were only implemented for a relatively short 4-week period. Given the
strong relationship between musculoskeletal pain and systemic inflammation, it’s
not unreasonable to speculate that any form of treatment, such as exercise that
eliminates or reduces the pain associated with postural aberrations, is also
decreasing systemic inflammation and ultimately improving overall health,
including a deceleration of the aging process.

Before going any further, however, it’s important to address the qualitative
aspects of the exercise protocols used in these studies. As previously discussed,
when exercise programs are implemented in research studies, study participants
are rarely instructed on the correct mechanics, technique, and form. Thus, if
significant improvements in posture and associated pain can result from sub-par
programming and mediocre instruction, the results obtained from the
implementation of proper treatment, optimal biomechanics, and detailed
instruction should be far greater.

Tr a d itio n a l Ex er c is e Pr o g r a m s &
M u s c le D y s fu n c tio n

Although sound exercise programs that target and aim to improve muscular
dysfunction appear to decrease joint pain and may in fact help decrease systemic
inflammation, traditional resistance exercise programs may produce the opposite
results. In fact, as mentioned earlier, research has shown that compared to non-
lifters, many individuals including recreational lifters, general populations, and
even high level athletes who consistently strength train, appear to be at greater
risk for musculoskeletal pain and injury due to a higher rate of muscular
dysfunction and faulty mechanics associated with their training [29, 78-80]. This
is most likely due to the fact that unless properly instructed, most individuals will
inevitably resort to the compensation patterns and dysfunctional movements
they’ve relied on throughout their lifetime which are only reinforced, and
oftentimes made worse, by traditional training. Cervicogenic headaches (CGH),
which are frequently associated with poor posture, also appear to be unusually
common in weight training populations. This is most likely due to the use of
faulty technique that is commonly observed in weight training circles and that
degrades optimal mechanics and postural alignment.

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Thus, if traditional strength training (or at least the strength training routines
performed by most individuals) leads to aberrations in muscle function and
increases the risk of musculoskeletal pain and injury, it’s not unreasonable to
suggest it also increases the risk of contracting diseases associated with chronic
inflammation. Simply put, improper strength training can elicit a pro-
inflammatory response that gradually leads to deterioration of the entire body,
increased susceptibility to disease and accelerated aging.

M u s c le Fu n c tio n in D a n c ers A n d
G y m n a s ts

We’ve previously established that faulty body mechanics produce

musculoskeletal pain, leading to increased CRP levels and systemic
inflammation. However, many activities including those that are often thought
of as healthy and physically beneficial such as gymnastics, ballet, and various
other forms of dance appear to produce very similar physical maladies to those
observed in populations that display dysfunctional movement patterns [81, 82].
In fact, many gymnasts and dancers develop severe low back, hip, knee, foot and
ankle issues during their training and competitive years that persist beyond
retirement, often becoming chronic in nature [83-88]. This is most likely due to
the fact these activities frequently incorporate semi-contortionist positions and
maneuvers that are aesthetically and visually pleasing yet most of which, are not
functional or structurally optimal, and oftentimes place the body in
biomechanically unsound and faulty positions.

As with other dysfunctional movements and faulty body mechanics, these

extreme maneuvers and positions produce joint pain, elevated levels of CRP, and
systemic inflammation ultimately culminating in deleterious effects to their
overall health, something dancers and gymnasts are all too familiar with both
during their competitive years and after retirement. Ironically, dancers and
gymnasts in particular are often considered prime examples of strength,
coordination, athleticism, and fitness due to their impressive physical abilities,
graceful movements, and muscular development. Unfortunately, because much
of the strength, skill, and muscle is built on dysfunctional movement patters,
their training actually produces similar, if not more, physiological harm than that
observed in individuals who lead sedentary lifestyles.

This further highlights the fact that improving strength or physical conditioning
without focusing on proper body mechanics can actually produce more

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physiological harm than therapeutic benefits, regardless of how it may appear to

the naked eye. Simply put, the fact that the body can perform a movement
gracefully, or that a movement appears smooth and seamless, does not mean the
muscles are being used appropriately and, as described above, the physiological
ramifications of improper body mechanics could be significant to say the least.
This further emphasizes the critical nature of proper body mechanics when it
comes to training or any activity that involves physical movement, as movement
has the ability to both heal and damage the body depending on how it’s
performed. It also suggests that the parameters and protocols that define proper
human mechanics operate with fewer degrees of freedom and have a smaller
margin for error than most coaches suggest. In other words, when it comes to
proper movement, what is classified as correct or sound biomechanics, involves
very precise and exact protocols, with little to no room for deviation. This will be
discussed further in later chapters.

On a side note, individuals should be cautious when it comes to many of the

latest and trendiest fitness and strength programs. Many of these programs are
predicated on gymnastics or dance-like movements that have been adapted into
routines for the general population or athletes. Although these programs can
improve strength and basic “fitness” to some degree, it typically comes at a great
cost as any activity that involves breaching the ideal parameters of optimal
human movement carries a host of physiological consequences.

Section Five
Eccentric exercise Induced Muscle
Damage & its Physiological Implications

Research studies have found that emphasizing the eccentric phase (the
lengthening portion) of muscular contractions can produce extreme onset
muscle soreness. As will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters,
the muscle soreness and muscle damage commonly associated with eccentric
training is not a normal response to eccentric training. More likely, it is the result
of faulty mechanics and improper body positioning. That is, when body
mechanics are amiss, the muscles are not in the appropriate position to absorb
force. Furthermore, the stress is not evenly distributed or centrated across the
targeted muscle groups and joints but is, instead, excessively concentrated in one
specific area or muscle group, creating undue stress on that area and not enough
across all of the muscles and muscle fibers. This is something I’ve observed

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routinely in my own clients and athletes. The better their body mechanics, the
less muscle soreness they produce regardless of the intensity of training, load, or
prior training experience. In contrast, when body mechanics are amiss, even
lower volume training, with relatively lighter loads, almost always produces
greater levels of muscle soreness and muscle damage. To understand this, it is
critical that we understand how eccentric exercise and muscle function impact
oxidative stress, CRP levels, inflammation, and ultimately our entire physiology.

Eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage and associated soreness is a delayed

response to exercise that peaks 24-48h post exercise and is thus referred to as
delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Studies have shown that this form of
muscle damage involves protein degradation and ultrastructural changes,
including sarcomeric disruption and surface membrane damage. DOMS has also
been shown to be associated with inflammation [89].

Consistent with this, a number of studies have shown that eccentric training, or
strength training emphasizing eccentric work, can produce heightened levels of
CRP and inflammation throughout the body. Furthermore, in contrast to what
is commonly observed in a variety of athletic competitions, training, and after
intense physical activity, where elevated levels of CRP and inflammation typically
drop significantly after 24 hours of recovery, elevation of CRP and inflammation
in response to eccentric training is not limited to a 12-24 hour period post
exercise. [90]. Instead, following eccentric training, systemic inflammation, as
measured by CRP levels, is significantly elevated and sustained for prolonged
periods of time, oftentimes 3-10 days or longer post exercise. [23, 91-95]. In
many instances the CRP and inflammation levels are such that individuals
exhibiting this response are considered to be at “moderate” or high risk for
cardiovascular disease perhaps due to unfavorable vascular changes associated
with an acute inflammatory response. In fact, eccentric exercise is believed to
temporarily impair local microcirculatory flow. More recent studies suggest that
exercise induced muscle damage and the associated inflammation may also
contribute to impaired macrovascular function, in particular arterial stiffness [20].

It is worth noting that in many of the studies that show these alarmingly elevated
levels of CRP, the eccentric training protocols involved only one muscle or
movement, namely the biceps muscle and bicep curls, and were performed on
only one side of the body in an eccentric overload fashion, for several high
intensity sets.

If performing only a few sets of curls on one side of the body, can lead to such

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physiological consequences, the implications of performing training routines that

consistently involve multiple, intense sets that stress all muscle groups of the
body, are alarming to say the least. Furthermore, the fact that after eccentric
training the levels of CRP are significantly elevated and can persist for
approximately 1 week or longer, suggests that individuals who consistently
participate in this form of strength training may in fact, be in a state of chronic
systemic inflammation as a result of a never ending cycle of muscle-damage-
induced inflammation.

A number of studies have also shown a negative relationship between muscle

damaging eccentric exercise and insulin function. In other words, muscle
damage from eccentric training and exercise, particularly as a result of poor body
mechanics, leads to insulin resistance, impaired muscle cell glucose uptake, and
impaired post-exercise glycogen re-synthesis [96, 97]. Although the mechanism
remains to be elucidated, it is known that pro-inflammatory cytokines inhibit
insulin signaling in skeletal muscle, Furthermore, studies have reported increased
levels of IL-1b, IL-6, and other inflammatory factors in muscle tissue 24-48 h
after muscle damaging exercise. Likewise, increased levels of ROS in DOMS can
also impair insulin signaling and glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) translocation
[98]. An eccentric exercise induced reduction in GLUT4 protein content in
muscle cells has also been reported [96]. Thus, impaired glucose uptake in the
context of delayed onset muscle damage appears to be due to oxidative stress
and inflammation induced inhibition of the insulin signaling pathway, reduced
GLUT4 protein content in muscle cells, and reduced GLUT4) translocation to
the cell membrane [89, 98].

Muscle damage induced insulin resistance and the consequent reduction in

glucose uptake is therefore, likely to have a significant detrimental effect on
muscle growth and strength by promoting an anti-anabolic environment
whereby muscles are unable to maximally recover and grow due to both poor
nutrient absorption and the increased muscle damage itself. Insulin resistance
and impaired glucose uptake is also likely to lead to deconditioning and fatigue
and inhibit athletic performance due to an inadequate supply of glucose to
muscles and impaired contractile endurance during exercise. Delayed
replenishment of glycogen stores also leads to decreased endurance performance
[89]. Significantly, the muscle damage-induced insulin resistance and impaired
glucose uptake are similar to that observed in patients with type 2 diabetes. Thus,
while exercise is recommended as therapeutic treatment for type 2 diabetes,
these results argue against muscle damaging exercise as therapy. In contrast,

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interventions that help decrease inflammation and CRP promote the increased
ability to build muscle tissue as well as the ability to decrease fat tissue in adults
with type 2 diabetes [99].

Taken together, these findings underscore the impact our muscles and muscle
function have on our physiology and overall health. That is, dysfunctional
movement patterns appear to lead to enhanced muscle damage, inflammation,
and an overall unhealthy physiologic state in which susceptibility to disease is
increased. Furthermore, the heightened levels of inflammation that result from
muscle damage and faulty mechanics impact not only overall health but also
athletic performance, strength, muscle tissue regeneration, and overall muscle
building capabilities. However, rather than eliminate the exercise or eccentric
training that has been shown to be beneficial when performed correctly, the
solution is to correct the faulty body mechanics responsible for these contra-
therapeutic effects and reinforce proper muscle function as a means of producing
the therapeutic effects it is designed to elicit (more on this topic in later chapters).

Tr a d itio n a l S tr en g th Tr a in in g ,
In fla m m a tio n a n d C R P

Studies of muscle damage-induced inflammation and elevated CRP levels are not
restricted to eccentric training. In fact, the idea that standard strength training
could elicit a similar response to that of eccentric training supports the idea that
it is not the eccentric protocols in and of themselves that lead to elevated levels
of CRP levels but, rather, it is the faulty body mechanics associated with any
training program that lead to inflammation and elevated CRP levels.

Several studies using trained individuals as subjects showed that regular strength
training programs consisting of traditional protocols, volume, and intensity,
produced such heightened levels of inflammation (as much as 4000% increase in
CRP levels) and other pro-inflammatory myokines that many of the participants
progressed from “low cardiovascular risk” stratification at the beginning of the
study to “high risk stratification” towards the middle and/or end of the study
[21, 100, 101]. In contrast to the acute and temporary spike (usually semi-low to
moderate increases) observed 12-24 hours after intense exercise, the CRP levels
and systemic inflammation observed in these resistance training studies remained
elevated for prolonged and sustained periods of time.

This further highlights the fact that any form of physical movement and training

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that is meant to be healthy and therapeutic (including traditional strength

training), can be very detrimental to the body and overall health unless precise
and proper mechanics are prescribed. Unfortunately, this is something that’s
rarely, if ever, taken into consideration in most research studies.

In essence, strength training, or any other form of intense movement and

exercise, can be either therapeutic or contra-therapeutic on the body. The key
lies in the execution of the movements particularly in terms body mechanics and
muscle function. Performed with faulty body mechanics, strength training may
be one of the single most physically deleterious activities human beings can
participate in. On the other hand, when performed with proper mechanics, it is
perhaps the single most beneficial and therapeutic intervention we know of to
improve overall health and physiological function.

S tr en g th Tr a in in g a n d A u to n o m ic
N er v o u s S y s tem Fu n c tio n

In addition to increasing inflammation and oxidative stress, a small number of

preliminary studies have found that intense strength training and eccentric
training may contribute to an overactive sympathetic nervous system [102].
Simply put, it appears that the muscle damage and stress produced by intense
strength training may result in an autonomic nervous system imbalance and
associated health issues such as enhanced fight or flight response, anxiety, sleep
disturbances, digestive disorders, immune system dysfunction, cardiovascular
disease, aging and development of other severe illnesses. These unexplained
findings are contrary to what was original hypothesized which is that strength
training would improve autonomic nervous system function. One possible
explanation is that, perhaps, faulty mechanics and improper activation patterns –
a common occurrence in strength training – led to a derangement of the muscle’s
endocrine response and the myriad associated negative health consequences.

Interestingly, studies have also shown that autonomic nervous system dysfunction,
including excessive sympathetic tone and depressed parasympathetic function, can
lead to large increases in inflammation and oxidative stress [103]. In fact the
results from these studies suggests that this autonomic nervous system dysfunction
can lead to myocardial dysfunction and severe cardiovascular issues, as well as
cellular death which may greatly accelerate the aging process. Therefore, the
implications for fitness and training purposes are quite significant particularly given
that improper training appears to enhance this detrimental physiological response.

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A M PK , In fla m m a tio n a n d A g in g

While the mechanism by which muscle dysfunction leads to insulin resistance and
its associated metabolic consequences is not well understood, numerous studies
have now shown that another unique protein called adenosine monophosphate-
activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a key factor in the regulation of energy and
metabolic homeostasis at the cellular and whole body level and also plays a key
role in the aging process. AMPK is activated in skeletal muscle during exercise
resulting in increased glucose uptake. However, impaired AMPK activity can
induce insulin resistance. Furthermore, activation of AMPK has been shown to
inhibit the inflammatory response to various insults, whereas decreased AMPK
activity is associated with increased inflammation. In fact, increased inflammation
and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines/myokines such as IL-6,
appears to reduce AMPK activity. More recent studies indicate that AMPK plays
a role in pro-longevity related signaling pathways and responsiveness of AMPK
signaling declines with aging, suggesting that inflammation associated decreases in
AMPK activity may ultimately promote aging [104].

In summary, it appears that factors that promote inflammation and oxidative

stress including an unhealthy diet, sedentary lifestyle, obesity, poor sleep habits,
stress, musculoskeletal pain, and poor body mechanics lead to decreased levels of
AMPK which may result in accelerated aging. Given the strong association
between body mechanics, musculoskeletal pain, oxidative stress and systemic
inflammation discussed in the preceding sections, proper muscle function would
appear to play a more significant role than once thought in promoting overall
health and wellbeing, and delay the aging process.

In fact, it’s quite common, and something I’ve observed quite regularly, for
lifters, athletes, and other generally fit individuals whose diet, physical activity,
stress levels, and body composition are optimal or near optimal, to find
themselves plagued by high levels of musculoskeletal pain, inflammation and
other unexplained physical maladies. More often than not, upon further
examination and after ruling out dietary issues and other lifestyle factors as
potential contributors, the key culprit always seems to come back to faulty body
mechanics and dysfunctional movement patterns. As religious and committed as
these individuals are to staying healthy it is not until they address muscle
function that they truly maximize their health. In fact, until they tackle this issue
their health, overall wellness, and physical performance will remain moderate at
best, particularly when compared to their genetic potential, which will only be
fully maximized through the use of proper biomechanics.

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Telo m er es , In fla m m a tio n , a n d A g in g

Recent studies in the area of telomeres and their role in aging may provide
another link between inflammation and muscle function. Telomeres are small
protective caps found at the end of our chromosomes that act as cellular
regulators. This cellular regulation is believed to play a pivotal role in the aging
response and also appears to be greatly impacted by inflammation [105]. In
essence, shortening of these telomeres appears to accelerate the aging process as
well as increase the risk of many diseases and physical maladies. In contrast, a
healthy lifestyle including one that involves exercise and healthy dietary
protocols, appears to increase the length of our telomeres thereby decelerating
the aging process and protecting against cellular degeneration [106].

However, these studies also suggest that while exercise is beneficial in terms of
improving the size and function of these telomeres, any activity or lifestyle
practice that increases inflammation and oxidative stress shortens our telomeres.
This would include improper training methods, catabolic exercise, faulty body
mechanics, poor nutritional habits, alcohol consumption, poor sleep habits, and
other unhealthy lifestyle habits, as these inevitably produce heightened levels of
inflammation, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

If, in fact, telomeres are critical for warding off cellular degeneration and aging
then every practical step should be taken to maximize the function and length of
these seemingly all-important chromosomal structures. This includes
determining proper exercise protocols, body mechanics, and muscle function
parameters, particularly in light of the fact that skeletal muscles appear to play
such a critical role in the regulation of inflammation and oxidative stress.

Section Six
Muscle spasticity and Hypertonicity

A key factor that relates to muscle health and may prove to be central to our
understanding of muscle function is muscle spasticity. Although muscle
dysfunction can be experienced in various forms including weakness, inhibition,
flaccidity, atrophy, and hypotonia (insufficient muscle tone), it appears that
muscle spasticity, also referred to as hypertonicity, is the most common and
severe symptom to which many others issues such as weakness, inhibition, and
atrophy directly relate [107].

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Muscle spasticity, also known as hypertonicity or hypertonia of the muscles, is a

condition or physiological state in which the muscles produce too much tone or
tightness resulting in impaired movement and muscle function. Although from a
clinical standpoint such a condition is considered to be predominantly a
manifestation of central nervous system disorders, such as upper motor neuron
lesions, muscle spasticity can occur more subtly, yet just as insidiously, in the
general population. In fact, any such condition in which a muscle or group of
muscles is overly tight or hypertonic could be thought of as falling into the more
common non-clinical category of muscle spasticity. An examination of both the
clinical and non-clinical forms of muscle spasticity, should help further our
understanding of the concepts of muscle function and muscle dysfunction.

As mentioned above, from a clinical standpoint, muscle spasticity has been

described as a condition that is predominantly due to upper motor neuron
lesions (trauma to motor pathways that descend from the brain to the spine), and
is typically defined as an increase in muscle tone caused by an increase in the
excitability of the stretch reflex mechanism of the muscle(s) [108]. Hyperactivity
of the muscle stretch reflex is velocity dependent, which is consistent with the
general principles of muscle spindles, as intrafusal fibers appear to respond not
only to the amount of stretch but also to the rate of stretch.

Hypertonicity results in an increase in the resistance of passively stretched or

lengthened muscles and is typically associated with other physiological
phenomena such as decreased reciprocal inhibition, clasp-knife reflex
phenomenon, excessive or spastic co-contraction, and muscle spasms [108].
Simply put, spasticity involves what has been described as an exaggerated stretch
reflex response, in which abnormal or disrupted muscle spindle function causes
resistance to stretch, noted primarily by the increased firing of extrafusal muscle
fibers. Therefore, the more a muscle is stretched, the more it will resist, and
ultimately the tighter it becomes [109] [110]. In essence, excessive gamma tone
caused by malfunctioning muscle spindles causes increased alpha motor neuron
discharge and shortening of the corresponding extrafusal muscle fibers when, in
fact, the muscle should be lengthening[111]. Many clinical conditions are
associated with muscle spasticity including spinal cord injuries, stroke,
Parkinson’s, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s dementia, senile
attributes, gait disorders, slowed or delayed movement, postural abnormalities,
postural instability, and various other disorders related to movement and
neuromuscular control. [112] [113] [114] [115] [116].

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Although muscle spasticity is largely associated with many clinical conditions,

some being significantly more severe than others, non-clinical spasticity is also
believed to exist in most populations to varying degrees, regardless of whether or
not the individual has neurologic deficits. The term “synergic patterns” has been
used to describe improper muscle function or neuromuscular compensation
patterns arising from spastic muscles specifically in non-neurologic and non-
pathologic individuals [111]. These patterns appear to be nearly identical to
those seen in neurologic patients albeit less severe. In fact, any muscle imbalance,
asymmetry, or slight deviation in basic movement patterns is generally
considered to be related to spastic muscles.

Most of the symptoms or signs associated with general muscle spasticity are
referred to in terms oftentimes used interchangeably with spasticity itself such as
hypertonia, hypertonicity, excessive tone, excessive gamma tone, stiffness,
muscle pulling, hyperflexia, contractures, rigidity, and even more generically,
immobility, and inflexibility. Consequently, it becomes obvious why most, if
not all individuals, possess some form of low-grade-non-clinical muscle
spasticity, seeing as few if any individuals have perfect muscle function or
movement patterns. The most obvious examples are evident when examining
gait and posture variations. Common issues such as toe flare, shoulder rounding,
head tilt, spinal misalignments, and numerous variations of hip dysfunction are
only a few of the many possible yet typical expressions of non-clinical muscle
spasticity [111, 117]. Simply stated, all individuals have mild to severe
compensation patterns that reflect varying levels of severity of muscle spasticity
most, if not all of which, have inherent consequences associated with hypertonia.

Although it is generally assumed that muscle spasticity is due to a disturbance of

the proprioceptive system, specifically the muscle spindles, there is less of a
consensus as to the underlying cause of this disturbance, particularly in non-
clinical muscle spasticity. In clinical populations muscle spasticity typically
involves lesions at the level of the brain and spine. Because such lesions affect
feed-forward and feed-backward mechanisms of the neuromuscular system, as
well as signaling from the muscles to the brain and spine, and ultimately back to
the muscles (intrafusal and extrafusal fibers), it has generally been concluded that
the same is true in non-clinical muscle spasticity but to a lesser degree [108].

It has been postulated that in non-neurologic populations, possible causes of

muscle spasticity and neuromuscular/proprioceptive malfunctions associated
with hypertonicity include overuse, trauma, stress, disuse, weakness,
compensation patterns, improper use, poor posture, prolonged sitting or

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standing in a stationary position, physically repetitive work, as well as

ergonomically and biomechanically inefficient movements and/or positions
[118], [119], [120]. These cause the involved muscles to become locked or
relatively fixed in shorter positions, which in turn enhances their sensitivity to
stretch or lengthening actions.

In such cases the muscle lengthening information is transmitted back to the level
of the spine via primary and secondary afferent sensory neurons whereupon
excessive discharge of both alpha and gamma motor neurons leads to excessive
alpha-gamma co-activation and enhanced contraction of both extrafusal and
intrafusal fibers. This high level of discharge is relayed to the muscle spindles
causing them to adjust their sensitivity to stretch such that the spindles are now
hyperactive or overly sensitive to stretch, further contributing to a hypertonic
musculoskeletal environment. As a result, these muscles are now more prone to
becoming fixed or locked into their spastic or tighter positions. Although
trauma and overuse are believed to be the more common underlying causes of
this hypertonicity, it is my belief that improper muscle use, inefficient movement
patterns, and faulty movement mechanics may play a central role in the
development of non-clinical or pathologic muscle spasticity. This hypothesis will
be explored in greater detail in the subsequent sections.

It should be noted that it is also possible for hypertonic muscle reactions to

occur in the context of overly lengthened muscles. For example, excessive
shortening of a hypertonic agonist muscle or group of muscles could result in
the excessive lengthening of the antagonist muscle or group of muscles.
Although it is a common belief that under these circumstances the antagonist
muscles would become weak or flaccid, it is quite possible for the agonist
muscles to pull so strongly on the longer antagonists that they, in fact, put the
latter in a state of constant tension as they resist the continuous stretch or
tugging of the agonists. Therefore, it is possible for a muscle to be “locked
long” as it is being pulled upon by the shorter opposing muscle groups that are
“locked short” [121]. In essence, one could have reciprocal muscle groups, such
as the hip flexors (often locked short) and hip extensors (locked long in this
example), both be in a spastic state although one is excessively long while the
other is excessively short. In fact, such an imbalance of the hip and pelvic area is
quite common in many individuals. This creates dysfunction in the lumbo-pelvic
hip complex and ultimately contributes to numerous issues including low back
and hip injuries [1].

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In contrast, it is also possible, and quite common, for a muscle or group of

muscles to be weak, flaccid, and even hypotonic (unable to create enough tone)
a state that is commonly associated with muscle spindle desensitization. This
keeps the muscles from adequately absorbing external forces, causing them to
over-lengthen and overstretch under high impact, ultimately enhancing the
potential for injury [122].

The resulting imbalances and faulty recruitment patterns inevitably cause

spasticity in nearby musculature placing the overly lengthened muscles in direct
apposition to other surrounding hypertonic muscles. These neuromuscular
deficiencies eventually produce chronic or acute injury, which in turn promotes
increased inflammation of the surrounding muscles, joints, and connective tissue,
causing the muscles, including those previously weak, flaccid or hypotonic, to
become inflamed, tense, and eventually spastic or hypertonic. Likewise, in the
case of general muscle weakness associated with muscle spindle desensitization,
compensation patterns inevitably arise that ultimately lead to other
compensatory muscles becoming overused and spastic [1]. The topic of muscle
spindle desensitization is critical to the topic of muscle function and will be
discussed further in subsequent sections.

On a similar note, it is also critical to understand that a discussion of muscle

function goes well beyond the issue of muscle strength, as one does not
necessarily imply the other. In fact, it is quite possible for an individual to be
exceptionally strong and capable of high levels of force production while at the
same time being spastic and highly dysfunctional, as is the case with many
bodybuilders and powerlifters [123]. This topic will also be further addressed in
later sections that discuss improper movement techniques and motor patterns
commonly seen among these populations.

Understanding that the effects of muscle spasticity are not merely limited to the
muscles themselves but rather have a direct impact on the entire body is key to
understanding the pivotal role that muscle health and muscle function plays in
overall health, performance, and wellness. Because hypertonicity is generally
considered to be a malfunction of the muscles, or in simple terms “muscle
sickness”, it could be argued that the amount or degree of musculoskeletal
hypertonicity that any individual harbors within his or her body could very well
be a strong indicator of that person’s overall health status, potentially reflected in
increased inflammation levels which, as discussed in earlier sections, will
ultimately affect the entire body via endocrine crosstalk between the
musculoskeletal and other organ systems.

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It is also important to note that the health ramifications associated with muscle
spasticity may extend beyond adverse endocrine effects. For example, it has
been suggested that spastic muscles or hypertonicity may give rise to numerous
physiological maladies including, degenerative disc disease, bursitis, rotator cuff
injury, general muscle pain, muscle pulls, TMJ disorder, sinusitis, allergies,
immune deficiencies, fibromyalgia, back pain , carpal tunnel syndrome, various
forms of arthritis, chronic fatigue syndrome, headaches, hormonal imbalances,
insulin resistance, various forms of tendonitis, and nerve impingement. It has
also been hypothesized that muscle spasticity greatly accelerates the aging
process by altering overall body chemistry. That is, muscle spasticity could lead
to restricted venous circulation and an accumulation of toxins that may trigger a
systemic inflammatory response [123].

It has been further suggested that the decrease in circulation and surrounding
oxygenation, as well as the decreased systemic oxygenation presumably caused
by spastic muscles, could result in activation of the autonomic nervous system in
the form of sympathetic overdrive. Such a response would lead to an elevated
heart rate, increased blood pressure, impaired digestion, acid reflux, irritable
bowel syndrome, sleeping disorders, emotional disorders, decreased mental
clarity, inability to focus, panic syndrome, and elevated anxiety [123], [124].
While this may appear extreme or exaggerated, these are characteristic
manifestations of an overactive sympathetic nervous system, and consistent with
the fact that excessive tension and tightness harbored throughout an individual’s
body are also associated with an overactive sympathetic nervous system [125].
An understanding of autonomic nervous system physiology makes plain how any
factor that causes sympathetic overdrive could produce such a host of
detrimental physiological consequences [125]. There is also evidence to suggest
that parasympathetic dysfunction, another potential consequence of
hypertonicity and sympathetic overdrive, may cause increased levels of systemic
inflammation leading to cardiovascular issues and cellular deterioration, both of
which directly accelerate the aging process [103].

Given such serious consequences it becomes quite obvious why general muscle
spasticity due to muscle dysfunction is believed to accelerate the aging process
and increase the risk of developing medical issues associated with inflammation
[118]. Once again the theory holds: unhealthy muscles lead to an unhealthy
body. If such a condition persists, then cellular deterioration, increased
inflammation, and elevated oxidative stress will result in significantly reduced
quality of life and ultimately accelerate physiological aging [123].

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Numerous studies have shown a relationship between muscle dysfunction-

induced spasticity and increased levels of inflammation (spasticity induced
inflammation). For example, studies of the pharmacologic management of joint
disorders and chronic pain including shoulder and neck pain, revealed that
inflammation and muscle spasticity appear to work in a vicious cycle such that an
increase in one leads to an increase in the other [126]. That is, spasticity leads to
pain which leads to inflammation which causes further spasticity, exacerbating
the symptoms of inflammation and pain even further. Simply put, acting
through common factors, one perpetuates the other (i.e. spasticity-induced
inflammation). Furthermore, it appears that treatment and drugs that target
spasticity-induced pain also decrease inflammation and thus can break the
pain/spasm cycle. However, these treatments don’t address the root cause of the
problem, therefore, the symptoms inevitably re-appear.

Other studies, including a study by Grant et al. (2005), have reported similar
findings, showing that therapy and treatments that are effective in treating
spasticity also appear to have beneficial effects on inflammation and pain.
Furthermore, in this study, treatment also improved cardiovascular and
autonomic function, as evidenced by improvements in blood pressure control
[127]. Such findings can be further substantiated by a growing body of research
describing how therapies that target a single symptom such as spasticity seem to
have beneficial effects on other physiological indicators such as inflammation, as
well as symptoms of sympathetic overdrive and parasympathetic dysfunction
[128]. Such empirical findings further support the idea that muscle function,
which ultimately dictates the degree of low grade non-clinical muscle spasticity in
one’s body, also directly impacts levels of inflammation and ultimately overall
health and well-being.

In summary, there is a significant body of evidence to suggest that the health or

state of the musculoskeletal system has a tremendous impact on health,
performance, and overall well-being. In fact, it appears likely that the quality of
muscle function also influences both the aging process and the rate at which
individuals age. The effect of muscle function on our overall physiology occurs
via two primary mechanisms: the first is indirect, through its endocrine function,
by affecting overall hormonal and inflammatory levels in the body; the second is
direct, through muscle spasticity (a common form of muscle dysfunction), which
triggers a multitude of general maladies such as general muscle pain, reduced
circulation, sinusitis, allergies, immune deficiencies, nerve impingement,

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decreased oxygenation of the body, and dysfunctional autonomic nervous system

homeostasis and others.

However, the direct effects are undoubtedly linked, if not direct contributors to
the indirect effects as many of these physiological states are inter-related. For
example, numerous studies including a study by Wuertze et al. (2012), have
shown that many of the symptoms associated with hypertonicity including
degenerative disc disease, bursitis, general muscle pain, muscle pulls,
fibromyalgia, back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, various forms of arthritis,
tendonitis, and nerve impingement all contribute, or are directly related to,
elevated levels of inflammation and oxidative stress [129] [130] [131]. In fact, a
close look at the detrimental effects associated with the role of muscle as an
endocrine organ, and those associated with muscle hypertonicity, shows a high
degree of overlap, suggesting an even stronger relationship between muscle
function and overall health.

This is one of many examples illustrating how muscle function, inflammation,

muscle spasticity, and hormonal characteristics are all related. It is important to
note, however, that although spasticity is a common, and in many cases the
underlying cause of muscle dysfunction, it is not always the primary cause.
Other factors such as muscle weakness, activation deficits, and even flaccid or
hypotonic muscles are all key aspects of muscle dysfunction. Thus, the central
point of this discussion is not spasticity itself, but rather the fact that muscle
dysfunction (as illustrated by a common characteristic such as spasticity) can
have profound endocrine effects, impacting markers of inflammation, and
overall health and wellbeing.

It is important to point out, if not already obvious, that conditions of

hypertonicity that lead to increased levels of inflammation will directly impair
athletic performance, strength, and physique enhancement. As mentioned
above, it has been suggested that muscle spasticity is associated with impaired
neuromuscular efficiency and often times neurological inhibitory effects [123]
which, from a strength and performance standpoint, are clearly undesirable.
Furthermore, spasticity results in impaired muscle function and consequently a
breakdown of optimal movement mechanics and coordination [118]. As such,
many of the current treatments for hypertonicity and muscle dysfunction are
aimed not only at general populations but in fact, are also directly geared and
marketed towards athletes [132].

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Finally, as previously noted, common side effects of inflammation include insulin

resistance and elevated cortisol, both of which directly impair muscle
hypertrophy, body composition, and glycogen replenishment. Indirect hormonal
side effects of inflammation also include decreased testosterone, IGF-1, and
growth hormone as well as increased estrogen levels [133] [134] [135] [136, 137].
In essence, a healthy athlete is a stronger and more powerful athlete, while an
athlete suffering from health maladies such as those related to spasticity-induced
inflammation will be weaker, less muscular, slower, and under-developed.
Therefore, individuals wishing to maximize any and all factors related to
performance and physique enhancement should not underestimate the
importance of establishing proper muscle function as means of minimizing the
above mentioned physiological repercussions. Athletic performance will be
discussed in greater depth in later sections.

C o m m o n Tr ea tm en ts fo r M u s c le
S pa s tic ity a n d M u s c le D ys fu n c tio n

There are currently numerous methods and modes commonly used for treating
muscle dysfunction–derived hypertonicity and spasticity including various forms
of physical therapy, e-stim, Neurosoma, Muscle Activation Techniques (MAT),
Neural Organization Therapy (N.O.T.), Active Release Techniques (A.R.T.),
postural restoration exercises, breathing exercise, pelvic re-alignment drills, and
ARP Wave Electrical Stimulation Treatment. Various soft tissue modalities such
as foam rolling, muscle massage treatments, and self-myofascial release techniques
have also grown in popularity over the past decade [1]. There also appear to be
no shortage of chiropractic and osteopathic techniques and therapies for the
treatment of various forms of spasticity and muscle related illnesses.

Although many if not most of these treatments work to some degree, common
to all is mechanical isolation and manipulation of muscles and joints, oftentimes
by a physician, practitioner, or a therapeutic object/tool [111, 118, 121, 123].
Unfortunately, these modalities target the symptoms of muscle dysfunction, not
the root cause, although they are closer to the source of the problem than the
medical or pharmaceutical treatments that target indirect manifestations of
muscle dysfunction, such as pain or inflammation.

Additionally, many of the practitioners and therapists utilizing these techniques

claim to treat the source or root of the problem (the muscle itself) in contrast to
the medical field, which treats the common symptoms (or side effects produced

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by “sick” muscles). However treating the muscle tissue of the body without
addressing the root cause of the muscle dysfunction itself is still only treating the
symptoms albeit perhaps closer to the root of the problem. Furthermore, the
sole focus of such treatments is on improving the function of an isolated muscle
or muscle group, as opposed to improving the integrated function of muscles
channeled into basic foundational movement patterns involved in daily living.

The core issue lies in the central nervous system and the improper movement
mechanics and motor recruitment patterns that have been grooved into the CNS
over time, leading to muscle dysfunction and, eventually, spasticity. Spasticity, in
turn, triggers inflammation and its numerous associated issues, which ultimately
results in a host of negative physiological consequences that vary in severity
depending on the level of muscle spasticity and ultimately the level of muscle
dysfunction. Therefore, treating the muscles themselves, without addressing
neuromuscular re-education, motor recruitment patterns of the CNS,
biomechanical techniques, and movement patterns will only result in the
recurrence of the symptoms of muscle dysfunction.

Herein lies the true cause of the problem. Treating anything but muscle function
and activation patterns is only treating the symptoms no matter how beneficial
those treatments may seem. Hence the ultimate goal of the physician,
kinesiologist, practitioner, or therapist should be to address the dysfunctional
movement patterns that were the cause of these maladies to begin with, and is
where the solution lies. In addition, in order to restore ideal levels of muscle
function, proper movement patterns must be addressed and incorporated into
the daily habits and lifestyle of an individual. As such, the ultimate goal is
physiological re-wiring, via neuromuscular re-education, induced via corrective
recruitment and activation techniques directly targeting foundational qualities of
functional movement.

Finally, it becomes increasingly evident that in order to eliminate muscle

dysfunction, spasticity, inflammation, and the numerous ailments associated with
these conditions, qualifying and defining exactly what proper muscle function is
becomes paramount. Therefore, a close examination of the specific
characteristics that constitute proper muscle function becomes the quintessential
focus and necessitates protocols and techniques aimed at permanently resolving
this dreadful quandary. The sections that follow will address this topic in order
to establish set guidelines and principles for practical application, aimed not only
at professionals in the field but for any and all populations wishing to maximize
their health, fitness, performance, and overall quality of life.

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Chapter 3

Defining Proper

Muscle
Function

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL

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CHAPTER 3
Defining Proper

Muscle
Function
THE BIOMECHANICAL, NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL & STRUCTURAL BASIS OF MUSCLE
FUNCTION, & FUNCTIONAL TRAINING IMPLICATIONS FOR OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE

Pr o per M u s c le Fu n c tio n U n d efin ed ?

efining proper muscle function and muscle use is a difficult task as

D
evidenced by the fact that currently there is no clear, concise,
universally accepted definition of muscle function, let alone what
constitutes proper or optimal muscle function [1]. General
definitions of muscle function state that the function of muscle is,
for example, “to produce force required for movement” [2], “to
produce force and maintain posture” [3], or “to create force across joints and
cause movement” [4]. Other common descriptions include “smooth and
coordinated movement”, “proper recruitment patterns”, “efficient movement
mechanics”, and “adequate force absorption” [5]. But what constitutes proper
muscle function? If I were to provide my own general definition of proper muscle
function it would be “the state in which muscles operate in accordance to how
they were created”. While such descriptions, including my own, are not necessarily
incorrect, they lack the specificity required to distinguish general muscle function
from proper or biomechanically optimal muscle function. In essence, they are
incomplete. The aim of this and the next several sections is to present the
necessary yet oftentimes overlooked aspects of proper muscle function.

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It should be noted that perhaps the most effective method for determining the
quintessential qualities of any given property, including that of proper muscle
function, lie not only in addressing its specific and appropriate components and
defining what it is, but also in examining and defining what it is not (muscle
dysfunction). As so eloquently stated by a famous detective "Eliminate all other
factors, and the one which remains must be the truth" - Sherlock Holmes, (Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle, 1890).

Section ONE
Current Guidelines for Movement
Parameters in Strength and Conditioning

It has long been known that strength training benefits nearly all athletes
regardless of their sporting events and endeavors [6]. Although there are
different training strategies and theories, there is one general goal: create a
stronger more functional athlete. Developing an athlete’s strength, movement
efficiency, and force production capabilities will typically have a direct effect on
power output [4]. Theoretically, this should produce a quicker, more powerful,
and more explosive athlete.

While it is a nearly unanimously held belief amongst exercise scientists and

training professionals alike that strength training benefits athletes, there appears
to be less consensus, and very little common ground, in terms of the exact
training methodologies that would produce optimal performance. Much of this
may stem from the fact that the field of exercise science is fairly new in
comparison to other areas of study. However, there is currently enough literature
available to narrow down exactly what training techniques and protocols should
be employed to maximally enhance performance and functionality.

Much of the research and literature in the area of strength and conditioning
tends to focus on training routines, protocols, training splits, training volume,
periodization, repetition ranges, rest intervals etc., and less on the overall criteria
that define ideal technique and the specific ranges of motion that should be
utilized for various movements. Although there are general guidelines available
in certifying bodies, books, articles, and magazines that define the proper range
of motion or technique that should be used by the trainee or athlete during
strength training movements, there is very little in the way of scientifically-based
recommendations as to how large the range of motion should be.

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For example, in many of the studies that incorporate the bench press the
subjects are instructed to lower the barbell until it touches the chest [4]. This
touch-and-go range of motion for the bench press movement is common
practice, although there is little evidence one way or the other to support the idea
that this is the ideal range of motion for this movement. In fact, the bench press
is a relatively modern exercise variation that evolved from its more ancient
counterpart the floor press. As the name implies, the floor press requires
pressing from the floor rather than a bench, which dictates a significantly smaller
range of motion [7]. Little research has been done on movements such as the
bench press to determine whether utilizing a larger range of motion (e.g. using
either a cambered barbell or dumbbells), or even a shorter range of motion (such
as partials), would be superior and produce optimal results in terms of strength,
health and performance.

It would appear then, that this specific movement criterion (touching the barbell
to the chest) is used and advocated simply because it is the most common
method for performing the bench press, and has been used for many years in
various training circles. In other words, there is no evidence-based scientific
explanation as to why it should be used, therefore, it will continue to be
performed in this way until it is invalidated by a superior approach. The fact is
that many of today’s movement techniques and form specifications are similarly
based on what was advocated decades ago, when strength training was first
popularized in the early to mid 1900’s, evolving from seemingly ancient customs
and traditions, rather than scientifically grounded criteria based on principles of
neurophysiology and proper biomechanics [6]. If, indeed, the field of exercise
science is a true science, then it is essential that proper movement patterns be
redefined, and that ideal guidelines and parameters for optimal range of motion
be developed based on what constitutes appropriate muscle function.

The bench press is but one example that illustrates the imprecision of training
techniques that continue to be used in scientific and non-scientific training
venues alike. The squat is another. While there appears to be increasingly more,
though not necessarily correct information available regarding squat depth
(upper thighs parallel to the floor being what is commonly used), there is still
significant disagreement, a lot of conjecture, and contradictory recommendations
in terms of what constitutes a proper squat [8]. Unfortunately, nearly all
movements fall prey to similar issues. Whether it be variations of squats, rows,
dumbbell presses, lunges, barbell curls, pull-ups, etc. there is a large degree of
variability in terms of what is considered optimal technique, mechanics, and
range of motion for these exercises.

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When defining proper movement, an alternative approach used by many

strength coaches is to advocate for the use of a “pain free range of motion”,
relying heavily on aspects of auto-regulation and instinctive body awareness [9].
While this may represent a more specific movement parameter, it nonetheless
ignores multiple facets of muscle function. On a similar note, advancements in
the areas of arthrokinematics (the movement of joint surfaces) and
osteokinematics (gross bone and joint movements) represent a step in the right
direction in terms of re-defining proper muscle function and optimal movement
mechanics [10]. Research and assessment of issues related to scapulohumeral
rhythm, glenohumeral pathomechanics, sacroiliac dysfunction, and lumbopelvic
instability have also been invaluable in the field of functional anatomy and
therapeutic interventions [5, 11]. However, how these link together to define
proper muscle function has yet to be elucidated.

Although the prior examples may seem unnecessarily rigid and overly critical, the
absence of scientifically derived guidelines, and the existing variability in
movement patterns is something that needs to be closely examined in order to
appropriately address the issue of ideal muscle function. This section will discuss
scientific findings that support the notion that very specific movement criteria
and range of motion (ROM) guidelines should be utilized for training purposes,
not only to strengthen the body through its most natural biomechanical and
physiological mechanisms, but to maximize muscle function, ultimately leading
to superior health and performance benefits.

To fully understand and determine what constitutes optimal osteokinematics,

arthrokinematics, positioning, and general protocols for any movement, it is
critical to examine the scientific principles foundational to skeletal muscle
physiology, neurophysiology, motor learning, biomechanics, sports psychology
and related fields. When correct, the mechanics for any movement or protocol
should conform to these scientific principles. These principles, in turn, will be
reflected in the muscle actions themselves, and work in concert to produce
optimal muscle function, thereby providing support for the notion that proper
muscle function can only be achieved through a specific training methodology.
The following sections will illustrate these key concepts and attempt to define
for the reader what proper muscle function is and what it is not. Additionally,
these sections will further support the notion that such parameters are applicable
to any and all human beings regardless of individual differences.

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Section Two
The Biomechanical, Neurophysiological &
Structural Basis of Muscle Function

Optimal Sarcomere Length and the Force-Length Relationship Principle

It has been hypothesized that optimum muscle length is a crucial component of

parameters of muscle function such as movement and force production [12].
The force-length or length-tension relationship, as its name implies, is the
physiological principle that explains the relationship between muscle
fiber/sarcomere position or length, as reflected by the degree of myofilament
overlap, and the amount of muscle tension and force produced [6]. When a
muscle is in an overly shortened position, with a high degree of myofilament
overlap, contraction will produce only limited active tension, referred to as active
insufficiency. This is due to the fact that a high degree of myofilament overlap
results in reduced cross-bridge cycling [13]. Since the number of cross-bridges
created is directly related to the amount of muscle activation and tension
produced, the shortened sarcomere length represents a compromised position
for force production [14].

The same concept applies to overly elongated or overly-stretched muscles in

which myofilament overlap is reduced. In this case, contraction of overly-
lengthened sarcomeres will result in slippage of cross-bridges and passive
insufficiency resulting in diminished force production and tension [15]. Thus,
muscles will produce the most tension when sarcomeres are in their optimal
position which happens to be in the moderately stretched position or a position
that is slightly greater than the resting length [13]. This would indicate that some
stretch is good but too much can lead to sub-maximal results in terms of muscle
tension and cross-bridge cycling.

The length-tension relationship described above raises several questions. Should

overly stretched positions and movements with a ROM that allows the muscles
to achieve lengths greater than the optimally stretched position/semi-stretched
position described above be included in one’s training program? Would
regularly training under these conditions constantly place the body in structurally
compromised positions from a force production standpoint as well as an injury
standpoint? If cross-bridge formation and cycling is reduced then it follows that
less muscle is being properly recruited [15]. If less muscle is being recruited
when in excessively stretched positions, does this result in decreased force
production and greater stress on the tendons and ligaments and, therefore,

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increased risk of injury due to reduced muscle activation and the concomitantly
reduced protection of joints and connective tissues? If so, such conditions
would also likely increase the levels of inflammation in the body and lead to the
numerous detrimental physiological consequences described in the previous
chapter.

Pr o pr io c eptiv e Feed b a c k a n d Fu n c tio n

Although the force-length or length-tension relationship describes the optimal

length of muscle fibers from the mechanical and structural point of view of the
muscle itself, there is more to optimal muscle length than just the mechanics of
myofilament overlap. Proprioceptive feedback, through muscle spindles and the
stretch reflex, plays a key role in the regulation of muscle activation and
contraction. Muscle spindles are intrafusal muscle fibers embedded within
skeletal muscles that function as sensory receptors and play a central role in
determining proper movement range of motion and position. As a muscle under
tension is progressively stretched, the muscle spindles provide feedback to the
central nervous system regarding the change in length and joint angle.

In response, a signal to contract is sent to the larger extrafusal skeletal muscle

fibers in order to make the appropriate adjustments to body position [16]. This
serves not only as a built-in safety mechanism to resist excessive stretch, it is also
key for optimal force production and ultimately performance. The more a
muscle is stretched, up to a point, the greater the degree of motor unit
recruitment and muscle activation, ultimately leading to increased force
production during the subsequent concentric contraction [14]. This high grade
contraction induced by the stretch is achieved through enhanced cross-bridge
formation within the muscle [15].

Pr o pr io c eptio n a n d M u s c le S tiffn es s

It is well understood that stretching of the muscles produces a contraction or

tension within the muscles in proportion to the degree of stretch [15]. There is a
point, however, at which any further stretching or lengthening of the muscle
fibers does not produce greater tension but rather less proprioceptive feedback,
and ultimately less tension in the extrafusal fibers [17]. This is most commonly
observed during flexibility training. Large ROM flexibility and stretching
movements, such as those seen in yoga exercises, actually produce less firing of

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muscles spindles and decreased intrafusal fiber activity. Ultimately, this results in
less contraction of the muscle (if performed as directed) as the individual
performing the stretching movements has to teach their body to relax the
muscles [5]. In other words, in order to allow for such flexible positions the
individual must decrease muscle stiffness or tension. Similarly, from a strength
training perspective, in order to achieve positions with ranges of motion beyond
the point at which the muscle spindles produce maximal proprioceptive
feedback, muscle stiffness and tension have to be reduced. According to the
force-length relationship and the sliding filament theory, this would occur at a
point beyond the optimal muscle/sarcomere length.

Fundamental to the idea of optimal levels of muscle spindle activation for peak
tension and contraction development, is the concept of muscle stiffness. This
concept can best be illustrated by understanding how a spring works [16]. A
spring with a high degree of tension will resist stretching or perturbation by
quickly shifting back to its original shape and configuration. Additionally,
stretching/perturbation of a spring that is too tight and too stiff will result in
very little movement and could lead to snapping if the spring has no “give”. By
the same token, a spring with little stiffness or one that is too weak, if subjected
to an outside force that is too great, could potentially snap or be permanently
deformed due to its inability to quickly resume its original position.

In much the same way as described above for a spring, an optimal degree of
muscle stiffness is necessary in order for the muscles spindles to function properly
and help make adjustment to perturbations or stretching of a muscle. Too much
or too little tension and the muscle spindles will not be able to produce the
appropriate feedback. In such instances, force production and ultimately power
output would be reduced due to decreased activation of extrafusal fibers from
reduced muscle spindle activation. In addition, the feedback mechanisms that
normally relay information about position, joint angles, and body awareness would
also be compromised. This would negatively affect the angles of joint positions, as
well as overall technique and form, and would result in a marked decrease in
kinesthetic awareness. Such blunting of the muscle spindle response mechanism
and proprioceptive feedback loop is typically referred to as muscle spindle
desensitization [17]. Consistently training under conditions of less than optimal
proprioceptive feedback and kinesthetic awareness from muscle and joint sensory
receptors would lead to an altered state of kinesthesia, allowing the body to
override the natural protective barriers and force-production mechanisms it
normally uses to resist excessive stretch and make adjustments to body position.
The negative ramifications from such an altered state are more than obvious.

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This theory is supported by both neurophysiological principles and

biomechanical fundamentals of elastic energy. In simple terms, if an object or
muscle is too elastic the application of external force results in excessive
deformation. When the rate of deformation is too high not only can the muscle
be stretched beyond its natural length, too much energy is used in reforming the
muscle to its original position which, in turn, compromises force production
[13]. Likewise, if a muscle is too stiff and has no “give”, there is no deformation
and no spring-like reaction in response to an external force. This increases the
risk of injury or rupture and results less force production.

To summarize, according to the biomechanical principles of muscle stiffness, a

compromise in the amount of deformation is necessary to ensure maximal
performance as well as safety. This compromise does, however, appear to lean more
towards increased levels of stiffness as most biomechanists and physicists concur that
the stiffest usable condition of an object (muscles) is associated with optimal strain
energy [13, 18]. Such optimal strain energy will ultimately produce the greatest benefits
in terms of force production, power, and movement as well as safety and technique.

This raises the question then, should individuals participate in training (strength
training, flexibility training, mobility training, or any form of training) that promotes
a suboptimal physiological state of muscle stiffness and sarcomere length? A study
by Carter et al. (2000) concluded that proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF) stretching decreased muscle activity, likely a result of acute desensitization of
the muscle spindle caused by the stretching routine, which they also hypothesized
would increase the risk of muscle and tendon injury [19]. Others have reported
similar outcomes induced by flexibility protocols [20]. Studies have also shown that
muscle spindle desensitization is associated with larger ranges of motion (excessive
ROM) during dynamic movement activities, increasing the risk of injury, as well as
degrading natural movement mechanics [21].

Although most of the information regarding muscle spindle desensitization is

focused on flexibility training, one could apply the same concepts to strength
training, as both exercise modalities involve voluntary muscle-lengthening
movements. This raises the question, could performing strength training
movements with excessively and unnaturally large ROMs produce the same type
of muscle spindle desensitization described above? Furthermore, because there is
higher degree of neuromuscular re-education, muscle recruitment, and motor
programming involved in strength training, is it possible that movements with
excessive ROMs would cause an even greater negative adaptation response than
typical flexibility training? If so, then determining where the ideal range of

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motion occurs for all basic strength training movements should be of the highest
priority in order to avoid this undesirable physiological response.

A n a to m ic a l lev er s

While the principles underlying the length-tension relationship and

proprioceptive mechanisms are two key factors that determine optimal range of
motion and muscle position in strength training movements, a third, and equally
important factor, is the principle of anatomical levers. This fundamental
biomechanical principle can be summarized by the following simple statement:
optimal leverage is created when the line of action of the applied force is
perpendicular to the pivot point or point of rotation. Simply put, joints, or any
other moving parts (i.e. wrenches, jacks etc.), are in the most biomechanically
efficient position to produce the greatest amount of torque or rotational force
when positioned at 90 degree angles [18].

For example, when the joint angles during elbow flexion and extension
significantly exceed or fall below 90 degrees, torque production is limited. A
graphical illustration of the relationship of torque production vs. joint angle
would appear as a modified inverted U. In other words, as the joint angle
changes from 0 degrees of flexion/extension (arm in straightened position with
joint fully extended) and approaches 90 degrees (forearm in horizontal position),
the amount of torque produced steadily increases, reaching a maximum at
approximately 90 degrees. Beyond 90 degrees, torque production decreases. In
fact, the rate of decrease beyond 90 degrees appears to be greater than the rate of
increase from 0-90 degrees of elbow flexion. One could surmise that such a
sharp dip in torque production (beyond a joint angle of 90 degrees) may
represent an inflection point indicative of some deep and more profound
physiological response (e.g. neurological inhibition) that triggers a significant
drop in tension and force production.

Various studies, both in vivo and in vitro, support the notion that 90 degree joint
angle positions are optimal from a performance and functionality standpoint. A
study by Worrell et al. (2001) in which human subjects performed maximal
isometric hip extension at 4 hip angles, found that a hip flexion angle of 90
degrees produced the greatest amount of torque and force production [22].
Other studies have similarly concluded that hip and knee joint angles of
approximately 90 degrees maximize force output at the start of a sprint [23]. In
contrast, a study by Escimalla (2001) showed that squatting movements

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performed at joint angles in excess of 90 degrees place undue shear and

compressive forces on the knee joint [8]. Thus, joint angle positions of
approximately 90 degrees appear to be beneficial not only from a performance
standpoint, but also from a safety and injury prevention point of view.
Consistent with this, it should be noted that “90 degree joint angle positions” are
frequently used in movement studies involving isokinetic devices, isometric
contractions, and isotonic exercises, as this represents not only the strongest
joint angle for most movements but also the safest [24, 25].

An in vitro study of joint kinematics in the frog hind-limb showed that

maximum effective lever arm, as well as optimal muscle moment arm occurred at
90 degrees of joint flexion at the semitendinosus muscle, and significantly
decreased at smaller and greater angles [26]. The authors concluded that because
maximum mechanical advantage occurred at 90 degrees of flexion this joint
angle was the kinematic optimum. Although an animal study, the frog hindlimb
is commonly used as a model system in research settings due to the fact that
mammalian and frog muscles exhibit similar properties, many of which are
believed to also apply to human muscles.

Significantly, this 90 degree joint angle also appears to be the same position at which
the length-tension relationship is maximized in terms of force production and
torque due to optimal overlap of actin and myosin filaments [27]. In addition, a
study by Zhang et al. (1998) showed that movements performed by knee flexors
produced the highest degree of muscle stiffness at 90 degrees [28]. Because
stiffness is an inherent property of muscle spindles this suggests that proprioceptive
mechanisms are also optimized at this 90 degree joint angle position, ultimately
allowing for greater kinesthetic awareness and sensory motor feedback.

Therefore, the neurophysiological principles that underlie muscle spindle function, as

well as the structural and mechanical properties of myofilament overlap (cross-bridge
cycling), and the biomechanical principles of anatomical levers and elastic energy, all
appear to be congruent with each other. Essentially they point to a 90 degree joint
angle, or a position “slightly beyond resting length”, as the optimal position for
maximizing performance particularly for high force production and high force
absorption scenarios. Furthermore, it appears that breaching this naturally built-in
kinesthetically augmented position could have negative ramifications that extend far
beyond the boundaries of maximizing leverage. In fact, compromising on these
positions may very well perpetuate movements that promote local and chronic
inflammation, ultimately leading to the numerous health consequences associated
with inflammation and oxidative stress detailed in previous chapters.

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Section Three
Functional Implications for Optimal
Performance

Authors Note: this text will continue to make references to the “90 degree joint angle position”
in order to keep information clear and concise. However, it should be understood that perfect
position is not always at a joint angle of exactly 90 degrees but rather at an approximately 90-
degree angle or perpendicular position. It should also be understood that this “90 degree joint
angle position” concept does not apply to a number muscle groups and types of movements
including, for example, abduction or adduction movements of the hip or shoulder joints in the
frontal plane. In such instances the “90 degree joint angle” term can simply be replaced with
“optimal angle of muscle function” which is usually slightly beyond the resting length or semi-
stretched position of that muscle or muscle group. This section will be referencing high force
production/absorption movements taking place primarily in the sagittal plane, dealing mainly
with flexion and extension patterns of upper and lower extremities, as these are easiest to
illustrate. Lastly, the movements discussed in this article do not account for athletic pursuits
dealing with non-functional body movements performed for aesthetic purposes such as those seen
in ballet, gymnastics, diving, and various forms of dance in which atypical body positions are
required and judged subjectively based on how visually pleasing they are.

N eu r o m u s c u la r Plia b ility

The previous sections raise the question: would the negative consequences of
training beyond natural ranges of motion, and compromising on optimal joint
positions, be restricted to the training sessions alone? In other words, the
training session itself would obviously be of lesser value given that moving into
compromised positions, with poor leverage and decreased muscle spindle
activation and muscle recruitment, would lead to reduced stimulation and muscle
activation. Furthermore, training under these circumstances would more than
likely result in a greater risk of injury. But would the negative effects produced by
these training techniques and program design be restricted to the training
sessions themselves, or would they extend beyond the confines of the training
sessions and carry over into everyday life? More than likely the answer is the
latter.

The fundamental principle that underlies motor learning and motor control is
that of neuromuscular plasticity, that is, the fact that the central nervous system
(CNS) is highly pliable and adaptive to movement patterns performed while
training. In simple terms, the body will gradually adjust and change its

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mechanics based on movement patterns grooved into the CNS by specific

training techniques. This is evident in a broad variety of athletes including, for
example, ballet dancers and even powerlifters. In both of these populations,
when standing or walking, the feet and knees rotate externally (flare out) to a
greater degree than that observed in most of the general population. This likely
reflects an adaptation to their respective training protocols, as both powerlifters
and dancers are taught to flare out the toes and knees during movements. It also
illustrates the fact that the neuromuscular system is so pliable that whatever types
of movements an individual performs on a consistent basis will result in such a
degree of adaptation that all other similar movements and mechanics, including
gait and posture, become affected.

The idea that movement patterns and mechanics can be effectively changed and
altered via sound training mechanisms underscores just how pliable the
neuromuscular system truly is. Numerous studies, as well as documented
examples of practical applications of this principle, have shown that muscle
function can be enhanced via corrective exercise strategies that effectively alter
movement patterns and movement characteristics [29, 30]. In fact, extensive
discussion of this topic can be found in many books and the corrective exercise
literature [5, 31, 32].

For example, in a study by Noyes et al. (2012), a six-week training program

designed to address hip and knee function was implemented into the routines of
57 female high school basketball players, a population that exhibits movement
patterns predisposing them to greater risk of ACL tears. Initially, many of the
subjects displayed a knock knee, or excessive valgus forces on the knee joints,
due to knees caving in medially, a common issue in female athletes. By the end
of the training program significant improvements were observed in hip and knee
control, as well as muscle function surrounding the specific joints. Knee angle
was also markedly improved, showing a reduced tendency to cave in. Hip, ankle,
and knee alignment were also improved, as were various markers of
performance, such as vertical jump height and maximal aerobic power. The
results of this study show, therefore, that a training program consisting of
techniques and movements that target obvious and visible patterns of muscle
dysfunction, can markedly improve these dysfunctions in as little as 6 weeks [33].

Numerous other studies and training programs have produced similar findings,
consistent with the notion that the neuromuscular system is highly pliable and
drastic changes in movement patterns can occur in a relatively short period of
time [5]. However, these results suggest that the CNS is also capable of quickly

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adapting to movement patterns that negatively impact performance and

movement mechanics, allowing for rapid alterations in both positive and
negative movement patterns and techniques. In other words, the body can be
trained and re-programmed to perform movements with smaller ROM’s, larger
ROM’s, proper alignment and improper alignment, with no limit to how the
body will adapt in terms of movement parameters.

Thus, it is of paramount importance to ensure that neuromuscular re-education

protocols focus on maximizing proper movement patterns while eliminating any
and all possible technique flaws, as contra-therapeutic changes could have dire
consequences with the re-education process serving only to further establish
new, and reinforce pre-existing, dysfunctional movement patterns. This line of
thought is similar to that of many movement experts, including Gray Cook, who
advocate addressing flawed movement patterns so as to avoid “building strength
and fitness on top of dysfunction”[31]. Given the negative performance and
health consequences of faulty muscle function and dysfunctional movement
discussed in this and earlier sections, the idea of proper neural re-programming
becomes all the more critical.

C h a n g es in O ptim a l Len g th fo r
C o n tr a c tio n o f M u s c le Fib er s

One of the adaptations that occurs in skeletal muscle in response to resistance

training, particularly eccentric training, is a change in the optimum length for
contraction of the muscle to longer muscle lengths. Numerous studies have
examined the effect of eccentric exercise and the mechanism whereby training
can change the optimum muscle length for contraction. In a study by Brockett
et al. (2001), a single bout of large full range of motion, lower body eccentric
exercise, caused a sustained rightward shift of the length-tension curve. In other
words, the muscles adapted to the eccentric exercise by shifting the optimum
angle for torque generation to longer muscle lengths [34]. The authors attribute
this shift to the well-known training effect, a natural response of the body that
provides the muscle with protection against further extreme soreness and
damage induced by subsequent exercise. The authors further suggest that an
exercise program biased towards eccentric training may benefit athletes who are
commonly at risk for muscle strains and tears by training the body to adapt to
these eccentric positions through a shift in their optimum muscle length for
contraction, allowing the muscle to operate at longer lengths, thereby reducing
the risk of injuries during these lengthened positions.

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While similar findings have been reported in other studies, it is important to note
that eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage, and the shift in the length-
tension curve, are accompanied by a general decrease in force and torque
production [35]. That is, although the individual’s muscle fibers adapt to
produce the highest levels of peak torque and force in more lengthened
positions, this new-found state, with muscles operating at longer lengths, actually
produces significantly lower force, tension, and peak torque as compared to their
original state. Thus, although at first glance this shift in optimum muscle length
for contraction appears to have positive implications, allowing individuals to
better handle longer muscle lengths and more extreme stretched positions, upon
further analysis the negative implications appear to far outweigh the positive
ones, as overall force production is significantly diminished and likely
accompanied by alteration and degradation of optimal and natural body
biomechanics.

It should also be noted that the typical eccentric exercise protocol used in these
studies involves working the muscles through as large a ROM as possible in
order to induce the greatest adaptation response to the eccentric stimulation.
For example, in the aforementioned studies subjects were instructed to perform
movements at the knee joint in excess of 110 degrees. This raises the question:
did these movements breach the body’s natural protective mechanism and did
these subjects perform movements with a ROM that was significantly greater
than their ideal position of maximal tension, torque production, and optimal
muscle spindle activation? According to the scientific principles outlined in
earlier sections, such movements more than likely extended beyond the body’s
largest natural or optimal ROM particularly for high force production and high
force absorption scenarios.

Interestingly, in many of the studies that report eccentric exercise induced shifts
in optimum muscle length for contraction, the change in optimum muscle length
is associated with significant muscle damage and extreme delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS), caused by the exercise protocol used in the study. [36, 37].
Whether the damage is normal and beneficial or reflects a breach of the body’s
natural ROM leading to abnormal amounts of tearing within the muscles fibers
and excessive micro-trauma, remains to be determined. While the authors of the
studies suggest that muscle damage represents a natural step in the adaptation
response, the key question is whether or not this shift in optimum muscle length
for contraction is actually beneficial in the long run given it likely reflects an
alteration of natural biomechanics. In other words, if biomechanically
compromised positions cause extreme muscle damage, are these excessive

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ROMs and the resulting shift in muscle length truly beneficial? Or is the
adaptation response simply a mechanism that allows the body to cope with
biomechanically compromised positions?

To answer this question, the shift in fiber length needs to analyzed in the context
of earlier topics discussed in this chapter. The fact that the optimal muscle
length for contraction is greater after a single bout of large ROM eccentric
training would seem to imply that these individuals’ body mechanics have been
altered and they are likely functioning outside the natural length-tension
relationship, optimal leverage, ideal elastic energy, and proprioceptive feedback
parameters discussed above. In essence, the 90-degree joint angle position may
no longer be the pre-programmed, default movement strategy for that individual.
Rather, it may be closer to 95 or even 100 degrees. The question is, is this a
desirable outcome, or is it simply a negative consequence of consistently training
the body in positions with joint angles greater than the apparent ideal position of
90 degrees? Based on the scientific principles outlined in the earlier sections of
this chapter, it seems reasonable to conclude that the shift in optimum fiber
length for contraction would negatively alter the body’s natural mechanics.

In support of this conclusion, a study by Prasartwuth et al. (2006), showed that

prior to a strenuous bout of eccentric upper arm movements, optimal angle of
force production occurred at the mid-range (roughly 90 degree) position. After
completion of the eccentric movements, however, the optimal joint angle shifted
nearly 15 degrees in favor of longer lengths. Furthermore, it took 8 days for
such degradation in natural body mechanics to fully dissipate. Of even greater
interest is the fact that during and after this 8-day period, force production and
voluntary muscle activation remained significantly decreased compared to pre-
exercise levels. Simply put, eccentric exercise caused the length-tension curve to
shift towards longer lengths while at the same time greatly reducing force
production and recruitment capabilities for a sustained period of time that
extended beyond the study period [38].

A hypothetical example may help illustrate, and underscore the significance of

this issue: When sprinting, an elite sprinter will typically achieve multiple, and
what appear to be optimal, 90-degree joint angles (i.e. 90 degree angles at the
hips, knees, ankles, elbows, etc.) [23, 27]. Performing a specific type of strength
training program that suddenly alters the sprinter’s body mechanics, such that
these once optimal 90-degree joint angle positions become closer to 95-degrees,
would likely diminish the sprinter’s power, speed, and overall performance,
leaving only two options: first, eliminate the training program or the errors in

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technique that are causing these shifts away from the natural, most
biomechanically efficient positions or two, accept the adverse adaptive response
to the training, and use all means necessary in an effort to make this athlete as
efficient and powerful as possible in the now compromised sprinting technique.
Perhaps, with continued training the athlete’s optimal joint angles would shift
even further, and approach 100 degrees. While this new adaptation may degrade
the sprinter’s performance even further, this “state of the art” training program
would likely help the athlete become more adept at handling these hazardous
movements and positions.

Furthermore, it may lower the sprinter’s risk of injury as a result of sprinting in

these compromised positions, versus the risk of injury that an athlete who
typically sprints within the optimal 90-degree joint angle confines would face if
they attempted to do so at these greater joint angles. In other words, if an athlete
who normally maintains proper running form consciously attempted to achieve
similar excessively large ROM’s while sprinting, that athlete would probably have
an exponentially greater chance of injury compared to the athlete who has
adapted to the larger angles and now consistently sprints in this manner. The
point is, the athlete with proper form who maintains natural mechanics and 90
degree joint angles, will never have to engage in such compromised positions in
the first place, therefore, the need to adapt to these becomes a moot point.
Unfortunately, most of the modern day training protocols and programs
advocated by today’s coaches, trainers, therapists, and researchers, appear to
promote the shift to movements with exaggerated joint angles and excessive
ROMs.

Perhaps, instead of training an individual’s muscles to cope with potentially

stressful and biomechanically hazardous positions, the goal should be to teach
the neuromuscular system to avoid such situations in the first place and only
operate within the confines of the body’s most natural biomechanically and
physiologically advantageous positions. In other words, instead of attempting to
train the body to deal with large amounts of force while muscles are stretched
beyond their naturally strongest positions (i.e. at joint angles greater than 90
degrees or beyond the resting/semi-stretched position), one may want to focus
on training the body to operate within the confines of those positions that
maximize force production and force absorption. Doing so will more than likely
optimize performance and technique, as well as reduce the risk of injury and
decrease the potential for triggering an inflammatory response and the host of
associated health issues described in the previous chapter.

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M o v em en t P a ttern s a n d S pa s tic ity

In addition to promoting biomechanically adverse adaptive responses, breaching

the body’s natural movement parameters with excessive ROM’s contributes
directly to the development of muscle spasticity and hypertonicity. That is,
movements with excessive ROM cause excessive stretching of the
musculotendon unit. In an effort to counteract such positions, the body’s initial,
natural response to this over-lengthening (and consequent sub-optimal muscle
stiffness) is an exaggerated, non-functional stretch reflex response. This would,
in turn, cause excessive shortening and tightness of the fibers, often in the form
of spasticity and hypertonicity. In addition, the affected muscles will have a
future tendency to resist stretch as a protective mechanism against such
exaggerated and counterproductive positions.

Contrary to popular belief, this heightened stretch reflex response does little to
enhance performance, as much of the energy is wasted in an effort to simply
return the musculotendon unit back to its strongest position, i.e. a 90 degree
joint angle position. A common example seen in most gym settings is that of an
individual who bounces out of the extreme, eccentric bottom position of an ass-
to-grass squat, and appears to hit a sticking point on the returning concentric
phase, at approximately 90 degrees. The body’s adaptive response, aimed at
counteracting and avoiding such maneuvers in future training sessions, would be
to produce exaggerated shortening and excessive gamma tone, key contributors
to spastic muscles and hypertonicity. This concept is, in essence, the reason
behind the mantra “stretch slowly, don’t jerk, but instead relax”, which is
repeated in common flexibility training in an effort to avoid the stretch reflex
and the ensuing response, i.e. the production of even further muscle tightness.

Another means by which movements with excessive ROM contribute to the

development of muscle spasticity and hypertonicity is through improper
neuromuscular re-education. Although perhaps a more subtle response, it is just
as insidious involving, as it does, an undesirable motor learning effect. In this
setting, the body is trained to override or inhibit the excessive stretch reflex
response, thereby allowing what appears to be the successful completion of an
exaggerated range of motion. However, in order to achieve this outcome, the
nervous system must be re-programmed to allow the body to ignore its naturally
built-in safety mechanism (the stretch reflex) and perform exaggerated motions
associated with dysfunctional positions. This represents a common form of
muscle spindle desensitization observed in strength training. Because the natural
protective barrier is, in effect, shut down, the muscles no longer produce the

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necessary amount of force to protect itself, or the surrounding joints and

connective tissue. This leads to chronic inflammation around the localized tissue
which, in turn, causes muscle tightness and spasticity, ultimately leading to
further compensation patterns, as well as the host of adverse health
consequences associated with heightened levels of inflammation.

Excessive ranges of motion can also lead to hypertonicity via a more indirect
effect. Because muscles function in a reciprocal fashion in which pairs of
muscles must work together to effectively allow movement to occur, exaggerated
motions and positions can have just as devastating an impact on the antagonist
muscle groups as they do on the agonists. As one muscle overly-lengthens to
accommodate the excessive ROM, the opposing muscle or groups of muscles
must essentially overly-shorten. For example, during a loaded squat, if an
individual goes below a joint angle of 90 degrees, not only do the agonists, such
as the gluteal muscles and quadriceps, become overly stretched and spastic, as
described above, but now the opposing muscle groups, specifically the hip
flexors and hamstrings, must become overly shortened to accommodate this
neurophysiologically dysfunctional maneuver.

As a result of assuming such a biomechanically inefficient position, the hip

flexors and hamstrings tighten, directly contributing to the development of
hypertonicity in these muscles. Furthermore, this common error in technique,
seen not only in fitness centers and local gym settings, but also coached and
advocated in collegiate and professional strength training settings, predisposes
athletes to numerous movement impairments and accelerates deterioration of
muscle function, ultimately leading to the plethora of adverse health
consequences and physical ailments discussed in the previous chapter.
Therefore, understanding the foundational aspects of proper movement
mechanics, and implementing them into a training program becomes critical, not
just from a performance standpoint, but also from a health and wellness
perspective.

Flex ib ility-In d u c ed M u s c le O ppo s itio n

The idea of spasticity, discussed above in the context of strength training, is also
just as apparent in flexibility training and other muscle relaxation techniques.
Although many stretching routines as well as soft tissue modalities focus on
relaxation of the muscles in order to achieve a greater ROM and decrease muscle
tension, this acute short-term response is oftentimes followed by a more chronic
response (typically within 8-24 hours), in which the body resists the manipulation

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process by producing even greater tension to counteract the effects of the

relaxation techniques [39]. As pointed out by Lee (2005), the muscle tension
comes back with a vengeance as a means of ensuring such faulty mechanics and
exaggerated ROM don’t reoccur in the future. Many therapists and practitioners,
including Lee, further emphasize that it is often difficult, if not nearly impossible,
to force muscles to relax through traditional stretching or soft tissue work, as the
muscle tissue itself is resistant to these types of forced manipulation.
Unfortunately, these protocols do produce immediate relief of symptoms and
tension, leading individuals to believe that such modalities are effective, only to
find that the tightness and spastic reactions come back even stronger,
precipitating the need to stretch and massage even more aggressively to combat
this response. This vicious cycle continues indefinitely, often causing individuals
to become physiologically dependent on stretching and soft tissue work for
immediate relief, despite the fact that such treatments only exaggerate the
symptoms instead of treating them.

It is possible, with extensive practice and dedication, for an individual to

successfully train their body to truly relax while performing stretching or soft
tissue work. The end result, however, is muscle spindle desensitization, as the
body learns to effectively turn off muscle spindles in order to allow this type of
forced manipulation to occur [19]. The desensitization of proprioceptors further
predisposes muscles to a greater risk of injury and trauma during periods of
physical activity, as the muscles can no longer absorb force adequately and
function properly [40]. The resulting trauma to joints, connective tissue and
skeletal muscle promotes inflammation and eventually a spastic or hypertonic
response. In fact, studies examining the relationship between stretching
movements and injury have concluded that, contrary to the commonly held
belief that stretching reduces injury rates, stretching movements can actually lead
to injury and muscle strain [41].

Furthermore, studies have consistently shown that passive, slow speed stretching
movements that involve relaxation of the muscles, acutely impair performance,
force production, power, proprioception, and other markers of muscle function
[42]. Consequently, prior recommendations to stretch before training or
competition have largely been eliminated in an effort to avoid detrimental effects
on performance, as well as to reduce the potential risk of injury [6]. Lastly, even
if stretching and soft tissue modalities were able to successfully treat tightness
and stiffness of the muscles, these techniques target only the symptoms while
fully ignoring the root of the problem, that is, the improper movement patterns
and faulty mechanics that are ultimately the cause of these undesirable

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physiological effects. Inevitably, therefore, the symptoms will continue to recur

until the cause is appropriately addressed via proper neuromuscular re-education
techniques.

H eed in g th e W a r n in g S ig n s o f
A u to g en ic In h ib itio n : N o n-C lin ic a l
C la s p K n ife R eflex R es po n s e

Indirectly related to spasticity is the concept of autogenic inhibition. When an

unnaturally large ROM is used, and muscles are allowed to relax and lose their
optimal stiffness properties in order to achieve such exaggerated positions,
excessive tension is placed onto the surrounding structures such as the
connective tissue, ligaments, and tendons. Golgi tendon organs (GTO), as the
name implies, are located on the tendon components of the musculotendon unit
and function to control tension placed on the musculotendon unit. Excessive
tension on the tendons can cause the GTO to send inhibitory signals in the form
of autogenic inhibition to the agonist muscle groups involved, essentially
reducing intramuscular tension [15].

Although a natural safety mechanism, continued activation of the GTO will only
serve to reinforce movements that produce neurological inhibition in the form
of agonist relaxation and antagonist activation (an undesirable outcome for any
voluntary muscle contraction or programmed movement). Furthermore, due to
the fact that neurophysiologically autogenic inhibition and reciprocal inhibition
are diametrically opposed, such high levels of GTO activation will ultimately
reduce force, as well as alpha-gamma co-activation (i.e. activation of both
extrafusal and intrafusal muscle fibers), and contribute to impaired intrafusal
muscle fiber recruitment, negatively impacting the desired reciprocal inhibitory
mechanism, which is an essential component of forceful and controlled
concentric movement [15].

Directly related to autogenic inhibition is what is known as the clasp knife reflex.
Typically considered a clinical manifestation characteristic of patients with an
upper motor neuron lesion, the clasp knife reflex describes a response in which
there is an increase in muscle resistance to flexion or extension of a joint by an
outside source (i.e. passive stretch) followed by a sudden relaxation of the muscle
as it continues to be stretched [43]. For example, during a neurological
evaluation, forceful flexion of a patient’s elbow and stretch of the extensors of
the arm (triceps muscle) elicits a heightened reflex contraction (a result of the

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upper motor neuron lesion) that initially resists lengthening of the muscle. As the
muscle is stretched further and further, resistance suddenly gives way and the
limb abruptly collapses into complete flexion, no longer able to resist the applied
tension. This response is believed to be due to two primary factors: excessive
Golgi tendon organ activation, and impaired muscle spindle function, with the
autogenic inhibition produced by the Golgi tendon organs exceeding the stretch
reflex response of the muscle spindles [43].

Because muscle spindles have the fastest conducting axons in the peripheral
nervous system (including faster conduction than that of Golgi tendon organs),
this response reflects a significant CNS abnormality and neurological impairment
that ultimately affects muscle function. Simply put, the dominant response
should be muscle spindle activation. Instead, in these patients it is the autogenic
inhibition from the Golgi tendon organs that dominates.

Upon closer examination, the clasp knife reflex response not only serves to
illustrate the clinical condition described above, it could also be said to mimic a
classical condition in which individuals performing strength training movements
place excessive tension on their connective tissue, joints, ligaments, and tendons
leading to a similar yet less severe form of clasp knife response (non-clinical
clasp knife reflex). For example, during a movement such as the bench press, it
is not uncommon for excessive stretch and tension to be placed on the tendons
and surrounding structures of the pectorals, and anterior deltoids.

This is often associated with poor technique and body positioning which
produces inappropriate arthrokinematics, as well as joint angles significantly
greater than 90 degrees. This excessive ROM generates a relatively strong
autogenic inhibitory response from the Golgi tendon organ that exceeds the
muscle spindle recruitment of those same muscles and subsequent reciprocal
inhibition. The end result is concentric movement that exhibits a high level of
neurologic inhibition of the agonist muscles and compromised force production,
not to mention trauma to the surrounding structures, the continued practice of
which would likely lead to inflammation and the adverse effects associated with
it.

Whether excessive ROM and exaggerated stretch occur because of autogenic

inhibition (due to poor joint positioning, flawed biomechanics, and spastic
muscles) or whether autogenic inhibition occurs because of the intentional
collapse (i.e. attempting to reach a deeper position), is unclear. Although either is
possible, it is most likely a combination of both mechanisms, each contributing

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and feeding off the other. The key is to avoid these overly stretched positions
(i.e. significantly beyond a joint angle of 90 degrees) during high force
movements in order to fully maximize the function of our muscles and preserve
the health of our joints and tissues.

Although it would appear to contradict the idea that stretch precipitates

increased proprioception, the clasp knife reflex has specific fundamental
elements that are in keeping with basic neurophysiologic concepts. For example,
it is commonly accepted that the more a muscle is stretched the greater the
activation of the intrafusal fibers, and ultimately the greater the activation of the
extrafusal fibers, in the form of optimal levels of alpha-gamma co-activation.
However, basic neurophysiologic principles dictate that at a certain point, in
order to achieve a greater stretch, the muscles must relax to some degree in order
to decrease their stiffness properties and allow the excessive ROM to occur. As
a consequence, surrounding structures such as the tendons, ligaments, and
connective tissue are forced to bear a significant portion of this tension. Greater
tension on the tendons in turn produces an autogenic inhibition response from
the Golgi tendon organ.

In other words, although Golgi tendon organs respond directly to tension rather
than stretch, excessive stretch caused by the relative relaxation of muscle fibers
does, in fact, increase the amount of tension placed on unwanted structures such
as tendons, while reducing the amount of tension on the associated muscle
fibers, and ultimately elicits an autogenic inhibitory response. Therefore, while
stretching a muscle enhances its contractile capabilities up to a point, breaching
that position no longer produces greater proprioception or activation from
muscle spindles but instead diminishes it significantly. This by no means suggests
that stretch during movements should be avoided, as an appropriate degree of
stretch is essential for optimal muscle function. Rather, the point is that allowing
the muscles to relax in order to accommodate exaggerated positions of stretch
could prove harmful from a functional, performance, and wellness standpoint.

As noted in the previous sections, neurophysiologic, structural and

biomechanical principles indicate that a joint angle of approximately 90 degrees
is the point at which maximal stretch of a muscle is achieved without triggering
an autogenic inhibitory response from the Golgi tendon organ. Significantly, this
90 degree angle coincides quite closely with the clinical clasp knife reflex
response. In fact, it is beyond a joint angle of 90 degrees where muscles
commonly go flaccid, both during the clinical clasp knife reflex response, as well
as during standard strength training in apparently health populations. In other

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words, a natural stretch reflex response seems to occur at joint angles of

approximately 90 degrees beyond which extreme stretch results in excessive
tension on the Golgi tendon leading to autogenic inhibition. Thus, the stretch
reflex appears to act as the body's first line of defense against overstretching the
muscles, by attempting to maintain joint angles of approximately 90
degrees. However, when stretch and tension become too great autogenic
inhibition takes over. Simply put, there appear to be two built in neuromuscular
safety mechanisms in response to excessive stretch: 1) the stretch reflex response
and 2) autogenic inhibition, the latter acting as a backup mechanism if and only
if the stretch reflex is inadequate. Unfortunately, extreme stretch with heavy
loads often results in autogenic inhibition, a highly undesirable response from a
performance standpoint.

It is important to point out the fact that that with enough training an athlete can
learn how to subconsciously ignore this protective mechanism and override
autogenic inhibition. However, signals such as those sent from the GTO should
serve as warning signs and be cautiously attended to rather than simply ignored.
Although commonly touted as an advanced and desired training outcome,
overriding the GTO response truly places an athlete at increased risk of injury
from both an acute and chronic standpoint. Therefore, training goals should
focus not on overriding the GTO response but on eliminating, or significantly
reducing, the amount of inhibitory signals sent from the GTO by optimizing
biomechanical techniques and movement strategies that place the body into
more efficient and less hazardous positions. In other words, autogenic inhibition
should be a “red flag” warning that the current movement techniques and
parameters are placing undue stress on the body and should be adjusted
accordingly.

In summary, the clasp knife reflex illustrates 2 key components of the Golgi
tendon unit and its role in athletic performance. First, any undue strain on the
GTO (poor positioning, poor osteokinematics, and poor overall body
mechanics) will promote autogenic inhibition and disable key features of muscle
spindle function (i.e. reciprocal inhibition). Second, over-stretching and
attempting to use an excessive range motion will place excessive stress on the
GTO and also lead to autogenic inhibition. Furthermore, the above discussion
not only emphasizes the qualities of optimal muscle function, it also presents a
solution to the problem of unwanted autogenic inhibition, an issue that has
plagued performance coaches and athletes for decades.

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C o -C o n tr a c tio n : A g o n is t a n d
A n ta g o n is t C o u plin g fo r M a x im a l
C o n c en tr ic R ec ipr o c a l In h ib itio n

Co-contraction, or co-activation of agonist and antagonist muscles serves to help

stabilize a joint during movements, as well as create greater tension and muscle
stiffness, and is a concept that is central to many other concepts in kinesiology
[4]. Based on a number of studies it appears the two points of major co-
contraction during any particular movement occur at the bottom of an eccentric
motion and the top of a concentric movement, essentially the two turnaround
points. However, it appears that the bottom of the eccentric position is where
the greatest degree of co-contraction occurs.

The idea of a high degree of muscle co-activation in the stretched position can
be likened to that of a sling shot effect. The greater the force that is applied to
the sling by an external force such as an arm, the greater the tension produced
on the sling and, ultimately, the greater the velocity of the propelled object. The
same is true of muscles. Although a large portion of the eccentric movement
can be attributed to gravity and the general load of an object, a degree of co-
contraction also helps pull against the agonists to create an almost coiled or
cocked position similar to that of the rubber band. This is a commonly observed
in powerlifting bench press technique in which the back is maximally contracted
to create stability, tightness, power, and proper movement positioning [44].

Consistent with this idea, a study examining lower body movement showed that,
when in a lunge position, not only is the greatest degree of co-contraction in the
front leg achieved when the leg is in the flexed position (i.e. bottom portion of a
lunge), but the more the hamstrings co-contract, or pull on the quadriceps, the
greater the activation of those quadriceps muscles, with both muscle groups
firing at their highest levels when at a joint angle of 90 degrees [45]. Continuing
with the sling shot analogy, the release of the hamstrings and reduced co-
contraction coincides with the most powerful concentric movement, just as
releasing of the arm pulling on the sling would allow the sling to fire. Although
this is a very simple illustration of a highly complex phenomenon it is important
to understand that maximal co-contraction is essential during phases of
movement that involve eccentric positions at joint angles of 90 degrees.
Furthermore, if maximal co-activation indeed occurs at 90 degree joint angles,
and is an important component of powerful contractions essential for optimizing
performance, it logically follows that individuals should be trained to achieve

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these positions of maximal co-contraction so as to transfer this technique into

basic motor skills such as sprinting, throwing, hitting, jumping, etc.

The above discussion suggests that Sherington’s Law of reciprocal inhibition

may have a fundamental flaw not discussed in physiology texts which is that,
while reciprocal inhibition during concentric movements is highly desired, the
same cannot be said of eccentric movements. The high degree of agonist-
antagonist co-contraction that occurs during eccentric movements negates the
idea that reciprocal inhibition is the desired goal for all powerful muscle
contractions. Rather, it would be more accurate to suggest that a high degree of
co-contraction is needed during eccentric movements in order to produce
maximal reciprocal inhibition during the concentric contraction, ultimately
maximizing force production. Furthermore, the neurophysiological basis of
reciprocal innervation is such that reciprocal inhibition would be precluded from
occurring simultaneously with high degrees of co-contraction.

Therefore, the assumption in Sherrington’s Law that reciprocal inhibition

underlies forceful contractions is only true for concentric movements, while the
opposite is true of eccentric movements during which agonist-antagonist co-
contraction is necessary to prepare the muscle for the subsequent forceful
sarcomere shortening and concentric contractions. Simply put, eccentric
contractions that exhibit high levels of agonist-antagonist co-contraction will
typically precede powerful concentric contractions that involve reciprocal
inhibition, the result of which are smooth, powerful, and coordinated
movements.

Finally, a close look at opposing movements, such as a bench press and a row, in
the context of co-contraction or reciprocal muscle groups, helps illustrates the
idea of optimal muscle position. For example, when performing a bench press,
individuals typically lower the bar to their chest. However, when performing the
opposite movement such as an inverted row (in which the lifter lies under a
suspended bar usually set waist height above the floor, and rows themselves up
to the bar), if the lifter maintains appropriate form, with perfect posture and
proper body alignment, and smoothly rows themselves up to the bar and holds
the top position, it will be nearly impossible for that person to touch their chest
to the bar regardless of their strength. That is, it appears the natural stopping
point, or the point at which the muscles reach full contraction and can contract
no further, is at a joint angle of roughly 90 degrees. The only way for the lifter to
touch the bar with their chest is to lose form and round the back, protracting

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and elevating the scapula instead of maintaining a retracted and depressed

scapula as proper form dictates.

Furthermore, if the lifter were asked to perform an isometric contraction with

perfect technique at the top position of the row, they would be able to go only as
far as a 90 degree angle at the elbow joint regardless of how hard they pull.
Provided they maintain proper form, shoulder positioning, and spinal alignment,
the muscles will simply pull no further. This holds true for all rowing
movements. Due to the nature of concentric contractions the body will only
move as far as the muscles will contract (i.e. active insufficiency).

In contrast to rowing movements, a greater ROM can be achieved on bench

press assisted by gravity and via muscle relaxation and structural collapse. In
other words, if indeed the back muscles reach full contraction at an arm joint
angle of 90 degrees, moving past this point places the back muscles in a sub-
optimal pulling position in which they can no longer contract with maximal
intensity. In this state the back muscles are no longer firing maximally, therefore,
co-contraction, which helps joint stabilization and protection, is suboptimal.
Furthermore, because the back muscles are unable to assist in pulling the weight
down and into proper position, lowering the bar beyond an arm joint angle of 90
degrees likely requires relaxation of the pressing muscles (chest, shoulders, and
triceps). This allows the weight to stretch the shoulder joint, connective tissue,
and surrounding muscles to a greater degree, yet with reduced activation of the
pressing muscles and, therefore, reduced ability to absorb the incoming forces.

In addition, as was discussed in previous sections, excessive lengthening of a

muscle results in reduced cross-bridge formation which, in turn, leads to a
reduction in muscle stiffness and ultimately decreases muscle spindle activation
and proprioceptive feedback. The impaired relaying of sensory information to
the CNS disrupts kinesthetic awareness and compromises the body’s ability to
make the necessary adjustments to maintain proper and safe form during
movement execution. Lastly, as was also discussed in earlier sections, from a
leverage standpoint, movements in excess of 90 degree joint angles represent
biomechanically compromised positions. Therefore, optimal co-contraction, or
lack thereof, during specific phases of movement has significant implications in
terms of performance and muscle function, ultimately impacting overall health
and well-being.

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K ey Po in ts o n A u to g en ic In hib itio n ,
R ec ipr o c a l In h ib itio n & C la s p K n ife
R eflex

The concepts of autogenic inhibition, reciprocal inhibition and how these relate to the
clasp knife reflex and ultimately performance and muscle function are quite complex.
Below are a few key points to help the reader more thoroughly understand this topic:

Excessive tension on the Golgi tendon produces autogenic inhibition,

essentially causing the muscle to shut down to varying degrees. This can
occur on the concentric phase or the eccentric phase but is most
prevalent during the eccentric phase.

Joint angles significantly greater than 90 degrees place more tension on

the tendons and less on the muscles. This produces an inhibitory
response from the Golgi tendon organ, ultimately tilting the balance
towards autogenic inhibition rather than activation from the muscle
spindle fibers. The end result is significant neuromuscular inhibition and
weak muscular contractions, not to mention excessive tension on the
joints and connective tissue.

Even if the excessive stretch is not extreme enough to cause a full

collapse of the muscle, or complete autogenic inhibition, it will
nonetheless evoke an exaggerated and excessive stretch reflex as a
means of resisting the extreme stretching, while the individual is still
attempting to lengthen the muscle. This, in turn, will abruptly contract
and shorten the agonists, thereby creating additional resistance to
stretch. As a result, even more tension will be placed on the Golgi
tendon organ, leading to a weaker concentric muscular contraction.

Proper eccentric contractions, such as those seen with 90 degree joint

angles, involve strong levels of co-contraction. This co-contraction not
only produces optimal stretch and muscle spindle activation, it also
creates a slingshot effect as the antagonists help lengthen the agonists.
Release of the slingshot effect occurs when the antagonist muscles
experience the desired reciprocal inhibition, allowing the agonists to
fully contract/shorten in the concentric phase. This can only occur if
muscle spindle activation is very high and optimal during the preceding
eccentric phase.

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Reciprocal inhibition is a desirable response during concentric

movements, but an undesirable response during eccentric movements.
Unfortunately, what most individuals experience is the latter, i.e.
reciprocal inhibition during eccentric movements

Reciprocal inhibition during eccentric movements will prevent co-

contraction and likely result in autogenic inhibition as the lengthening
muscles will attempt to resist stretch, ultimately placing too much
tension on the Golgi tendon. By the same token, lack of co-contraction
during eccentric movements will likely result in autogenic inhibition. In
both cases, whether due to inappropriate reciprocal inhibition, or simply
a lack of co-contraction, muscle spindle activation is reduced which, in
turn, inhibits the desired reciprocal inhibition on the subsequent
concentric phase.

During the clinical clasp knife reflex response, the patient is actually
producing reciprocal inhibition of the antagonist (shortening) muscles
during the eccentric phase, as the triceps attempt to shorten and resist
stretch. This ultimately leads to extreme tension on the agonist
(lengthening) muscles, and minimal co-contraction, inevitably placing
too much tension on the Golgi tendon. The end result is the production
of autogenic inhibition as a safety mechanism to avoid rupturing a
muscle or damaging the surrounding structures.

Co-contraction is essentially the opposite of reciprocal inhibition. It is a

desirable response during eccentric movements, but undesirable during
concentric actions (except at the very end of the movement).
Unfortunately, what most individuals experience is the reverse, i.e. co-
contraction during the concentric phase due to insufficient reciprocal
inhibition resulting from a lack of eccentric co-contraction.

Optimal stretch and the ensuing muscle spindle activation produced by

high levels of eccentric co-contraction is essentially the opposite of
autogenic inhibition from the Golgi tendon organ, and necessary for
maximal force production during the concentric contraction. Ironically,
in the absence of co-contraction, the stretch reflex response by the
lengthening muscle produces a shortening response (i.e. resistance to
stretch) which, in turn, places enormous tension on the Golgi tendon
thereby producing autogenic inhibition.

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Co-contraction and the stretch reflex response cannot occur at the same
time. During eccentric movements, co-contraction ensures the muscles
voluntarily stay lengthened while the stretch reflex does the opposite,
causing the muscles to shorten. Therefore, co-contraction should
mitigate any inappropriate stretch reflex response, allowing the
individual to control the production of a stretch reflex shortening
response.

Co-contraction should precede every stretch reflex response. The

absence of a preceding co-contraction would result in an
inappropriate/mis-timed stretch reflex response that is weak and lacks
control or power, producing minimal levels of reciprocal inhibition on
the concentric movement. Unfortunately, such improper muscle
function is a common occurrence in traditional strength training.

A stretch reflex should not be elicited while in the process of voluntarily

lengthening a muscle. Doing so is indicative of performing too large a
ROM, or muscles that are so tight and spastic they are resistant to
stretch.

Fa tig u e, Pr o pr io c eptio n , a n d R a n g e o f
M o tio n (R O M )

Until recently, it was presumed that the ideal ROM was a large ROM, or the
largest ROM an individual could achieve during a movement. This led to the
assumption by many strength coaches and practitioners that fatigue would lead
to reduced ROM and abbreviated movements as a result of lazy mechanics
commonly associated with fatigue and energy expenditure. However, this
assumption has proven to be false. Simply put, rather than shortening range of
motion and abbreviating mechanics, fatigue does the opposite, increasing range
of motion and instability.

It’s been known for well over a decade that fatigue distorts and disrupts
proprioception. Based on neurophysiological and biomechanical principles a
disruption in proprioception is also associated with decreased muscle stiffness,
resulting in increased joint flexion, increased range of motion and greater
instability. Consistent with this numerous studies have shown a strong
relationship and interplay between fatigue, proprioception, and range of motion.
Although individual study results vary, much of the research shows a trend

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towards increased joint flexion, as well as greater ROM, increased time to

stability, and decreased muscle stiffness post-fatigue [46-48] [49, 50] [21, 51-54].

Many practitioners in the field of kinesiology mistakenly believe that movements

that involve maximal range of motion, oftentimes beyond that which is natural
or optimal, provide a more effective stimulus due to their greater degree of
difficulty. However, the ability to produce a movement with exaggerated ROM
and ever-increasing levels of mobility and flexibility is not equivalent to
performing a productive movement. In fact, studies suggest the opposite is true,
that is, large or excessive ROMs are associated with sloppy, fatigue-related
movements, poor motor control, impaired proprioception, desensitized muscle
spindles, compromised muscle function, increased risk of injury, reduced muscle
activation, greater instability, neuromuscular inhibition, impaired balance, and
decreased kinesthetic awareness, all of which result in dysfunctional movements
[17, 21, 55-58]. This is again consistent with neurophysiological and
biomechanical principles which indicate that optimal muscle function is achieved
at joint angles of approximately 90 degrees, whereas excessive range of motion
significantly beyond 90-degree joint angles leads to faulty mechanics and
dysfunctional positions.

B a r efo o t R u n n in g : Im plic a tio n s Fo r

O ptim a l R O M

Yet another example in support of the notion that optimal ROMs may actually
be smaller than what is currently considered optimal, or coached as optimal
ROMs, comes from comparing normal or shod running (using normal footwear
or running shoes) vs. barefoot running. Studies suggest that one of the key
differences between shod and barefoot running is that barefoot runners have
significantly shorter stride lengths, which results in reduced contact times and
increased stride frequency [59]. The slightly more compact yet optimal stride
length appears to be a more efficient and safer form of running by giving the
athlete improved control over their center of mass. The fact that barefoot
running is associated with shorter rather than longer, or more exaggerated stride
lengths is particularly noteworthy given barefoot running is considered to most
closely represent the body’s natural running mechanics.

Barefoot running is also commonly believed to improve proprioceptive feedback

during movement. The enhanced proprioceptive feedback seems to guide the
body into more efficient movement strategies. Interestingly, this suggests that it

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is the body’s naturally smaller ROMs that correlate with increased

proprioception, not larger ROMs as previously thought. Consistent with this, a
study by James (2006) found that muscle spindle desensitization led to decreased
proprioceptive feedback and ultimately produced larger or exaggerated ranges of
motion in study participants [21]. Simply put, enhanced or optimal
proprioception, leads to smaller and more concise/compact movements with
joint angles that approximate 90 degrees, while reduced proprioceptive feedback
results in larger, exaggerated ROM’s with joint angles well in excess of 90
degrees.

Based on such studies it appears that the shorter stride length seen in barefoot
runners places the muscles in the optimal position to maximize the length-
tension relationship and optimize proprioception, in large part due to increased
muscles stiffness. Taken together these findings suggest that the natural
positions promoted by barefoot running favor more efficient mechanics, with
joint angles closer to 90-degree positions which would maximize leverage during
movement. Supporting this notion is a body of research showing that the most
efficient runners consistently exhibit 90 degree joint angles throughout their
body while running [60]. More than likely these same runners also exhibit
optimal levels of co-contraction, muscle stiffness, sarcomere length, leverage,
sensory feedback, and power output due to the fact that their muscles are
seemingly functioning, internally and externally, at or near their proper positions.
If, indeed, barefoot running strategies improve running efficiency, and the
characteristic movement patterns of efficient runners consistently approximate
90 degree joint angle positions, it stands to reason that perpendicular angles may,
in fact, represent the body’s instinctive default strategy to achieve the most
efficient and biomechanically favorable movement patterns. This, therefore,
underscores the need for training protocols that will reinforce rather than disrupt
these inherently beneficial motor qualities. Although some of this is conjecture,
these claims should hold true under further investigation, supported as they are
by the basic scientific principles of neuromuscular physiology, structural
physiology, elastic energy, and biomechanics outlined in this text.

S q u a t D epth A n a lys is a n d O ptim a l

ROM

Recent studies examining squat depth further support the concept of optimal
range of motion and 90 degree joint angle mechanics. Strength coaches have
long held the belief that larger ranges of motion, significantly greater than 90-

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degree joint angles, such as ass-to-grass squats, are ideal for building strength,
size, and power output in athletic populations, mainly because of the difficulty of
the task and the soreness associated with it. However, a recent study comparing
the effect of training at different squat depths on joint angle specific strength, as
well as transfer to sprint and jump performance, found that both partial squats
(slightly less than 90 degrees) and parallel squats (slightly greater than 90 degrees)
significantly improved vertical jump performance, with slightly greater
improvement observed in the partial squat training group, while far less transfer
was found from the deep squat training protocol (significantly greater than 90
degrees) to sprint or vertical jump performance [61]. In other words, deep or
ATG squat training improved individuals’ ability to perform ATG squats but did
not appear to enhance other sports related performance attributes. In contrast,
the groups that trained at squat joint angles closer to 90 degrees produced
superior results with significant improvements in jump and sprint performance.

90 -D eg r ee Jo in t A n g les a n d M u s c le
A c tiv a tio n

Many strength coaches and practitioners will still argue that performing
movements with greater ROM, such as ATG squats or squats well in excess of
90 degree joint angles, produce more muscle activation and ultimately greater
long-term benefits in terms of strength and hypertrophy. Even if this were true
(which it is not), the gains in strength and hypertrophy would not outweigh the
negative ramifications associated with the disruption of optimal body mechanics,
or the structural damage and inflammation of the surrounding joints. The
notion that deeper squats or a greater range of motion on any movement
produces more muscle activation is quite inaccurate, as shown in a number of
research studies that not only invalidate this myth but, in fact, suggest quite the
opposite.

Studies have shown that not only is excessive squat depth unnecessary, 90 degree
joint angle mechanics are ideal, both biomechanically and structurally, as well as
neuromuscularly, in terms of muscle activation and motor unit recruitment. In
fact, contrary to what has incessantly been preached in the strength conditioning
industry, a recent study that examined the effects of squat depth on muscle
activation, showed that moving significantly past 90 degree joint angles or
parallel positions did not produce greater muscle activation [62].

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Yet another study of squat depth and its effect on muscle activation, described
even more profound results. In this particular study the researchers examined 3
different squat depths: significantly above 90 degrees (20 degrees of knee
flexion), exactly at 90 degrees, and significantly deeper than 90 degrees
(approximately 140 degrees of knee flexion) [63]. While most practitioners
would have predicted that the deepest squats (140 degree joint angle) would
produce the greatest muscle activation in the quadriceps and gluteal muscles due
to the greatest degree of stretch, the results indicate the exact opposite. More
specifically, 90-degree joint angle squats appeared to produce the greatest muscle
activation in the thighs and glutes, followed by the short or partial squat group
(20 degrees of knee flexion), with the deep squat group (140 degrees of knee
flexion) producing the least activity in the lower body musculature. It should also
be noted that glute activity was unusually low in the deep squat group (140
degree) relative to the other groups, further contradicting the common, yet false
belief, that deeper squats are ideal for glute development. In reality, they’re quite
inferior when compared to proper squats at approximately 90 degree joint
angles.

A similar study showed that incorporating partial squats with a range of motion
of approximately 90 degrees of knee flexion in maximal strength training,
produced superior results in terms of dynamic and isometric measures of
maximal strength, as compared to performing only full ROM squats with a larger
range of motion (i.e. 120 degrees) [64]. Ironically, the group that performed
partial squats not only improved their ability to produce force at 90-degree
angles but also at larger 120 angles. In other words, it appears that using optimal
90 degree joint angle mechanics may increase strength and force production at
larger joint angles, such as 120 degrees, even more so than training exclusively at
these larger joint angles. This is likely due to the increased motor unit
recruitment and improved body mechanics associated with approximately 90
degree joint angles, which increases strength and muscularity to a far greater
degree than does collapsing and using excessive range of motion.

Simply put, the results of these studies, as well as others highlighted in prior
sections, indicate that 90 degree joint angles represent the optimal biomechanical
positions not only in terms of producing and absorbing force, and protecting the
joints, but also in terms of producing the highest levels of muscular recruitment.
In other words, due to the greater levels of motor unit recruitment and leverage,
the muscles are not only in the ideal position to produce optimal force and
torque, the 90-degree joint angles are also the safest on the joints due to the fact
that the muscles are firing at maximal levels (a key component of shock

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absorption) thereby taking the greatest amount of stress off the joints and
connective tissue. Additionally, these results suggest that from a functional
strength and hypertrophy perspective, 90-degree joint angles are ideal for
maximizing size and force production due to the improved ability to recruit
more muscle fibers, a prerequisite for optimizing muscle growth.

Lastly, it should be noted that in many of the previously mentioned squat studies
a consistent trend becomes apparent when comparing joint angles greater and
less than 90 degrees. For instance, in nearly every case it appears that while 90
degree joint angles are optimal, going significantly beyond 90 degrees (deep
squat) seems to produce far inferior results compared to stopping short (partial
squats) by nearly all measures, including muscle activation, force production,
performance, jump height, and power output. This is likely indicative of some
deeper and more profound physiological response such as neurological
inhibition and autogenic inhibition. Simply put, stopping short of 90 degree
joint angles may not fully maximize muscle activation by simply limiting the
degree of motor unit recruitment. However, going significantly beyond 90
degree joint angles appears to breach our body’s optimal range of motion,
producing varying degrees of inhibitory signals, neurological shutdown,
proprioceptive distortion, and sensory interference. These results suggest that
stopping short of 90 degrees is far superior than going significantly beyond it.

Th e Tr u th A b o u t S h ea r Fo r c es a n d
C o m pr es s iv e Fo r c es

Many studies have suggested that 90-degree joint positions produce greater shear
and compressive forces on the surrounding joints than other joint angles.
Unfortunately, this has led to many erroneous conclusions and
misinterpretations of what constitutes proper and improper movement. High
levels of shear and compressive forces on a joint (a debatable issue in and of
itself) do not necessarily result in significant trauma to that joint, or indicate that
the joint is in a potentially hazardous position. In fact, most 90-degree joint
angles create significant shear and compressive forces on the corresponding
joints, however, the actual impact and trauma on those joints is minimal due to
the fact that the surrounding musculature is in the ideal position to produce and
absorb force. Additionally, many therapeutic positions and movements involve
high levels of shear and compressive forces, suggesting that narrowly focusing
on shear and compressive force issues alone, rather than as part of a larger, more
complex system, is very uninformative, and actually quite misleading.

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A helpful illustration is provided by comparing the widely popular Romanian

deadlift (RDL) or barbell hip hinge and the deadlift. We know, from the
perspective of force vector physics, that the bent over torso position produces
very high levels of sheer and compressive forces on the spine, yet as long as
spinal alignment, hip hinge mechanics, and proper form are employed, not only
is the RDL quite safe on the spine, it’s extremely healthy and therapeutic. On
the other hand, from a shear and compressive force standpoint while a very
upright deadlift position, technically speaking, would incur very little stress on
the spine, if the spine is flexed, the amount of strain and risk to the spine would
be exponentially greater compared to performing an RDL or hip hinge with
pristine 90 degree joint angle mechanics.

However, if we compared the two based solely on the principles of shear and
compressive forces, we would conclude that the upright deadlift position with a
flexed spine is far safer than the biomechanically efficient RDL with neutral
spinal mechanics, yet we know the opposite to be the case. In other words, as
mentioned above, shear and compressive forces are two of many factors that,
when considered in isolation from other factors, can be quite misleading and
even produce false assumptions about what constitutes proper
mechanics. Factors dealing with movement mechanics such as, spinal integrity,
joint arthrokinematics, joint positioning, proprioception, neurophysiology, and
muscle activation are much more critical in the long run.

It is critical, therefore, that we examine this biomechanical component in the

context of other factors including neurophysiological and structural components
such as proprioception, intrafusal muscle fiber innervation, agonist antagonist
co-contraction, reciprocal inhibition, muscle stiffness properties, elastic energy,
lever arms, the length-tension relationship of muscle fibers, and somatosensory
feedback to name a few. All of these factors, when looked at closely, and as
previously discussed, show that 90-degree joint positions are ideal for the human
body not just some of the time, but nearly all of the time. These concepts are
scientific constructs that remain constant from person to person, the exception
being individuals born with some extreme musculoskeletal abnormality or
deformity.

Finally, how we view the human body is extremely important when considering
this and all other biomechanical and movement related topics. If we were to
isolate the bony structures of the body and view it simply as a skeleton or set of
robotic segments, with no connection to the neuromuscular system, then shear
force and compressive forces might provide great insight. However, when we

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examine the body in its totality, as one large, complex system governed by
anatomical, neurophysiological, biomechanical, and physical principles, it
completely alters the dynamics of what constitutes therapeutic movements and
contra-therapeutic movements.

Pr a c tic a l R es ea r c h S tu d ies
D em o n s tr a tin g Fa u lty M u s c le
Fu n c tio n

Many of the previous sections were laid out specifically to demonstrate the lack
of proper guidelines and protocols in main-stream strength and conditioning
settings, and point out potential adverse effects associated with such training.
Because many current guidelines promote movements that utilize positions and
techniques counter to the body’s natural structural and physiological
mechanisms, individuals participating in these forms of training may be at greater
risk of developing physical issues associated with muscle dysfunction, eventually
becoming vulnerable to what I call the “Muscle Malady Cascade Effect”. In this
pernicious chain of events one issue leads to the next, ultimately perpetuating a
host of negative consequences. Simply put, improper “muscle use” stemming
from faulty training parameters, predisposing genetic factors, or poor
environmental conditions, leads to muscle dysfunction, which creates and
reinforces faulty movement patterns.

This, in turn, leads to musculoskeletal injuries, muscular spasticity, and ultimately

inflammation and oxidative stress. Because, as discussed at length in prior
sections, inflammation and oxidative stress are associated with many known
physical maladies, this compromises nearly all manner of physiological function
and overall health and wellness. As a consequence the individual will experience
accelerated aging, cellular and physiological deterioration, compromised
physiological function, impaired athletic and everyday performance, and a
generally lower quality of life.

Although the “Muscle Malady Cascade Effect” may sound extreme and difficult
to fully comprehend, the muscle dysfunction endocrine response and associated
inflammation process described in chapter 2 supports this notion. The following
two examples of traditional resistance training and its effects on muscle function
suggest that such a cataclysmic chain of physiological events is not only likely but
probable unless measures are taken to counteract it.

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An in depth study by Kolber et al. (2009) examined the relationship between

resistance training and muscle function in general populations. The study
compared muscle function in the shoulder region between recreational
weightlifters and those who had no previous weight training experience. Results
showed that the recreational weightlifters displayed significantly greater muscular
imbalances of the upper body and dysfunction of the shoulder region compared
to control subjects with no training experience. The authors concluded that
reductions in mobility and range of motion, as well as poor reciprocal
(agonists/antagonist) muscle strength ratios, predisposed those subjects with
resistance training experience to higher risk of injury and shoulder pathology
[65]. One could make a strong argument that a key factor underlying these
muscular imbalances was related to improper exercise execution just as much as
it was to poor program design. It should be noted, however, that although the
recreational lifters reportedly performed more movements that focused on the
anterior portion of their body (barbell presses, dumbbell presses, flyes, etc.),
most of them also incorporated some form of loading to their posterior chain
with movements such as lat pulldowns.

Furthermore, nearly half of the recreational weightlifters reported either having

their program designed by a certified professional (personal trainer, strength and
conditioning specialist, physical therapist, or athletic trainer), or being certified
themselves. Faulty programming, therefore, likely accounted for a small fraction
of the results. Most likely, the key culprit was faulty mechanics and improper
form. Although not measured during this study, given the association of muscle
dysfunction with inflammation and oxidative stress, it would not be farfetched to
assume that the individuals who exhibited improper upper extremity muscle
function also produced a greater than normal inflammatory response. The
results of this study, therefore, strongly support the notion that orthodox
resistance training may have deleterious effects on muscle function as well as
overall health.

In addition to the above study several larger case studies, including one from the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), suggest that individuals who
participate in strength training routines are far more likely to experience a number
of orthopedic ailments including shoulder joint issues [66, 67]. Other studies
have shown that individuals who regularly perform strength training protocols
appear to be predisposed to anterior instability and hyperlaxity, all of which can
further disrupt body mechanics and lead to numerous forms of injuries and
orthopedic issues [68]. Unfortunately, these ailments are not simply limited to
pain and discomfort, as inflammation resulting from faulty muscle function can

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trigger a chain of undesirable effects and physiological damage (i.e. Muscle

Malady Cascade Effect), as highlighted numerous times throughout this text.

Although the above examples highlight the prevalence of muscular imbalances in

individuals lacking proper instruction, as well as those lacking proficient
technique, similarly impaired muscle function can be observed in individuals
under professional coaching and using systematically implemented strength
training protocols. A study by Laudner (2012), assessed proprioception and
muscle function of the upper extremities by examining the differences in
sensorimotor control among division 1 football players and active college age
male controls. Study subjects performed balance trials in an eyes-closed, single
arm pushup position, with the test arm on the center of a force platform, and
feet on a Bosu ball. Differences in radial area deviation between groups were
then calculated. The results of this study showed a significantly greater radial area
deviation in football players compared to the control group, reflecting decreased
sensorimotor control as a result of impaired muscle function and proprioception
[69]. Although the author of the study postulates that poor performance in the
experimental group (football players) could be indicative of the high degree of
contact related injuries in the sport, it should be noted that none of the
participants in this investigation, including the football players, had a recent
history (past 2 years) of any incident that would have affected their sensorimotor
control, such as upper extremity injury, upper extremity surgery, or neurological
disorder.

The above findings are surprising given division 1 athletes would be expected to
exhibit superior sensorimotor control, proprioception, and overall muscle
function when compared to their non-athlete counterparts. In fact, division 1
athletes, typically partake in strength training and movement drills designed and
methodically implemented by professional strength and conditioning coaches
with the goal of improving various markers of muscle function, including
strength, balance, stability, and overall movement control [4].

However, as shown in this study, the traditional “state of the art” training
protocols used in collegiate settings, not only failed to produce high levels of
movement control and muscle function, they actually showed significant
reductions and impairments of sensorimotor control compared to non-athletes.
One could argue, therefore, that the condition of no training would produce
superior results in muscle function when compared to the effects seen in those
participating in traditional resistance training programs. Unlike the first study in
which recreational lifters were largely left to their own devices to implement their

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training routines, the study comparing collegiate athletes to untrained control

subjects highlights the fact that even when “correct”, implementation of a
traditional training program, and adherence to commonly accepted training
ideas, is not an effective way to correct or achieve proper muscle function.

In essence, the issue comes down to inappropriate movement parameters and

protocols that dictate exaggerated ranges of motion and are promulgated not
only in typical gym and fitness settings, but also in collegiate and professional
sports. Movements such as lowering the bar down to the chest on flat and
incline bench press, touching the upper chest on lat pulldowns, and squatting
significantly beyond joint angles of 90 degrees, though commonplace in
weightlifting settings, are movement patterns in which sarcomere length and
biomechanics are suboptimal [6, 31, 32]. This promotes the breaching of natural
body positions and alterations in neurophysiological mechanisms such that
proprioception and kinesthetic awareness are attenuated. Even if a trainer or
trainee arbitrarily stumbles upon proper movement techniques that conform to
the concepts highlighted in this text, they will rarely be adhered to, as precise
execution of movement patterns is often times undervalued and never fully
understood to the extent it should be.

The results from the previous studies point to drastic flaws in current strength
and conditioning/resistance training guidelines. Supposed expert advice,
implemented in main-stream training settings may, in fact, predispose individuals
to greater muscle dysfunction and impaired performance, as well as the negative
ramifications associated with the “Muscle Malady Cascade Effect”
(inflammation, sickness, accelerated aging, etc.)

As discussed in prior sections, issues associated with strength training and its
adverse effects on muscle function are most often related to the improper
movement parameters associated with orthodox resistance training rather than
the general nature of the exercise and movement itself. Exercise and movement
should be inherently therapeutic and promote wellness. Therefore, any form of
movement and exercise that produces any degree of adverse effects in terms of
muscle dysfunction and pathology as a by-product of training should not be
accepted as a normal part of any training routine. If an activity produces a
contra-therapeutic rather than a therapeutic effect one must, instead, question its
efficacy and scrutinize every angle of it in order to correct it.

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Anecdotal Cases
Demonstrating Faulty
Muscle Function
Th e A n ti-Ex ten s io n Fa d

Specific cases based on actual training scenarios, although anecdotal, can also
prove to be quite convincing as examples of muscle dysfunction arising from
traditional resistance training methods. One such example is the anti-extension
fitness fad popularized over the last decade by many trainers, coaches, and
therapists, after numerous kinesiology professionals and renowned strength
coaches began to notice and document a recurring trend of lumbar region back
issues in their athletes and clients. These appeared to be associated with
excessive extension patterns (i.e. low back arch) that ultimately produced low
back pain and other accompanying symptoms which led to the conclusion that,
perhaps, they had had their clients perform an overabundance of foundational
movement patterns such as rows, presses, squats, pulldowns, lunges, and other
traditional exercises, while locked into positions with excessive extension.

Numerous other possible explanations and potential solutions have been put
forth, most of which provide only mild improvement of symptoms. For
example, it was suggested that perhaps there was an overabundance of these
foundational movements included in training routines. An alternative suggestion
was that the movements involved positions with excessive extension. As a result
many professionals began to recommend the addition of exercises that impose a
significant posterior pelvic tilt into training routines (i.e. the glute bridge fad).
Additional recommendations included adjusting the position and technique of
movements to limit posterior chain/shoulder retraction and spinal extension.

An alternative explanation, consistent with the studies cited above, is that the
observed symptoms were due to faulty movement patterns. That is, a close look
at the methods used to perform each of the movement patterns (rows, presses,
squats, hinges, lunges etc.) shows that many, if not all of the movements,
consistently incorporated a traditional full range of motion, such as, for example,
squats at or below parallel, pushups on handles for a greater stretch, pressing
movements with the bar lowered to the chest, pull-ups with the chin rising above
the bar, dumbbell chest presses with exaggerated stretch, rows with the elbows
moving past the plane of the torso, and lunges in overly upright positions with

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joint angles greater than 90 degrees, all of which also happen to be generally in
keeping with the guidelines mandated by many professional certifying bodies
including the NSCA and ACSM [4, 6]. Unfortunately, despite being
methodically carried out and executed according to the official specifications
outlined by professional organizations and “experts”, many of the movements
performed are deeply flawed. The fact is these movement specifications are not
based on fundamental neurophysiological and biomechanical principles. Instead,
they directly contradict foundational theories of optimal sarcomere length for
maximal force production. The result is production of movements that
incorporate overly stretched or overly shortened end range positions as
described in earlier sections.

Based on the scientific principles that govern muscle function discussed in prior
sections, and as illustrated by the example above, a strong case can be made that
performing movements with exaggerated motions, even if executed deliberately
and intentionally according to current guidelines, can result in impaired muscle
function and postural abnormalities. More noteworthy is the notion that such
postural abnormalities perpetuate compensation patterns and muscle
dysfunctions that ultimately lead to the Muscle Malady Cascade Effect, that is,
weakness, spasticity, inflammation, oxidative stress, and the plethora of negative
health consequences associated with these. Simply put, the excessive extension
patterns observed in many populations over the years, and repeatedly
documented in the fitness industry, were not so much a result of poor exercise
selection but rather, the result of improper execution of basic movement
patterns, forcing the body to adjust to these exaggerated ROM’s and faulty
patterns by creating excessive extension, particularly in the lumbar region. This
compensation pattern is commonly observed when optimal ROM is breached, as
the individual must forfeit proper spinal alignment and abandon core tightness in
order to achieve these exaggerated depths and ROM’s. In contrast, when
movement patterns are performed with an optimal ROM the spine and core can
remain fully locked in position and the body has no reason to compensate or
produce excessive extension in order to accommodate exaggerated positions.

For example, when performing seated rows, a commonly practiced and

advocated method of rowing involves moving the elbows significantly past the
plane of the torso and beyond 90 degrees. In order to achieve this position an
individual has 2 main options. The first method, which is typically not
recommended, is to allow the shoulders to round, protract, and elevate, which
almost inevitably leads to slight forward flexion of the head. The second method,
and most common instructional cue used over the years in the fitness industry, is

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to try to avoid elevating or protracting the shoulders, which inevitably leads to

excessive lumbar extension and over-arching, as some part of the body must
compensate to allow for this excessive ROM. Simply put, the two options are:
lose position in the shoulder and thoracic spinal region, or lose proper alignment
in the lumbar spine. As noted above, however, neither of these compensation
patterns would be necessary if optimal ROM was emphasized over excessive
ROM.

Unfortunately, up until the last decade the fitness industry had typically been less
concerned with lumbar positioning, focusing instead on avoiding faulty shoulder
and poor thoracic spinal positioning, most likely because these are more obvious
and easier to detect. Because excessive range of motion was, and continues to be
advocated, however, it is the lumbar spinal region that has been the main target
of compensation patterns, contributing in large part to what has now become the
anti-extension fad. The end result is that the fitness industry has spent years
going in circles, attempting to solve the anti-extension epidemic, the answer to
which is almost unbelievably simple: perform foundational movement patterns
with 90-degree joint angle mechanics and optimal range of motion and proper
body alignment will inevitably follow, eliminating the need for elaborate
strategies to combat unnecessary compensation patterns, which by definition will
become non-existent.

Th e C o n c en tr ic -O n ly Fa d

Yet another practical example of flawed guidelines commonly incorporated into

today’s strength training programs is the latest popular trend in strength and
conditioning known as ‘concentric-only training’. Many renown strength coaches
and performance experts employ training techniques that utilize concentric-only
exercises in the form of sled/prowler drills (pushes, pulls, drags, and related
variations), combat rope movements, band exercises, crawls, loaded carries,
isometric drills, partial rep movements, and modified medicine ball drills, all of
which minimize the eccentric phase of muscle movement. Concentric-only
training is also applied to free weight movements such as deadlifts, rack pulls,
rack squats, and rack presses, by performing an uncontrolled eccentric phase, or
simply dropping the weight, thereby eliminating the eccentric portion of the lift
altogether [70, 71]. Although many of these techniques appear to be relatively
effective, acting as novel stimuli and unique training variations, research studies,
as well as fundamental neurophysiological principles, argue against overuse of

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this training strategy, or replacing traditional resistance training and eccentric-

based movements with concentric-only training.

While numerous strength coaches are now programming greater amounts of

concentric-only training techniques and less eccentric based activities into many
of their clients’ programs noting improved recovery, reduced muscle damage and
soreness, and the ability to train at higher frequencies, a large body of literature
comparing eccentric and concentric movements suggests eccentric movements
are superior in nearly all aspects of performance, including gains in strength and
hypertrophy [72]. Furthermore, the basic neurophysiological concepts of
proprioception and muscle spindle recruitment suggest that the eccentric phase
of resistance training is not only a natural element of physical movement,
eliminating it may compromise proper positioning, technique, and kinesthetic
awareness, as concentric-only movements exhibit significantly lower levels of
intrafusal fiber activation compared to their eccentric counterparts due to the
lack of a stretch or pre-stretch/pre-loading phase immediately prior to the
concentric movement [4].

It is ironic that such a powerful mechanism as the eccentric contraction, touted

for years as the key to maximizing strength training success, is now considered to
be potentially detrimental to training progress and overall improvements in
performance. That is not to say that many of the strength coaches and
performance experts referred to above have fully eliminated the eccentric phase
of movements. In fact, many of them rightfully point out the importance of
adapting to eccentric overload. However, the fact remains that eccentric
movement, or movements that incorporate an accentuated eccentric phase or
even an orthodox eccentric component, are becoming less popular while
concentric-only movements are growing in popularity. The question is why? Is
this trend warranted by the fact that these strength coaches have regularly
noticed soreness, CNS fatigue, and impaired recovery from performing eccentric
movements?

Other performance experts and practitioners have documented that the eccentric
portion of many movements appears to cause soreness, CNS fatigue, elevation in
catabolic hormones, metabolic disturbances, insulin resistance, as well as overall
impairments to performance and hypertrophy. Many of these claims have, in
fact, been substantiated by studies showing that muscle soreness and damage
associated with eccentric movements are, indeed, linked to the adverse effects
mentioned above [37, 38, 73]. Ironically, many of the same coaches who have
become strong advocates for concentric-only training had, in prior years,

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advocated the consistent implementation of eccentric training methods based on

studies that showed the powerful effects of such methods. Unfortunately, after
witnessing the plethora of negative consequences accompanying traditional
eccentric training methods, many of these coaches have, over the years, changed
their stance considerably, now favoring predominantly concentric-based training
methods and employing eccentric training protocols only periodically.

This paradox reflects two key elements directly related to proper positioning and
90 degree joint angle movements. First, the growing popularity in concentric-
only movements is likely a result of strength coaches and performance experts
following typical guidelines that compromise key principles of muscle function
(i.e. 90 degree joint angle positions and optimal sarcomere length) by utilizing
excessive ROM’s that breach the body’s natural movement barrier. Excessive
trauma to the muscles and surrounding structures, induced by exaggerated
positions, impedes recovery and promotes excessive soreness and muscle
damage. This, in turn, creates heightened levels of inflammation and oxidative
stress, further perpetuating a catabolic state, as well as numerous health and
performance issues associated with inflammation. It is justifiable, therefore, for
most professionals in the field to react to these symptoms by pointing out the
disastrous effects of typical training protocols. However, the solution to the
problem is not elimination or reduction of eccentric movements. Doing so is not
only ineffective, it actually masks the root of the problem. In reality, it is the
faulty movement patterns and improper positions that produce the unwanted
effects, not the eccentric movements themselves.

In essence, eccentric actions are naturally therapeutic to the body, as is all

appropriate movement. However, if motions are exaggerated and muscle-
tendon units are stretched beyond their ideal position, excessive micro-trauma,
muscle damage, and inflammation ensue, negating much of the therapeutic
benefit. In fact, a study by Nosaka et al. (2001), found that the typical adverse
effects associated with eccentric muscle damage may be related more so to
performing these eccentric movements in excessively stretched positions (i.e. at
joint angles significantly greater than 90 degrees) than to the actual eccentric
movements themselves when performed within the natural limits of ROM (i.e. at
joint angles of roughly 90 degrees) [74]. In essence, this and other studies by
Nasaka show that, compared to the same movements performed in exaggerated
positions of stretch, maximal eccentric movements performed within moderate
ranges of motion produce the usual benefits associated with eccentric-based
movements while limiting any signs of muscle damage and inflammation [74,
75].

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The solution lies then not in eliminating eccentric movements, but rather in
appropriately re-defining what constitutes proper eccentric movements or any
other type of human movement. This can only be accomplished by isolating the
key factors that cause deleterious physical symptoms, and making the necessary
corrections based on neurophysiological and biomechanical principles. Once
professionals in the field incorporate the adjustments outlined in this text,
eccentric-based movements will reclaim their proper place in strength and
conditioning modalities as an extremely powerful mechanism to induce optimal
changes in performance and muscle function, rather than the host of negative
physiological consequences currently associated with such lengthening
contractions.

The second key element underlying the shift away from eccentric movement to
concentric-only movement relates to the fitness professionals’ ever-changing
views of strength training, or what I refer to as the “wavering fitness guru”. The
previous example, served to illustrate the fact that, over the years and based on
their writings, renowned strength coaches have changed their positions on
eccentric accentuated movement, eventually contradicting their own training
recommendations. This is not meant as criticism of these professionals. Rather,
it is meant to illustrate a common quandary in the field of exercise and strength
training which is the inconsistency found within the field, not only between
experts, but within individual experts who over time often contradict their own
principles.

Although kinesiology is an ever evolving field and it is, therefore, only

appropriate and natural for practitioners to modify their positions on exercise
and movement guidelines, the degree of discordant and contradictory
information advocated by kinesiologists represents misguided efforts from
experts who focus on less relevant topics of strength training while altogether
failing to address the fundamental, and all around critical issues of movement
patterns, muscle function, and movement parameters such as those outlined in
this text. Emphasis on periodization, de-loading phases, repetition protocols,
high intensity techniques, order of exercises, volume of training, corrective
exercises, loading parameters, weight percentages, muscle confusion, and other
so called advanced programming strategies represent semi-futile attempts to
manage the ill effects elicited by inappropriate movement parameters often times
incorporated simultaneously with these training strategies. In essence, routines
that utilize dysfunctional movement patterns will inherently require advanced
programming strategies, rationing of eccentric movements, and large shifts and
training modalities in order to cope with the host of adverse effects associated

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with improper movement techniques. In contrast, training routines that include

proper movement parameters require little, if any, of the excessive programming
manipulation mentioned above, thus, the concern regarding excessive trauma
from eccentric movement, periodization, muscle confusion, loading parameters,
recovery management, and similar training strategies become insignificant in
comparison to proper technique, positioning, movement mechanics and other
essential markers of muscle function.

Th er a peu tic -In d u c ed Pa th o lo g y

Over the past decade soft tissue modalities have become an increasingly popular
form of musculoskeletal therapeutic interventions [76]. The effectiveness of
these interventions was discussed previously (see chapter 2). This section is,
instead, focused on the cause underlying the need for soft tissue work. As
previously noted, proper movement is inherently a natural therapeutic
intervention. Unfortunately, over the years, many professionals in the field have
noticed worrisome trends in terms of muscle tightness, mobility issues, and other
markers of dysfunctional muscles associated with various exercise programs and
particularly strength training.

Such trends are likely responsible for the popular surge of soft tissue tools such
as foam rollers, body sticks, message balls, and other products related to
myofascial release. Similarly, numerous therapies such as massage, corrective
exercises, mobility work, flexibility training, Yoga, breathing exercises, pelvic re-
alignment drills, stretching, chiropractic adjustments, and manual therapy, as well
as other interventions requiring the assistance of a professional, appear to be
growing in popularity, particularly among individuals participating in exercise
programs. In fact, many such interventions are marketed to users as a way to
relax and release the muscular tension produced from activities such as strength
training [5].

Ironically, exercise interventions such as resistance training are theoretically

intended to have secondary benefits including muscular relaxation, diminished
muscular tension, and restoration of normal muscle function. Unfortunately, the
benefits of strength training as a form of therapy are rarely experienced to the
degree they should be. Instead, strength training often times exacerbates the
issues, leading individuals to seek other therapeutic interventions, such as the
various forms of soft tissue work, massage, physical therapy, and stretching
programs to treat the adverse effects. Simply put, one form of therapy begets the

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need for another to counteract the effects of the first. In essence, the rapid
growth in popularity of soft tissue work has come about due to the inclusion of
faulty movement patterns in most recommended strength training programs and
parameters.

If indeed movement is executed as it should, according to the guidelines laid out

in this text and in keeping with how our bodies were created, little to no ill
effects will occur as the therapeutic intervention will work as intended,
abolishing the need for further treatment modalities such as soft tissue
mobilization techniques and corrective drills. Furthermore, it should be
understood that although soft tissue, mobility, and flexibility modalities are often
used for post training purposes, they are also commonly used immediately prior
to training in the form of movement preparation drills. The compulsion that
drives trainees and movement specialists alike to include such techniques before
training sessions, often as a means of coaxing the body into excessive ROM’s, is
not only unnecessary, it is further indication that exaggerated movements are
being incorporated into the training program.

Mobility techniques are overemphasized with the hope of preparing and

ultimately forcing individuals’ bodies into exaggerated resistance training
positions. These overstretched positions create breaches throughout the
musculoskeletal system that produce further tightness and spasticity, which in
turn necessitates treatment with more soft tissue and mobility drills, a classic
example of a vicious cycle. Furthermore, research studies are now showing that
foam rolling alters optimal activation of antagonistic muscles, thereby producing
faulty movement patterns due to the fact that reciprocal muscle groups cannot
function together as they should via eccentric induced co-contraction – an
essential element of proper movement, proprioception, and motor control [77].

In conclusion, if soft tissue treatment is needed on a relatively consistent basis,

either before or after training, a likely explanation is the training program is
flawed and includes improper movement patterns and parameters.

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Section Four
Putting It All Together

Up to this point, this text has focused on presenting the reader with an
explanation of muscle function and dysfunction, and presenting evidence in
support of the notion that muscle dysfunction is associated with chronic
systemic inflammation and its numerous downstream negative health
consequences, including many modern day diseases and accelerated aging. In
addition, several of the prior sections were spent discussing current guidelines
for exercise execution and explaining how these movement parameters directly
contradict fundamental principles and concepts of neuromuscular physiology,
structural physiology, and biomechanics. It was further established that using the
commonly advocated movement parameters described in the current literature
and in official exercise guidelines, erroneously re-programs the body’s natural
movement patterns, making an individual even more prone to faulty movement
mechanics. This promotes impaired muscle function, the end result of which is
the “Muscle Malady Cascade Effect”. As such, it becomes imperative to lay out
specific rules and criteria, based on scientific principles, that will maximize an
individual’s potential for mastering movement patterns and neuromuscular re-
education procedures.

The central and key point made thus far is that proper positioning, which often
incorporates 90 degree joint angles, is most advantageous not only from a
performance standpoint, but also from a health and wellness standpoint, as
excessive ranges of motion breach the body’s natural safety and proprioceptive
mechanisms, and promote muscle dysfunction and inflammation. Therefore,
reprogramming the nervous system step by step, with the precise motor
programs needed to operate within the confines of 90 degree joint angles or
“perfect positions”, becomes critical. The next several chapters will lay out how
this can be done.

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Chapter 4

Eccentric
Isometrics
Defined

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD

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CHAPTER 4
Eccentric
Isometrics
Defined
Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic s : Th e K ey to
Pr o per M u s c le Fu n c tio n

n the previous chapters we outlined why optimal muscle function is so

i
critical for performance and overall health. We also highlighted key
variables and characteristics of proper muscle function based on the
basic tenets of neurophysiology, biomechanics, and structural
physiology. While understanding these elements is noteworthy, it would
all be utterly useless without a method and protocol through which to
apply these principles and maximize muscle function.

In other words, if achieving the body’s most natural ROMs is indeed as crucial as
the prior sections suggest, appropriate training techniques, protocols, and
movement cues to guide trainees into precise and optimal movement patterns
and ROMs are an absolute requirement. It is my belief, and experience, that
such a series of precise technique pointers and training methodology not only
exist, they may, in fact, be the key to solving the dilemma of proper muscle
function and unlocking some of the hidden benefits of training that the scientific
community, the health and wellness industry, and the sports science field have
yet to uncover. That method is what I refer to as the eccentric isometric training
protocol.

The fact is I have found nothing more effective for optimizing muscle function
and physiological performance than eccentric isometrics. So what makes

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eccentric isometrics so effective? They literally promote and reinforce every

aspect of proper muscle function discussed in the previous sections, maximizing
health, performance, fitness, and physiological function by promoting optimal
physiological re-wiring via neuromuscular re-education. But before we address
the scientific principles that make this method so effective it is imperative we
first capture and understand the practical elements of eccentric isometrics.

Overview of
Eccentric Isometrics
At a basic overview level, eccentric isometrics (EIs) simply involve performing
the eccentric or negative phase of a lift in a slow and controlled manner then
holding the stretched position for a given duration before completing the actual
lifting or concentric phase of the movement.

At first glance eccentric isometrics appear relatively simple and, in fact, may
seem somewhat similar to the traditional pause reps advocated by some
powerlifters, Olympic lifters, and bodybuilders. However, there are numerous
and, oftentimes, fairly subtle elements that make eccentric isometrics unique and
significantly different from any other training method.

Th e U ltim a te R ep

More specifically, eccentric isometrics describes movements in which the

eccentric phase is performed in a very slow, methodical, deliberate fashion,
usually lasting 3-5 seconds. Such an extended and slow eccentric phase prevents
the lifter from merely going through the motions, forcing them to focus instead
on fine-tuning their mechanics and movement patterns by using sensory
feedback from proprioceptive mechanisms. This is immediately followed by a
pause or isometric hold in the stretched position, that is, at the end of the
eccentric phase, for an additional 2-7 seconds. Here again, the lifter does not
simply pause for the sake of pausing, instead, the goal is to reinforce in the CNS
the proper movement mechanics produced as a result of the extended eccentric
phase, assuming it was performed correctly. This is accomplished by holding the
correct position with perfect mechanics for several seconds. The repetition is
completed with a very powerful and forceful concentric phase that should occur

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almost naturally if, once again, the eccentric isometric phase was performed
properly.

Described above is what occurs externally. Quite a few things also happen
internally, at both the intramuscular and neuromuscular levels. What follows is a
breakdown of the various external and internal components that should be
implemented when performing eccentric isometrics.

D u r a tio n O f Th e Ec c en tr ic Ph a s e

Although it is critical that the eccentric phase of the repetition be slow enough to
optimize the closed loop model of movement to its fullest potential (more on
this topic in chapter 5), it should not be excessively slow. As noted above, a
slow, controlled eccentric repetition will, theoretically, enhance proprioceptive
and somatosensory feedback and prompt the fine-tuning and adjustment of
movement patterns. Over-exaggerating this may, however, be counterproductive.
Intrafusal fibers respond not only to the amount or degree of stretch (static
response), but also to the rate of stretch (dynamic response). In fact, the
dynamic response may be just as critical, if not more so, than the static response
when it comes to enhancing somatosensory feedback during movement, due to
the fact that the primary 1a sensory fibers, which are emphasized during the
dynamic response, have faster conduction of action potentials than the
secondary II fibers utilized during the static response. Therefore, it is critical to
maximize the contribution of both the static and dynamic response, particularly
the information stemming from the primary 1a sensory fibers due to the strong
and rapid feedback they produce. In essence, the speed at which the movement
is performed, particularly during the eccentric action, has to fall within a
relatively narrow margin in order to maximize somatosensory feedback. If the
movement is too fast, vital components related to the closed loop model of
motor learning, such as movement modification and fine-tuning of body
positioning, will be neglected while movement that is too slow may not fully
maximize the powerful sensory information provided by the intrafusal fibers’
dynamic response.

Although it is difficult to determine exactly the ideal speed of eccentric

contraction that is needed to maximize sensory-integrated movement, when
practically applied to athletes and various lifters I’ve found that 3-5 seconds is
ideal. Eccentric movements comprised of slower motions (>5 seconds) may
minimize the dynamic response of muscle spindles and induce unnecessary

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fatigue. Contraction-induced muscular fatigue has been shown to alter muscle

spindle function and distort kinesthetic awareness and proprioception.
Therefore, it is essential to limit this component in order to optimize sensory
feedback.

It should be noted that exact timing is less important than the quality of
eccentric control, intramuscular tension, and neuromuscular fine-tuning. Simply
put, a 2-3 second eccentric contraction focused on the quality of the movement
is far superior to a 5 second poorly controlled and executed eccentric movement.
The lifter should focus more on finding a speed of eccentric contraction that
maximizes their body’s mechanics rather than attempting to adhere to an exact
pre-set speed. For most lifters this will be between 3-5 seconds, although
periodic use of slightly faster and slightly slower tempos are warranted provided
it occurs naturally for the lifter.

Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic D u r a tio n

Generally speaking, each eccentric isometric position should be held for

approximately 2-7 seconds. Anything less foregoes the benefits associated with
the lengthened position. More than this and fatigue accumulation may cause
technique to deteriorate and lead to the possible relaxation or collapse of
muscles while in the stretched position. The dynamic response of muscle
spindles which, as mentioned above, is more powerful than the static response, is
thought to last for only a few seconds, therefore, continuing much beyond this
point is unnecessary and potentially counterproductive.

U s e N a tu r a l R a n g e O f M o tio n N o t
M a x im a l R a n g e O f M o tio n

When it comes to range of motion the goal is never maximal, or excessively large
movements. Instead, the goal is an optimal, and natural range of motion which,
for most movements, almost always happens to be at approximately 90 degree or
perpendicular joint angles. Each aspect of proper movement and eccentric
isometrics is predicated on this. In fact, when performing eccentric isometrics,
the lifter should remain as tight as possible while using the optimal/natural range
of motion. In other words, don’t collapse.

As discussed in the previous chapter, studies have shown a strong relationship

between muscle stiffness, range of motion, proprioception, and fatigue. That is,

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fatigue, faulty recruitment patterns, or conscious relaxation of muscles, leads to

decreased muscle stiffness, thereby decreasing proprioception, and ultimately
producing movements with larger ranges of motion (i.e. increased flexibility) in
excess of 90 degree joint angles. Because poor proprioception and large or
exaggerated range of motion are related, with one often leading to the other, it is
imperative that one use a natural or full range of motion, not an excessive ROM.

Fortunately, eccentric isometrics are highly conducive to the incorporation of

ideal ranges of motion as the emphasis on the slow eccentric which requires full
body tension, tightness and, ultimately, enhanced proprioceptive feedback allows
the lifter to feel and tune into the ideal positions. In fact, it’s quite easy for the
lifter to sense, through somatosensory feedback, where the optimal 90-degree
joint angle position is, as it tends to feel very locked in, strong, and natural. The
lifter can also feel when they are going to collapse and terminate the motion just
before that occurs. Ultimately, this makes eccentric isometrics highly practical as
a means of reinforcing 90-degree joint angle mechanics and avoiding faulty
positions.

As has been emphasized throughout this text, for most movement patterns,
optimal range of motion entails approximately perpendicular positions, 90-
degree joint angles, and parallel joint segments. Significantly deviating from
these biomechanical constructs by incorporating extreme joint angles not only
compromises torque and force production, it also places undue stress on the
surrounding joints and connective tissue.

The last thing a lifter wants to do is to train their body to breach the natural
protective barrier that is meant to guard them from contorting into
biomechanically and neuromuscularly compromised positions. In other words, a
natural, or full range of motion is desirable, while an excessive range of motion
means the muscles had to relax, or collapse, indicating decreased stiffness,
decreased sensory signaling from proprioceptors and, most importantly,
reinforcement of dysfunctional movement patterns that will inevitably transfer to
other related movements.

The duration of the holds, a key element of eccentric isometrics, is also related to
the issue of excessive ROM and collapsed muscles. If the individual pauses too
long while in the bottom, stretched position, they will inevitably collapse into an
overly stretched position due to excessive fatigue. This runs counter to the goal
of eccentric isometrics which is proper motor programming, that is,
programming of the CNS to direct the body to move in a biomechanically

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advantageous way, avoiding unnatural positions that overstretch the tendons,

ligaments and connective tissue. Once this occurs, the muscles no longer absorb
force properly, which leads to inflammation in and around the joints and
muscles and, consequently, spasticity, poor mobility, and dysfunctional
movement patterns.

Furthermore, exaggerated positions using excessive ROM will compromise the

potentiation response and most likely cause neuromuscular inhibition, in much
the same way as static stretching does, temporarily decreasing power and force
production by overly relaxing the muscles. As with any proper motor
programming, the aim is muscle spindle re-sensitization (i.e. enhanced sensory
feedback) not muscle spindle de-sensitization (i.e. blunted sensory feedback).
Unfortunately, many forms of training including most forms of strength training,
corrective exercise, mobility work, flexibility training, Yoga, Pilates, stretching,
and manual therapy reinforce these faulty activation patterns, desensitizing
muscle spindles, thereby distorting somatosensory feedback and proprioception.

Pr o per B r ea th in g

As will be discussed in later chapters, eccentric isometrics, when performed

correctly, do wonders when it comes to correcting breathing patterns in general.
However, to ensure their proper implementation, it is important to address
specific components of the breathing process during EI’s themselves. During the
actual movement breathing should be kept to a minimum but it is still vital. Any
deep breaths should be taken in between reps, typically immediately before the
eccentric contraction or at the initiation of the eccentric contraction, then let out
once past the sticking point on the concentric phase of the lift. During the
majority of the eccentric phase and the eccentric isometric the lifter should either
hold their breath or breathe lightly, as if sipping air through a straw. Essentially,
it will be a modified Valsalva maneuver.

Deep breaths during the eccentric phase will inevitably result in loss of tightness
and muscle collapse. Because muscle stiffness is critical for maximizing muscle
function and proprioception, deep breathing during an intense repetition will
impair proper movement patterns and potentially raise the risk of injury.

The idea of taking deep exaggerated breaths during repetitions of strength

training is something the fitness industry has been erroneously promoting for
decades. Many professional organizations and certifying bodies in the fitness

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industry, such as the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), suggest that
blood pressure and heart rate will spike to dangerously high levels unless large
exaggerated breaths are taken while strength training. In addition, it has often
been suggested that holding one’s breath in any way while in the midst of intense
strength training is detrimental to blood pressure and cardiovascular health.
However, these concerns are misplaced and unsubstantiated. In fact, various
studies have actually refuted this notion. A transient increase, or spike, in both
heart rate and (systolic) blood pressure is a normal response to exercise in order
to pump more blood and oxygen to working muscles. By stimulating
cardiovascular work, intense training enhances cardiovascular endurance and
efficiency, ultimately leading to an improved resting heart rate. The same is true
of blood pressure

One of the few studies examining the relationship between the spiking of blood
pressure during exercise and its impact on resting blood pressure found that
maximal effort isometric muscular contractions (similar to those that occur
during eccentric isometrics and the Valsalva maneuver), produced substantial
reductions in resting blood pressure, improving both systolic and diastolic BP to
a greater degree than any other form of training, including aerobic training or
traditional strength training [1]. Ironically, for reasons that are unclear, while the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) highlights this study in their own
position statement on “Exercise and Hypertension”, the official public statement
of the ACSM still adheres to outdated notions regarding the holding of breath
during strength training as it relates to hypertension and exercise
recommendations [2].

Simply put, transient elevation of blood pressure during training is one of the
most effective methods for reducing resting blood pressure, just as elevating the
heart rate during training significantly helps reduce resting heart rate. Unless an
individual has a history of serious health issues, including cardiovascular disease
(in which case they should check with a qualified physician), there should be little
if any concern regarding the spiking of blood pressure and heart rate during
training, including that associated with eccentric isometrics.

Studies have shown that the body has reflexive survival mechanisms built into
the CNS to ensure breathing is regulated, particularly during physical activity, as
the brain and spine are very sensitive to carbon dioxide [3]. In other words, the
body will automatically regulate breathing to ensure survival, although subtle
cues can be used to optimize this. During training, when the body needs to

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breath it will. Few if any cases have been reported of individuals passing out
during training as a result of “forgetting to breathe”.

In fact, exaggerated breathing during strength training can have a deleterious

effect, increasing resting heart rate and blood pressure. While this may seem
counterintuitive here’s why it occurs:

Labored breathing during heavy strength training reduces intramuscular tension

which results in faulty movement patterns that place undue stress on the joints,
connective tissue, and spine. In addition to the deleterious inflammatory
response that is associated with faulty movement patterns (and which can lead to
the Muscle Malady Cascade Effect), the lack of intramuscular tension can result
in significant injuries to the spine which can, in turn, have a significant
deleterious effect on optimal breathing patterns, particularly at rest. As a result
the individual can experience difficulty with respiration, especially inspiration,
ultimately decreasing the body’s ability to use and transport oxygen.

This obviously has a tremendous negative impact on overall health given that
oxygen uptake and utilization is critical for the normal and optimal function of
all physiological systems. In the cardiovascular system, lack of oxygen can
increase heart rate and blood pressure at rest and during exercise, and produce
an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system. The result is excessive
sympathetic tone and decreased parasympathetic function, which is also known
to spike blood pressure and heart rate, as well as increase anxiety levels, mental
stress, promote an overly acidic physiological environment, and a host of other
negative consequences. So yes, excessive breathing during strength training is
highly dangerous and is, in fact, a sure fire way to negatively alter blood pressure,
heart rate, cardiovascular health, and overall physiological function.

Ironically, I have found that learning to control breathing during eccentric

isometrics using modified breath holding (i.e. rapidly inhaling during the
initiation of the eccentric phase, holding of breath while in the eccentric
isometric position - or taking short breaths as if sipping through a straw - and
forcefully exhaling through the concentric phase), is the single most effective
technique to improve breathing patterns as well as autonomic nervous system
function (i.e. increased parasympathetic tone and decreased sympathetic tone).
The impact this has on overall health, physiologic function, and mental well-
being is enormous and something I’ve witnessed firsthand in myself and in many
of my clients.

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Finally, it should be noted that when it comes to proper breathing during

training, including eccentric isometrics, if the lifter focuses on using correct
mechanics, technique, and posture alignment, optimal breathing patterns will
inevitably follow. Focusing excessively on breathing patterns while training
distracts from what should be the main focus, that is proper mechanics.
Ultimately, this can impair optimal breathing due to the degradation of muscle
function, posture, and movement execution that inevitably ensues.

G o B a r efo o t a n d A c tiv a te Y o u r Feet

Proper foot and ankle activation are one of the most underrated and
underappreciated components of body mechanics and performance. In fact, it’s
literally impossible to perform any movement correctly in the absence of correct
foot and ankle mechanics. Other than actual foot and ankle exercises, eccentric
isometrics is one of the most effective training means by which to correct foot
and ankle issues, as long as the lifter is in tune with their lower body when
training.

During eccentric isometrics training the lifter should wear either the most
minimalist shoes they can find (preferably zero drop) or simply go
barefoot. Heightened levels of somatosensory feedback and proprioception
begin with the feet, toes, and ankles. Regular shoes tend blunt this response and
act as crutch, keeping the muscles around the feet and ankles from doing their
job. Because eccentric isometrics are predicated on the idea of maximizing
proprioception and sensory feedback from the nervous system, it is imperative
that these sensory signals be maximized in order to optimize kinesthetic
awareness and body mechanics. Proper foot and ankle mechanics and barefoot
training play a significant role in that.

When it comes to proper foot and ankle mechanics similar principles apply to all
movements, including both lower and upper body movements (although it’s
typically more critical for lower body exercises). The feet should be activated by
screwing them into the ground and gripping the floor. The lifter should also
focus on placing slightly more pressure on the outside of the feet and feel for a
strong and aligned ankle position. If the ankles begin to role inward/pronate or
the feet start sliding/rotating outward during lower body movements such as
squats, it is most likely due to going too deep. In fact, this is one of the most
effective ways to assess optimal depth or range of motion on any lower body lift.

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Simply observe at what point the foot and ankle complex begins to misalign and
terminate the ROM before this occurs.

As for toe positioning, a relatively straight foot position is ideal on most

movements, therefore, toe flare should be kept to a minimum of 5-10 degrees at
most. In addition, the toes should be splayed (separated) rather than crowded
together. This is particularly true of the big toe which should be significantly
separated (medially) from the other toes while also pressing aggressively into the
floor.

U s e Y o u r M u s c les a n d N o t G r a v ity To
Per fo r m Th e Ec c en tr ic

Many individuals rely excessively on gravity to pull them into position, essentially
turning the eccentric phase into somewhat of a free falling or collapsing motion.
This is less than ideal in terms of performance, functional hypertrophy, and joint
health. In addition, this minimizes the lifter’s ability to optimize the precision of
their movements as motor control is minimized when eccentric control is
ignored.

For optimal execution during the eccentric isometrics, one should attempt to feel
tension building up within the muscles. Simply put, the lifter should imagine
their stretched muscles acting like a coiled spring or sling shot, with the
antagonist muscles firing fiercely to pull the weight (and their body) into proper
position as opposed to letting gravity do a majority of the work. With this in
mind, the individual should complete the concentric phase of the lift as
powerfully as possible (release the spring/sling shot) while maintaining tightness
and control of the load. Co-contraction of reciprocal muscle groups is
paramount during both the eccentric and eccentric isometrics phase (bottom
position) in order to maximize proprioception, power output during the
subsequent concentric phase, mobility, and stability.

In addition, co-contraction ensures that the entire movement is performed with

high levels of motor control, ultimately allowing the lifter to direct and guide
every component of their movement. Lack of co-contraction produces
movement with little motor control and direction. In other words co-
contraction allows the individuals to determine the appropriate movement path
and mechanics by dictating their body positioning and activation
patterns. Without this co-contraction, positioning will be arbitrary and random

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as gravity and external loading, instead of the neuromuscular system, will

determine where and how the body is positioned.

D o n ’t R u s h Th r o u g h Yo u r R eps

Many lifters approach a traditional strength training set with the goal of
completing the desired reps as quickly as possible. In addition to minimizing
stress to the targeted musculature this approach literally makes it impossible to
fine-tune and optimize body mechanics.

When performing eccentric isometrics, maximal quality and precision of

execution is the goal. In fact, quantity in terms of number of reps or sets is
essentially irrelevant. With this in mind, one should not rush into subsequent
repetitions during eccentric isometric sets. Instead, this momentary break
between reps is where the lifter can catch their breath, regain tightness, focus the
mind on the task at hand, and be mentally engaged for the next rep.

Furthermore, the lifter should make every effort to tune into each facet of
sensory-related information being relayed to the nervous system in order to
make the repetition as perfect, strict, tight, and powerful as possible. If they feel
themselves getting loose, favoring one side more than the other, wiggling, or
compensating with other muscle groups, they should make the necessary
adjustments by integrating the sensory feedback received from the
neuromuscular system.

Lift B y Feel, N o t B y S ig h t

As repeatedly mentioned, maximizing motor control and body mechanics is the

name of the game when it comes to eccentric isometrics. This often comes
down to subtle and minute details deep within the nervous system that can’t be
seen by the naked eye but can only be tuned into at the neuromuscular level by
the actual individual. The better the athlete can become at tuning into this subtle
yet critical feedback the more they will be able to master their mechanics. With
this in mind, individuals should rarely use the mirror when training or
performing eccentric isometrics.

When using the mirror, the image from the mirror reflects back to the retina and
gets processed by the occipital lobe before the brain can cognitively compare this

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image with the desired outcome, which requires further processing. Processing
and subsequently coordinating movement modification through the cerebellum
can take 200-500 milliseconds which is roughly 8-10x longer than it takes for
proprioceptive mechanisms, such as muscle spindles, to respond (30-50ms)
[4]. Simply put, muscle sensory receptors can detect potential errors before
significant movement deviations occur, whereas the error has already transpired
by the time it is noted in the mirror and adjustments are made visually. In fact,
the visual system can often act as a distraction, keeping lifters from attending to
other more important sensory information. Therefore, the lifter should not
watch their way through the movement, instead they should feel their way
through the movement, that is, lift by feel not by sight.

Under eyes-closed conditions, one should essentially be able to handle

approximately 95% of the same load they can handle with eyes open for any lift,
with the exception of the lunge pattern due to balance issues. If unable to do so
proprioceptors may need to be re-sensitized and/or form may need to be
adjusted. Regardless of the issue, eccentric isometrics is the ideal method for
rectifying the problem.

Eyes-closed training is something I frequently incorporate with all my clients and

athletes because it improves movement mechanics and muscle function. In fact,
when combined with eccentric isometrics, I’ve seen it do wonders almost
immediately. The reason for this is that closing one’s eyes on any exercise forces
muscle spindles and other proprioceptive mechanisms to work overtime in order
to stabilize the movement and control the load. In other words, it teaches the
lifter to rely more on kinesthetic awareness instead of sight.

Initially, most individuals struggle with this concept, as movements can feel very
unnatural and almost disorienting with the eyes closed, particularly early on.
However, this improves quite rapidly as the neuromuscular system adjusts to
working overtime to lock the athlete in and control their body. In other words,
the visual feedback most individuals rely upon to compensate for neuromuscular
deficiencies is no longer something they can use as a crutch. Instead their
somatosensory system must work harder in order to provide feedback and
motor control.

Unfortunately, most individuals lack proper motor control, not only during basic
daily activities but also during strength training, often times relying more on pure
brute force and aberrant movement patterns than sound technique and proper
body alignment. With eyes-closed training, particularly when combined with

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eccentric isometrics, wasted body motions, faulty alignment, and poor postural
positioning are immediately punished as they disrupt the athlete’s equilibrium
and state of balance. In other words, they’re forced to control their movement
as anything less will result in the individual feeling semi-disoriented and
unstable.

Once the individual has learned to harness their motor control during eyes
closed variations, returning to eyes-open variations almost always results in
significantly higher PR’s and improved mechanics. That’s because the proper
mechanics required during the eyes closed variations transfer into their
movement patterns as it re-educates their CNS on how to properly move.

Combining eyes closed conditions with unstable exercises such as single leg
exercises, bottoms up movements, hanging band drills and even power exercises
is an incredibly effective way to clean up technique and movement
patterns. Combined with eccentric isometrics this kicks up the level of
somatosensory feedback and kinesthetic awareness several notches. In addition,
it truly forces the lifter to master their body mechanics as anything but perfect
technique will be immediately punished with uncontrollable levels of instability.

Even when my athletes keep their eyes open, using the mirror is off limits except
for very occasional glancing and coaching illustrations. In fact, consistent use of
the mirror represents one of the more destructive training tools one could use
when it comes to adhering to somatosensory feedback and proprioception.

K eep A S tro n g G rip

Grip activation is directly correlated with motor control, stability, and full body
tension. The tighter the grip, and the more the bar or load is squeezed when
performing any movement pattern (including lower body exercises), the more
dialed in the movement patterns will be as a tight grip ensures the elimination of
energy leaks. Studies have shown that maintaining a tight grip when performing
movements produces concurrent activation potentiation and irradiation. In
laymen’s terms this simply means that squeezing the grip more aggressively
stimulates nervous system signaling and creates more full body tension
throughout all the extremities as well as the core.

Applying this concept to eccentric isometrics tends to significantly enhance full

body stability and motor control thereby improving body mechanics. In addition,
when performing even the lightest bodyweight or simulation drills of movements

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patterns (e.g. bodyweight squat or empty bar row), the same type of intense grip
activation should be used as a means of simulating the same full body tension
and tightness needed during heavier variations.

M a in ta in Ten s io n Thr o u g ho u t Ev er y
A r ea o f Th e B o d y

As has been shown for intense grip activation, increasing evidence points towards
the importance of maintaining tension throughout the body when it comes to
mastering activation, body mechanics, and overall alignment. This includes the
smallest muscles of the feet, hands, forearms, face, jaw, neck, and core. For
instance, activating the muscles of the jaw and face has been shown not only to
minimize energy leaks and enhance concurrent activation potentiation, it also
appears to improve spinal alignment and postural positioning [5]. This obviously
has a direct impact on the quality of all movement and biomechanics.

A v o id Fa tig u e B y U s in g Lo w er R ep
R a n g es

When it comes to mastering body mechanics, fatigue is the enemy of proper

motor programming, therefore, maximizing muscular tension while minimizing
fatigue is critical when using eccentric isometrics. Although the repetition range
may vary depending on training goals, I generally recommend low repetitions, in
the 1-5 rep range, to ensure fatigue does not impair proprioceptive feedback and
body mechanics. The goal is to aim for maximal quality over any form of
quantity. With each eccentric isometric repetition lasting 2-4 times longer than
traditional repetitions, time under tension for 3 reps will generally last as long as
a traditional set of 8 reps. To paraphrase legendary strength coach Christian
Thibaudeau, we’re not chasing fatigue. Instead we’re aiming for deep activation
and overload of all the available muscle fibers and motor units in order to
complete the task as efficiently and as powerfully as possible.

U s e A ppr o pr ia te Lo a d s a n d Tr a in in g
In ten s ity

When it comes to using eccentric isometrics to master movement and body

mechanics, overall load (i.e. % of 1 Rep Max) should be of little concern
particularly at the onset of implementation. In fact, the goal should be to use

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whatever load is necessary to master form and function and truly produce
perfect mechanics. Once the lifter has mastered the basics, they can use as heavy
a load as they wish for the target reps, provided textbook form is maintained.
However, if the load is so heavy that sensory feedback and mechanics cannot be
attended to, let alone fine-tuned or adjusted, then the load is excessive.

At that point the movement is no longer therapeutic but rather contra-

therapeutic. Another way to think of this is once one begins using eccentric
isometrics they should decrease the load to whatever is necessary to perfect their
mechanics. For most individuals this involves selecting a load that will be 25-
50% of their 1RM, however, lighter loads are acceptable. Once form has been
mastered with lighter loads the goal is to gradually progress to using the heaviest
weight possible (during the most intense sets) while still producing a therapeutic
effect on the body. When form begins to degrade and tension is placed on the
connective tissue rather than the muscles, the sets are no longer therapeutic,
which is a surefire indicator that the load was too heavy for the desired rep
range. Eventually, most individuals should reach the point where they are
comfortably performing EI’s with 80-90% of their 1RM, although some
individuals will want to deviate somewhat depending on their training goals and
prior training history.

Performing heavy singles, doubles, and triples with relatively heavy loads is an
incredibly beneficial training method provided textbook form is maintained.
However, if significant fatigue begins to accumulate before the desired number
of reps programmed for a given set in a specific workout is reached, such that
reaching that rep range would degrade form and body mechanics, the set should
be terminated. For instance, if a lifter’s goal is to perform a set of eccentric
isometrics squats for 5 reps with a given load but they begin to fatigue and break
down at 3 or 4 reps, the set should terminated at that point. Otherwise faulty
recruitment patterns and flawed mechanics will be ingrained into the CNS,
defeating the purpose of performing EI’s, not to mention the fact that training
with aberrant mechanics and sloppy technique actually minimizes strength and
hypertrophy gains.

Feel th e S to ppin g Po in t

Muscular tension and neural recruitment on the eccentric phase of any lift is
proportional to one’s depth and range of motion, ultimately peaking at an
approximately 90 degree joint angle/perpendicular/parallel position (as long as

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proper mechanics are employed). Beyond this point activation gradually

decreases, as intramuscular relaxation is necessary to allow an excessive ROM.
This neural inhibition and reduced firing is proportional to how far one moves
beyond an optimal range of motion. In other words, beyond 90-degree joint
angle mechanics (roughly), the deeper one goes, the greater the neuromuscular
relaxation. With this in mind, during the eccentric phase, the range of motion
should be terminated just before one feels their muscles begin to relax. This
typically occurs in the roughly 90-degree joint angle zone.

W h en it D o u b t S to p S h o r t

When performing any movement, particularly eccentric isometrics, it’s better to

stop a bit short in terms of range of motion than lose muscle tightness and allow
the body to collapse. Focus on stability and mechanics and the proper levels of
mobility will inevitably follow. Performing a movement with 80% full ROM
while employing proper mechanics is far superior to performing a movement
with excessive range of motion and aberrant technique. And yes, using excessive
range of motion for most individuals requires significant aberrations in muscle
function to accommodate the unnatural and faulty mechanics.

Im a g in e A Pu z z le

When it comes to proper movement, specifically eccentric isometrics, each

movement pattern will have a precise point where everything essentially feels as
though it clicks or comes together. It’s almost as if the various pieces of a puzzle
come together and every component feels perfectly locked-in in its proper
position. Each time a lifter performs any movement, particularly an eccentric
isometric variation they should feel for this. No movement should feel
unnatural, forced, or damaging. Instead, when proper movement is executed, it
should feel therapeutic and ideal, with everything clicking into position.

M a s ter th e fo rm w ith B o d yw eig ht a n d

B a s ic V a r ia tio n s

Before moving to more advanced eccentric isometric movements, the lifter

should start with the most simple variations on any movement pattern and focus
on mastering the mechanics. Incorporating bodyweight movements using an

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empty bar, light dumbbells, light cables, bands, and dowels are some of the best
methods for correcting technique and form and learning proper mechanics.
However, they should focus on using the same exact tightness, mechanics, and
full body tension as if they were performing a heavy variation of the same
movement pattern. To paraphrase expert strength coach John Rusin, when
using light weight treat it as if it’s heavy (in terms of neural activation and full
body tension), that way when you do lift heavy the load will feel relatively light.

R ea c h S tr o n g D epth

The point is not to think so much about reaching a predetermined ROM or

having a certain depth criteria. Rather than think about moving as far and as
deep as possible, the goal is to try to find the position and range of motion that
feels as strong and as powerful as possible. When the lifter loses that “strong
and tight” feeling it is probably because they’ve allowed themselves to collapse to
varying extents.

U n d er s ta n d In ter n a l S ta b ility v s .
Ex ter n a l S ta b ility

When performing eccentric isometrics, feeling the body come to a standstill and
externally pausing during the isometric hold (external stability) is not nearly as
critical as feeling for an intramuscular pause, during which the muscles internally
come to a standstill and fully lock in (intramuscular/internal stability). This
internal and intramuscular “lock in/click” sensation tends to involve a slight
delay period from the time when visually the body stops moving and the muscles
fully lock in. In essence, if externally the isometric hold is 3-4 seconds,
intramuscularly the muscles most likely come to a complete standstill and fully
lock in with maximal intramuscular stability for 2 seconds or less.

In addition, it’s quite feasible and, in fact, quite common for individuals to lock
in a movement and reach external stability, yet never feel or reach internal
stability. Therefore, the lifter should focus more on the internal rather than the
external pause, while also attending more so to how the movement feels rather
than how it looks. Yes, we need to maximize external stability, but intramuscular
stability, the point at which the lifter feels maximally locked in both internally
and externally, is of much greater importance.

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Th in k Po w er fu l Yet S m o o th R eps

Many individuals tend to go to extremes in one direction or the other when it

comes to lifting speeds and power output. At one extreme, they focus so
excessively on using controlled and smooth reps that they minimize power
output, thereby limiting the engagement of high threshold motor units and fast
twitch muscle fibers. At the other extreme, they concentrate solely on power
output and the speed of movement while neglecting to maintain any semblance
of motor control and smooth motions. The goal should be to produce smooth
and controlled repetitions while also emphasizing concentric power output and
torque, not simply one or the other. Lastly, when it comes to concentric speed
of movement, the emphasis should be more on the side of higher power output
and torque rather than excessively slow speed. This is known as compensatory
acceleration and simply defines a concentric movement that’s performed in as
powerful and forceful of a state as possible, regardless of the load, while still
maintaining control of the movement and incorporating crisp motions.

Be Your Own Coach

Individuals should disregard everything they’ve ever heard about body

mechanics, range of motion and form, and feel their way through the movement.
They should not let any strength coach, including myself, tell them how large
their range of motion should be or how to perform any movement. They must
learn to listen to the sensory information from their proprioceptors and let their
body guide them into the optimal range of motion, and body mechanics. This
inevitably ends up being close to 90 degree joint angles, perpendicular positions,
and parallel joint segments every time. Ironically, each movement when
performed properly, will look almost identical from person to person, as the
fundamentals of proper biomechanics and neurophysiology are constant across
the human population.

O ptim iz e Yo u r Po s tu r e a n d S pin a l
A lig n m en t

Proper execution of eccentric isometrics is predicated on maintaining proper

neutral spinal alignment. In fact, without a neutral or optimal postural alignment
it’s literally impossible to perform a single movement or eccentric isometric
correctly. In contrast, with proper postural alignment it’s nearly impossible to

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perform a movement incorrectly. That’s because the spine is the signaling

highway for your central nervous system, ultimately dictating our recruitment
patterns, proprioception, and sensory feedback. If spinal positioning is
compromised, it not only structurally degrades biomechanics and structural
physiology (as it alters optimal leverage and joint angles), it also causes short
circuiting of neural signals. As a result, all of the sensory information the lifter
must attend to and integrate into their movement is disrupted and distorted,
making it nearly impossible to optimize body mechanics and kinesthetic
awareness.

The more tightly locked in the spine is the better the mechanics and form will
be, and the lower the likelihood of collapsing. With this in mind, posture on all
movements is relatively simple yet quite similar. Proper posture involves a slight
and natural, but not excessive, arch with most of the extension occurring from
the t-spine not the lumbar spine. However, even the t-spine extension should
not be excessive as there should always be an ideal balance of tension between
the anterior and posterior portions of the spine.

Many individuals attempt to completely eliminate the natural lordotic curvature of

the spine. Although lumbar extension should be kept to a minimum, attempting
to eliminate all forms of extension and natural spinal curvature is deleterious to
movement and health, as it promotes excessive flexion/rounding of the spine.

Generally speaking, the proper posture for all EI’s, starting from head to toe,
involves keeping a tall and elongated head, shoulders pulled down and back,
chest out, and stomach/rib caged pulled in. In addition, the hips should be set
back slightly. Furthermore, the butt should not collapse into excessive posterior
pelvic tilt, however, avoiding excessive anterior pelvic tilt is just as critical and
should be minimized by keeping the core braced and tight.

The lifter should also focus on keeping the chest out naturally, without letting
the core relax or the stomach/rib cage protrude outward. The feet should be
kept fairly straight on all movements including both upper body and lower body
exercises.

The question of “back-arch” is somewhat of a controversial topic. For most

movements and positions the key is finding the ideal balance between anterior
core tightness and very slight arching of the spine. Typically, an athlete will
often fall into one extreme or the other. On one end you have lifters who
overly-arch their lumbar spine to compensate for various weaknesses and
deficiencies, including lack of upper back and core strength as well as weak hip

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extensors. On the opposite end of the spectrum you have lifters who focus
excessively on squeezing their anterior core and glutes, thereby failing to create
enough tension throughout their back and spinal extensors. Although it is
important to keep the anterior core engaged, it is actually more critical to ensure
a slight natural arch is maintained throughout the spine.

On a similar note, individuals should also be mindful of, and avoid, cervical
hyperextension, particularly on movements such as squats or hinges. This is
quite common and often results from tilting the head up to gaze in the mirror.
Head position is just as critical when discussing proper spinal alignment. As in
the case of “back-arch”, most lifter’s fall into one of two extremes in terms of
head placement. The most common problem is creating cervical hyperextension
by pulling the head up, a by-product of coaches erroneously telling their athletes
and lifters to look up on various movements such as deadlifts and squats.
Although this ensures the chest doesn’t drop forward, it creates problems
elsewhere. Most significantly, it promotes neck impingement, increased
neuromuscular inhibition, as well as the short-circuiting of neural signals
throughout the CNS. Furthermore, when the head tilts up, the traps and
shoulders tend to elevate thereby minimizing recruitment of the lats as well as
core activation. As a result, the ability to produce optimal t-spine extension and
neutral spinal alignment is severely hampered.

Cervical hyper-extension also promotes faulty biomechanics in the lower body.

For example, when the head pulls up during the eccentric phase of the squat, the
hips tend to follow by extending forward, thereby minimizing hip flexion and
glute activation in the bottom position. This places the lifters in both a
biomechanically and neuromuscularly disadvantageous position in which ideal
hip hinge mechanics are compromised resulting in an overly upright position
with excessive anterior knee drift.

At the other end of the spectrum you have lifters who over-emphasize anti-
cervical extension. As a result, they either have inadequate t-spine extension or
in more extreme cases demonstrate varying degrees of cervical and thoracic
flexion (i.e. excessive head and chest drop). This can result in degradation of
mechanics and an overly large range of motion on a variety of movements.

Proper head positioning falls somewhere between these two extremes. Once t-
spine extension is maximized, the lifter should simply focus on elongating the
neck by keeping the head tall, yet in line with the rest of the spine. This is what’s
referred to as a neutral head position and is optimal for nearly all movements.

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U n d er s ta n d Th e S u b tleties o f
“Ex tr em ity B a s ed S pin a l Po s itio n in g”

Although specific pointers for each lift will be detailed in chapter 6, including
subtle shifts in spinal positioning, it’s important to highlight a topic I refer to as
extremity based spinal positioning. As noted above, neutral spinal positioning is
critical for maximizing body mechanics. However, within the concept of a
neutral spine lie subtle changes that will occur depending on the specific
movement pattern. More specifically, the spine will sometimes be slightly more
extended, or slightly more flexed (plus or minus approximately 5 degrees),
depending on the movement of the limbs or extremities relative to the body.

For instance, the more the hip flexors pull the legs into hip flexion the more the
spine will move into a slightly flatter position, essentially flexing from a slightly
arched position at the top of the movement (such as a squat, hinge, or lunge) to
a relatively flat-back position (not a flexed or rounded spine) at the bottom of
the movement.

A similar, yet opposite, scenario often occurs with the upper body limbs,
particularly as the shoulders move from flexion to extension, with the exception
of pullover movements. For instance, when the shoulders are in flexion on
upper body pressing or pulling movements (i.e. the arms are extended such as at
the top of a bench press or overhead press, the bottom of a pullup, or the
stretched position of a row), the degree of spinal extension is minimal, essentially
creating a more flat back position, that is +5 degrees of flexion, although the
spine is not actually flexed, it’s simply less extended. However as the arms move
into flexion and the shoulders move into a more extended position (i.e. the top
of a pullup, the contracted position of a row, the bottom of an overhead press,
or the bottom of a chest press), the more the spine moves into slight extension,
that is + 5 degrees of extension, primarily occurring at the t-spine. In essence,
the spine stays in a relatively neutral position, give or take 5 degrees of flexion or
extension, depending on which limbs are flexing and extending in the various
positions.

Although the spine will extend or flex very slightly, focusing on minimizing
spinal movement should be key when performing eccentric isometrics. In fact,
locking in the spine when performing a movement will inevitably produce a
fairly precise movement with an ideal range of motion. To produce an
exaggerated range of motion the individual would have to abandon the optimal
spinal mechanics discussed above. Simply tuning into the subtle positioning of

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the spine can be pivotal in helping individuals find their ideal positions. For
example, teaching someone to squat with proper form by telling them to stop
just before they feel like they will lose their spinal rigidity and natural stiffness
will do wonders for teaching optimal mechanics and ideal range of motion. The
inability to maintain the neutral spine and rigid posture set at the beginning of
the movement, most likely indicates that the lifter used an excessive range of
motion, lost intramuscular tightness, collapsed, or simply did not set their spine
and core properly from the onset of the movement.

B eg in a n d En d W ith a S n a p

Although I generally recommend performing the eccentric phase of every

movement in a slow and controlled fashion, particularly when using the eccentric
isometric protocol, beginning and ending each eccentric phase with a slightly
quicker and more violent contraction can help activate the reciprocal muscle
groups and create greater co-contraction during the eccentric phase. This can
help the individual lock their form into position. However, this is somewhat of a
more advanced technique that should not necessarily be emphasized early on in
one’s training.

For instance, the lifter can initiate the first several inches of a squat with a more
aggressive and sudden snapping of the hips down and back into position (hip
flexion) and a slightly quicker decent. This may only be for the first 1-3 inches
of the movement before going into a slower and more controlled eccentric
phase. Another way to think about it is that the lifter will initiate the movement
by maximally and aggressively firing the antagonist muscles to maximize-
eccentric induced co-contraction. However, this will visually appear as a more
rapid and violent initiation.

As the lifter gets closer to the bottom of the movement and approaches the final
90-degree joint angle position, aggressively contracting the antagonists (hip
flexors and hamstrings) can help pull the body into its ideal slot by co-
contracting the reciprocal muscles. Again, this may visually appear like a
somewhat abrupt or aggressive free-fall for the last 1-2 inches of the movement,
but it can actually help the individual fine-tune their mechanics even more
precisely, provided the majority of the eccentric phase incorporates controlled
and slower tempos as previously laid out. This should not be forced, rather it
should feel somewhat natural and comfortable, particularly if the lifter is focused
on staying incredibly tight.

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R efer en c es

1. Kiveloff, B. and O. Huber, Brief maximal isometric exercise in hypertension. J

Am Geriatr Soc, 1971. 19(12): p. 1006-12.

2. ACSM, Exercise and Hypertension: Position Statement from American College of

Sports Medicine (ACSM). Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 2004.
36(3).

3. Zuperku, E.J., et al., Characteristics of breathing rate control mediated by a

subregion within the pontine parabrachial complex. J Neurophysiol, 2017.
117(3): p. 1030-1042.

4. Schmidt, R. and T. Lee, Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis.

2005.

5. Bracco, P., A. Deregibus, and R. Piscetta, Effects of different jaw relations on

postural stability in human subjects. Neurosci Lett, 2004. 356(3): p. 228-30.

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Chapter 5

Eccentric
Isometrics
Scientific Foundation &
Physiological Benefits

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD

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CHAPTER 5
Eccentric
Isometrics
Scientific Foundation &
Physiological Benefits

efore I get into the scientific rationale for why eccentric

B
isometrics are so beneficial and the empirical evidence that
supports this notion, I want to quickly highlight two key reasons
why I believe, categorically, that eccentric isometrics are so
effective.

A n ec d o ta l a n d Ex per ien tia l D a ta

As I describe in chapter 1, my 15 years of experience as a trainer can be divided

into 2 distinct phases: the first 7 years during which I largely relied on traditional
training methods, and the last 8 years during which I’ve been implementing
eccentric isometrics both in my own training and that of my clients.

During this time period I’ve witnessed a remarkable distinction between the two
phases, with eccentric isometrics producing results that are so far superior to
traditional training methods in terms of strength, performance, health, fitness,
and overall physiological function, it almost defies belief. In fact, having utilized
nearly every training strategy imaginable with both my clients and myself for the
last 15 years, I can honestly say that I’ve found nothing more effective than
eccentric isometrics for enhancing strength, performance, muscle mass, muscle
function, and overall health, not just in a few clients, but in all individuals. In
addition, since showcasing the basic tenets of eccentric isometrics several years
ago in various articles, writings, and presentations, I’ve received countless

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testimonials from trainers, coaches, and trainees across the globe who’ve
experienced similar results.

D o c to r a l S tu d ies

The anecdotal account of my personal experience with eccentrics isometrics

may, understandably, be difficult for some to believe. However, my journey into
eccentric isometrics is not comprised of anecdotal accounts alone, and would
not be complete without highlighting my doctoral dissertation and the research
studies I conducted while at the University of Georgia.

Realizing early on in my doctoral studies the profound impact eccentric isometrics

had on muscle function, body mechanics, and overall health, I decided to conduct
a thorough and comprehensive investigation comparing eccentric isometrics to
traditional strength training methods. Although, by necessity, it was a fairly short-
term investigation, the results showed that eccentric isometrics on back squats
and bench press produced greater post activation potentiation when compared to
traditional back squats and bench press.

Eccentric isometrics maximized force production, torque, and power output, as

shown by various measures including jump height and power output in the
upper and lower body. In addition, compared to traditional training methods,
which actually produced degradations in muscle function and body mechanics,
eccentric isometrics improved body mechanics, technique, symmetry, balance,
stability, motor control, and overall muscle function. In the following sections I
will explain why eccentric isometrics are so invaluable for human performance
and overall health, and why they are superior to traditional training methods.

Section i
Scientific Underpinnings
of Eccentric Isometrics
Note on Science-Based Conceptual Congruency

Before diving into the various reasons why eccentric isometrics are so effective and the numerous
benefits associated with this methodology, it’s important to understand the notion of science-
based conceptual congruency. When determining proper osteokinematics, arthrokinematics,

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positioning, and general protocols for any movement, it is critical to examine the core scientific
principles of neurophysiology, skeletal muscle physiology, motor learning, biomechanics, sports
psychology and all other relevant fields. If the mechanics of a movement or protocol such as
eccentric isometrics are correct, these principles will not only be evident within the muscular
actions themselves (i.e. properly performed eccentric isometrics), they will be congruent and show
no signs of contradiction. In fact, they will only support each other and give further credence to
the specific training methodology. The following sections will examine some of these principles to
illustrate how they align and affirm that eccentric isometrics are the ideal method of strength
training. In addition, this will further demonstrate how and why eccentric isometrics induce
physiological rewiring via neuromuscular re-education so effectively, ultimately impacting
physiological function, health and wellness.

En h a n c ed M u s c le Fu n c tio n Th r o u g h
In c r ea s ed Pr o pr io c eptio n

While at UGA I studied the effects of eccentric isometrics on stability and

symmetrical loading by measuring the percent of loading on the subjects’ left vs.
right side. These studies led to two significant findings described below.

First, compared to the control protocol, eccentric isometrics enhanced stability

and symmetry in both upper and lower body. Interestingly, traditional training
(standard concentric and eccentric phases using 80-90% 1RM) caused slight, yet
significant, deterioration in the levels of symmetry and stability. The latter
results were most likely due to the fact that, when allowed to perform standard
lifting protocols, most lifters will inevitably reinforce pre-existing movement
patterns, which often times are dysfunctional and flawed. However, the
improvements observed when implementing EI’s were most likely related to the
exaggerated eccentric/stretched component of the movement.

As discussed in earlier chapters, muscle spindles provide the greatest levels of

feedback and proprioceptive information when they are stretched, such as during
eccentric isometrics. Ultimately, movement modification, body positioning,
symmetrical loading, neural firing patterns, and overall motor control are
maximized by this heightened state of kinesthetic awareness and sensory-
integrated-movement. I’ve witnessed these same findings when training my own
clients and athletes, as well as myself, as eccentric isometrics tend to improve
body mechanics, proprioception, and body awareness almost immediately.

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En h a n c ed Po s t A c tiv a tio n
Po ten tia tio n

A second significant finding relates to the effect of eccentric isometrics on post

activation potentiation (PAP). Our study found significantly greater power
output in the eccentric isometric group compared to the traditional group.
Although eccentric isometrics provide a variety of benefits over traditional forms
of training, particularly in terms of body mechanics, one feature of eccentric
isometrics that provides immediate value to nearly every aspect of function,
performance, and fitness is the PAP response. While other forms of training
produce PAP, eccentric isometrics appear to maximize this response.

PAP has been described as a physiological phenomenon in which an intense

series of voluntary muscular contractions, typically performed using heavy
isotonic movements (e.g. barbell back squat), produces temporary increases in
peak force and power during subsequent explosive activities. Most studies have
focused on traditional forms of training showing that performing a standard
strength training movement such as a barbell back squat 4-10 minutes prior to an
explosive event (i.e. jump, sprint, kick, etc.) produces greater power and
enhances explosive activity. There are numerous explanations for this all of
which can be traced back to neuromuscular activation (increased motor unit
recruitment and enhanced neural drive), as well as physiological changes within
the muscles, such as increased sensitivity to calcium. Regardless of the
underlying mechanisms, many strength coaches and investigators have found
that the PAP response can lead directly to long-term increases in strength,
power, performance, muscle mass, and neuromuscular efficiency, making it a
viable method to incorporate into training routines,

Several studies have verified, however, that isometric contractions of several

seconds or more are superior at producing PAP than traditional repetitions [1,
2]. Although the underlying mechanism remains unclear, factors associated with
temporal summation of motor unit recruitment and motor unit firing may be
largely responsible. In other words, isometric contractions of several seconds
duration provide ample time for muscle activation to ramp up, as most
individuals cannot achieve maximal firing rates instantaneously, but typically
need several seconds of intense recruitment and neural ramping in order to do
so. It should be noted that studies of PAP following isometric contractions have
focused solely on the effects of overcoming-isometrics (attempting to move an
immovable object) rather than yielding/eccentric isometrics (i.e. lowering a load
to a given position without allowing it to collapse any further). For unexplained

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reasons, other than my own studies, no other studies of PAP following

yielding/eccentric isometrics have been reported. This is particularly surprising
given that, consistent with our findings, the principles underlying muscle spindle
function and proprioception would indicate that both overcoming-isometrics
and traditional repetitions may be less effective at producing a PAP response
than yielding/eccentric isometrics, as the pre-load or pre-stretch of the targeted
muscles in both traditional repetitions and overcoming isometrics is reduced, or
minimal, compared to yielding or eccentric isometrics. This reduced pre-load and
pre-stretch, typically produced by the eccentric loading phase that precedes a
concentric contraction, results in minimal stretching of the targeted muscle(s)
which, in turn, minimizes activation of muscle spindles and ultimately
compromises proprioception and body awareness [3].

While traditional strength training involves a slightly greater pre-stretch than

overcoming isometrics, the fact that the eccentric phase is de-emphasized, and
muscle spindle recruitment is not optimized, results in a PAP response that is
similar to that achieved with overcoming isometrics, and is more limited than
that achieved by yielding/eccentric isometrics. In addition, because muscle
spindles play an indirect role in force production through alpha gamma co-
activation [4], isometrics that involve exaggerated eccentric loading, such as
yielding/eccentric isometrics, are also likely to be superior in terms of improving
body position, technique, and kinesthetic awareness, as well as force
enhancement, torque production and power output. Maximizing muscle spindle
recruitment during yielding/eccentric isometrics not only contributes to greater
force production relative to the typical overcoming-isometrics or traditional
strength training repetitions, it also produces greater proprioceptive feedback. As
a result, motor programming in the CNS is enhanced, generating the most
efficient movement patterns and neural blueprint.

This may explain why in my own studies power output was significantly greater
in the eccentric isometric group, although traditional training did elicit a slight
potentiation response. The same rationale would also explain the enhanced
body mechanics of the eccentric isometric training group, particularly as it relates
to elements of stability and symmetrical loading (percent of weight supported on
left vs. right side of the body) which were found to be superior to the traditional
group. Performing eccentric isometrics also led to stronger and more efficient
neural connections in terms of power, balance, and symmetry for movement
patterns related to the squat and upper body pressing patterns. In essence,
eccentric isometrics appear to promote the strongest general motor program and

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a concomitant increase in the neuromuscular efficiency with which related

movements (e.g. jumping, running, throwing etc.) are performed.

Studies have also shown that pre-stretch not only increases force capabilities, it
also offers protection against fatigue, a critical aspect of maximizing PAP [5]. In
fact, a key factor that dictates how effectively a protocol induces a post
activation potentiation (PAP) response is the net balance between potentiation
and fatigue [6-8]. Because all muscular contractions produce both fatigue and
potentiation, minimizing the former and maximizing the latter is critical.
However, it is often difficult to find a balance as fatigue may override any
possible potentiating effect. In order to optimize the balance, it is essential to
eliminate or reduce factors that could play a substantial role in promoting
fatigue.

Studies have shown that concentric muscle actions produce greater metabolic
fatigue and require more energy expenditure than eccentric muscle actions due to
the greater ATP requirement of the excitation-contraction coupling process [8].
Minimizing the total time the muscle spends in the concentric phase, as well as
allowing more time between each concentric action, minimizes the accumulation
of fatigue. During the slower eccentric phase and eccentric isometric hold the
muscle will accumulate 6-8 seconds of total time under tension (TUT) per
repetition, allowing greater motor unit recruitment via increased temporal
summation. The result is enhanced potentiation with less than normal fatigue
and energy expenditure. Because fatigue is the enemy of motor programming
and proprioception, minimizing the effects of fatigue will also allow the
strongest and most efficient movement patterns to be etched into the CNS – as
is inevitably the case with proper execution of eccentric isometrics.

As noted earlier, muscle spindle activation is directly dependent on the degree of

stretch, with greater stretch eliciting a greater degree of muscle spindle
recruitment [9]. This concept is key to understanding the importance of targeting
the eccentric or lengthened position as a means of maximizing PAP as well as
optimizing proprioceptive feedback and neuromuscular re-programming.

In fact, recent studies of the Hoffman (H)-reflex support the notion that
heightened proprioception and torque production may be related. Because H-
Reflex is a reliable electrophysiologic measure of the stretch reflex response and
muscle spindle activation, the greater the degree of stretch (as long as the
muscles don’t relax) the greater the H-reflex response [10]. Interestingly, post
activation potentiation has been attributed to an increase in a-motor neuron

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excitability as reflected by changes in the H-reflex [11, 12]. In other words the
H-reflex response and PAP appear to go hand in hand. Based on this concept,
any training technique that isolates the eccentric position and ultimately muscle
spindle fiber recruitment should theoretically enhance the H-reflex response,
which should in turn optimize proprioception and potentiation simultaneously.

In essence, eccentric isometrics take advantage of all of the various mechanisms

related to PAP and proprioception.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Th e C lo s ed Lo o p
M o d el a n d S en s o ry In teg r a ted
M o v em en t

In the field of motor learning, movement can be broken down into two key
subcategories, namely, the closed loop model of movement and the open loop
model.

The open loop model of movement typically involves quick or rapid pace
movements with little to no time for any modification and fine-tuning to occur
during the actual execution of the movement itself. These forms of movement
rely on pre-existing motor programs to carry out fast movements rather than
“feeling your way through”, and often involve automatic actions with less
attention to detail and/or thought. Unfortunately, if a particular motor program
contains flaws and pre-existing errors (which is not uncommon given most
individuals have various flaws and dysfunction when it comes to movement),
then the movement will be performed and executed with those pre-programmed
errors and dysfunctions. Simply put, one can’t adjust mid-way through. In
addition, in most cases, the movements often occur without the individuals
being aware of their errors. This describes the fashion in which most people
strength train.

At the opposite end of the spectrum is the closed loop model. Closed-loop
models use sensory information (i.e. proprioception from muscle spindles) and
perception to consistently, continuously, and conscientiously adjust muscular
actions and movement. In essence, it allows one to correct their movement and
hone in on their motor control. For most closed-loop movements, this
modification and fine-tuning can occur dozens of times throughout one
particular movement. In addition, these forms of movement allow for more
precision and control, as they’re typically much slower yet require much greater
attention to detail during the movement. It follows, therefore, that to maximize

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progress in training, improve body mechanics, eliminate various forms of

dysfunction, and master movement, a closed loop model of movement is
necessary. Consistent with this, studies point to the closed-loop model as the go-
to strategy for both learning and mastering movement.

Eccentric isometrics represent a prime example of a closed-loop model of

movement given the intentionally slower movements that enable the
modification and fine-tuning of muscular actions, thereby optimizing both slow
and fast/open loop (automatic) movements in everyday life. More specifically,
performing a slow eccentric allows individuals to incorporate a closed-loop
model of movement that increases inherent sources of sensory feedback via a
feed-forward mechanism, and allows them to more readily attend to this
information [13]. This, in turn, results in enhanced form and more precise
technique, as closed loop models are more conducive to movement
modification, movement accuracy, and fine-tuning of body positioning.
Furthermore, because this slow controlled action occurs during the eccentric
phase, sensory feedback and technique modification are significantly enhanced,
as feedback from intrafusal fibers is greatest during lengthening contractions
[14]. In essence, incorporating an exaggerated closed loop model (slow
purposeful movement) while simultaneously emphasizing stretch and load
represents the epitome of sensory-integrated movement.

In addition, isometric contractions performed in the eccentric position, i.e. while

holding the fully stretched position, allow for maximal reinforcement of proper
body positioning and optimize proprioceptive feedback from muscle.
Essentially, by creating a strong and appropriate neural blueprint for that
movement pattern, neuromuscular recruitment patterns and optimal motor
programming are reinforced in the CNS. In this way, other related movements
involving similar patterns and similar invariant features of that general motor
program are positively affected. For example, performing eccentric isometric
barbell squats, not only enhances the general squatting pattern, it also impacts
other movements that involve hip and knee flexion and extension, namely
running, jumping, hitting, and throwing.

It is important to point out that while the above scenario is an example of

proper neuromuscular re-programming, incorrect technique will yield the
opposite result. Unfortunately, it is thought that most, if not all, individuals
exhibit varying degrees of muscle dysfunction, often in the form of imbalances,
spasticity, asymmetry, inhibition, or general weakness, all of which impair
technique. Performing a movement too rapidly, via an open loop model of

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movement with little attention to technique, will only serve to reinforce pre-
existing movement patterns that are oftentimes flawed to varying degrees. As we
observed in our studies, not only did the experimental group make significant
improvements in various parameters of muscle function, the traditional group, in
many cases, actually experienced varying degrees of decrements in muscle
function related to symmetry and balance. This is most likely due to the fact that
pre-existing dysfunctional movement patterns are reinforced in traditional
training methods, whereas eccentric isometrics produce almost immediate
improvements in movement patterns and motor programming.

As many kinesiologists including Grey Cook point out, building dysfunction on

top of strength is a common and devastating training mistake [15]. Based on the
results of this study, as well as anecdotal data accrued from my 15 years of
training, the most effective method for counteracting this problem is re-
programming movement patterns in the CNS via proper neuromuscular re-
education. This is accomplished most efficiently via slow and controlled closed
loop movements, particularly those that emphasize the eccentric portion of
resistance training (i.e. eccentric isometrics) as this represents the phase where
sensory and kinesthetic information is greatest in the form of increased
proprioception. Therefore, not only does this deliberate method of movement
allow the lifter to make technique adjustments based on extrinsic information
(e.g. from a trainer or other outside sources in the form of cues and prompts), it
also allows inherent information produced by the body’s proprioceptive
mechanisms to be attended to easily in order to make voluntary and involuntary
adjustments to movements based on auto-regulatory sensory information.

In summary, the stretched position is where the most proprioceptive feedback

occurs. Therefore, eccentric isometrics maximize this feedback response by
extending the lengthening phase of the contraction, ultimately enhancing optimal
biomechanical positioning and proper motor programming. This is an
important component of training individuals of all ages and level of function,
including when training adolescents to perform movements correctly, with
proper technique, in order to establish symmetrical, stable, powerful, and fluid
movement patterns. It is of equal importance to athletes competing at a high
level not only as a means of maximizing power and speed, but also to avoid
imbalances, compensation patterns, and instability, which may be precursors to
acute or chronic injury. Finally, the restoration of function, or maintenance of
muscle function throughout the lifespan, is equally important, therefore,
eccentric isometrics also provide value for elderly as well as special populations.

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O ptim iz a tio n o f M u s c le S tiffn es s a n d

M u s c le S p in d le S en s itiv ity

Rate of stretch and degree of stretch are two components of movement that are
associated with muscle spindle recruitment. However, an often-overlooked
factor that is integral to muscle spindle sensitivity is the level of muscle stiffness.
In fact, sensory information produced by proprioceptive mechanisms appears to
be directly related to musculoskeletal stiffness. Current research on this topic
suggests muscle stiffness plays a critical role in the interplay of muscle spindles
and Golgi tendon organs and their ability to work together for continual sensory
integrated movement and proprioception [16]. Increased muscle stiffness
appears to enhance spindle output and the relaying of information that enhances
movement feedback [17-19]. In contrast, decreased levels of muscle stiffness
diminish proprioceptive feedback. In essence, low levels of muscle stiffness
require greater neural drive in order to activate the muscle spindle, while high
levels of muscle stiffness require less neural drive. Therefore, it appears that
decreased muscle stiffness desensitizes muscle spindles and other related
proprioceptive mechanisms (i.e. minimizes proprioceptive feedback), while
higher levels of stiffness up-regulate muscle spindle sensitivity thereby enhancing
proprioceptive feedback.

All of these factors appear to enhance movement stabilization, precision, and

motor control. As a result various kinesiologists and therapists now recommend
rehabilitation and performance protocols that aim to improve muscle stiffness as
a means of enhancing dynamic stabilization and muscle function. Furthermore,
improvements in force, torque, and power also appear to be related to stiffness
based on various studies showing that the stretch reflex may be heightened by
increased muscle stiffness, probably due to mechanisms related to intrafusal fiber
and muscle spindle properties previously discussed [16, 19].

In fact, training tools including vibration platforms, stability balls, Bosu balls,
and other unstable training tools were knowingly, and in many cases
unknowingly, created for the purpose of enhancing stability through increased
muscle stiffness, with the end goal of increasing proprioceptive feedback.
Fortunately, although there may be some benefit to employing these tools
periodically most, if not all, of these devices are unnecessary, as properly
performed eccentric isometrics provide the ultimate stimulus for enhancing
muscle stiffness and inevitably have the greatest impact on performance related
characteristics.

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In addition, the latest trends in core training and spinal research, specifically
those advocated by Stuart Mcgill, suggest that core stabilization through
enhanced muscle stiffness and co-contraction may be the most effective method
for training the surrounding musculature, not only as a means of ensuring the
safety of the spine, but also to maximize performance [20]. Furthermore, it
appears that heightened levels of stability gained from increased muscle stiffness
actually enhance mobility and range of motion rather than hinder it as was
previously thought.

Although it is understood that optimal levels of muscle stiffness are critical in the
role of muscle function, less is understood about the exact methods and
procedures to achieve these optimal levels. However, based on various aspects
of structural and neuromuscular physiology, eccentric isometrics protocols
appear to be ideal for this. In fact, research studies suggest that eccentric
training increases muscle stiffness from both a mechanical and neuromuscular
perspective, improving force absorption, body mechanics, and contributing
significantly to the prevention of injury [21]. Similarly, the results of our
investigations confirmed that the group who received the eccentric isometric
training had the greatest improvements in stabilization (particularly in upper
body assessment), force production, and symmetry patterns, all of which may
have been related to increased levels of muscle stiffness through the training
protocol.

As pointed out in the previous sections there is a strong interplay between

fatigue and potentiation with fatigue reducing the levels of potentiation and
neuromuscular efficiency. Interestingly, various studies have shown that fatigue
also negatively impacts various markers of muscle function by decreasing muscle
stiffness and ultimately inducing proprioceptive inhibition [22]. As various other
studies highlight, eccentric training protocols limit fatigue most likely as a result
of the reduced frequency of excitation-contraction coupling and, consequently,
ATP expenditure [8]. In essence, reduced levels of fatigue such as those
observed during eccentric isometric procedures are associated with greater
proprioception due to contraction-induced-enhancements in muscle stiffness
properties [18]. Besides maximizing torque, force, and potentiation, this helps
maximize motor control, movement accuracy, stability, and overall movement
mechanics through enhanced kinesthetic awareness.

Finally, performing a controlled eccentric movement with a moderate to heavy

load requires a high level of muscle tightness and rigidity, as lack of muscle
stiffness would simply cause the weight to be dropped at a rapid pace due to the

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overcoming effects of gravity. In essence, in traditional training regimens that

do not emphasize the eccentric phase, lack of tightness and muscle stiffness is
often apparent as the trainee simply allows the load to be lowered in a non-
purposeful and free-falling manner. This reinforces decreased levels of muscle
stiffness and ultimately reduces levels of proprioceptive feedback.

In summary, temporary levels of enhanced proprioception and torque/force

(which inevitably have long term training implications) can be either increased or
decreased depending on the mode of muscular contractions performed by the
trainee. Decrements in proprioceptive function due to decreased levels of
muscle stiffness may be elicited by fatigue, excessive micro-trauma, and even
repeatedly-uncontrolled eccentric movements. In contrast, proprioception and
torque can be enhanced by minimizing levels of fatigue and increasing muscle
stiffness qualities, all of which eccentric isometrics appear to maximize. The end
result is enhanced body mechanics and quality of movement which ultimately
impacts overall health and well-being.

C o -C o n tr a c tio n a n d M u s c le S tiffn es s

Another key feature related to muscle stiffness is agonist-antagonist co-

contraction. Studies suggest that increased muscle stiffness may, in fact, occur in
large part as a result of one’s ability to employ co-contraction during specific
portions of movement [20] [16, 23]. Furthermore, co-contraction appears to be
pivotal to motor control and movement accuracy. Significantly, studies also show
that that the bottom of the eccentric position creates that greatest degree of co-
contraction [24]. For example, it appears that the greatest degree of co-
contraction in a lunge position occurs in the flexed or stretched position (bottom
portion of a lunge). This is similar to eccentric isometrics as the hold is
employed at the 90-degree joint angle, bottom-stretched position, thereby
reinforcing co-contraction and muscle stiffness, all of which, as previously
described, improves torque, stabilization, proprioceptive function, and body
mechanics.

From a neuromuscular perspective, the idea behind a high degree of agonist-

antagonist co-activation in the stretched position is analogous to that of a sling
shot effect. The greater the force exerted on the sling by another external force,
such as an arm, the greater the tension of the sling and ultimately the more
velocity the propelled object will have. The same is true of muscles. Although a
large portion of eccentric movement can be attributed to gravity and the general

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load of an object, there is also a significant degree of co-contraction that helps

pull against the agonists to create an almost-coiled or spring-loaded, fully cocked
position, similar to that of the rubber band.

Furthermore, increased co-contraction heightens activation of intrafusal fibers

through enhanced levels of stiffness, producing an ideal scenario for maximal
reciprocal inhibition on the concentric phase of the activity, maximizing power
and force output (i.e. increased activity of agonists and relaxation of antagonists).
Such a scenario is commonly observed in powerlifting bench press technique in
which the back muscles are maximally contracted to create stability, tightness,
proper positioning, and ultimately maximal power for the subsequent concentric
movement (i.e. pressing phase).

Finally, being diametrically opposed mechanisms, heightened levels of reciprocal

inhibition would theoretically mitigate autogenic inhibition from the Golgi
tendon organs. Therefore, they cannot occur simultaneously, at high levels,
specifically because activation from intrafusal fibers would override the
inhibitory effect of Golgi tendon organs due to the fact that spindles have faster
conducting axons than Golgi tendon organs [25]. In summary, co-contraction
may be a key factor for minimizing autogenic inhibition and maximizing
reciprocal inhibition, all of which appears to be highly beneficial for performance
and muscle function.

Because eccentric isometrics emphasize the stretched/eccentric position they

represent the perfect training modality to capitalize on all of the aforementioned
neurophysiological principles. These include increased muscle stiffness,
optimized agonist-antagonist co-contraction, reduced levels of muscular fatigue,
and enhanced sensory integrated movement through improved proprioception.
As a result this allows the lifter to fine-tune their movement, ingrain the proper
motor programs into their CNS, produce maximal force and power, and
ultimately master their body mechanics as they apply to all aspects of life and
performance.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Titin a n d Ela s tic

En er g y

Another physiological mechanism that may contribute to the effectiveness of

eccentric isometric protocols involves titin, a structural protein found in skeletal
muscle. Titin functions to potentiate and store elastic energy by acting much like

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a spring mechanism for force transmission [26, 27]. However, musculoskeletal

stretch is necessary in order to take advantage of the elasticity produced by this
unique protein [28]. Theoretically, because eccentric isometrics make use of the
lengthening/eccentric component of muscular contractions more extensively
than traditional repetitions, it is logical to assume that titin contributes to a
greater post activation potentiation effect than in traditional strength training.
This is further supported by my own studies which showed that the eccentric
isometric group experienced an increase in power and force nearly three times
that of the traditional training group. Having said that, future studies in this
relatively new area of investigation should help further elucidate the role of Titin
in muscle contraction.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Th e N a tu r a l Len g th

Ten s io n R ela tio n s h ip

Optimization of muscle length is critical to the discussion of parameters of

muscle function. The force-length or length-tension relationship is a
physiological principle that describes the relationship between sarcomere/muscle
fiber position or length and the production of muscular tension and force. If a
muscle is in an overly shortened position, with a high degree of myofilament
overlap, or in an overly stretched position, with reduced myofilament overlap,
cross-bridge cycling will be compromised and force production will be impaired.

In addition to hindering muscle activation and reducing motor unit recruitment,

intramuscular tension will also be diminished, ultimately curtailing the strength
and hypertrophy-inducing stimulus of the activity. Investigators have concluded
that a muscle will produce the most tension (internally) and force (externally)
when sarcomeres are in the moderately stretched position. That is, some stretch
is good but too much can lead to sub-maximal results in terms of muscular
tension and cross-bridge cycling.

For a majority of movements, this suggests that the ideal range of motion is at
joint angles of approximately 90 degrees, which is exactly what eccentric
isometrics help imprint in the CNS. In fact, when performing eccentric
isometrics, the lifter can usually feel this optimal 90 degree joint angle position,
sense when/where the muscles will become overly lengthened, and terminate the
end range of motion before this occurs.

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O ptim iz a tio n o f Lev er A r m s a n d

B io m ec h a n ic s

Although I’ve used numerous training protocols and resistance training methods,
I’ve found nothing more useful for optimizing human biomechanics, lever arms,
joint angles, and osteokinematics than eccentric isometrics.

A key concept in biomechanics is the utilization of angles and positions that

maximize leverage and torque production. These include 90-degree joint angles,
perpendicular positions, and parallel joint segments. As with the length tension
relationship, when performing eccentric isometrics the lifter can tune into optimal
joint angles and leverage, as the intramuscular stiffness, co-contraction, motor
control, and muscle spindle recruitment required to carry out a proper eccentric
isometrics inevitably result in movements involving roughly 90-degree joint angles.

These concepts are not only supported by neurophysiological principles but also
by biomechanical fundamentals of elastic energy. Simply, too much elasticity in
an object or muscle will result in excessive deformation. When the rate of
deformation is too high not only is the muscle stretched beyond its natural
length, more energy is needed to restore the muscle to its original position. As a
result much of the energy is diverted towards re-formation of the structure,
compromising force production.

The biomechanical principles related to muscle stiffness dictate the need for
compromise in terms of rate of deformation vs. maximal performance and
safety. This compromise favors increased levels of stiffness as most
biomechanists and physicists concur that the stiffest usable condition of an
object (muscle) is associated with optimal levels of strain energy. This strain
energy will ultimately produce the greatest benefits in terms of force production,
power, and movement as well as safety and technique.

Collapsing and bouncing out of a deep or overly-stretched position not only

wreaks havoc on joints, it minimizes torque, power production, and movement
efficiency. At best, this dangerous maneuver will bounce the lifter back to their
original position (in terms of range of motion), however, the reduced muscular
activation will result in an obvious sticking-point, with significantly diminished
torque throughout the concentric movement. In contrast, proper 90 degree joint
angle positions, such as those used during eccentric isometrics, are the epitome
of biomechanically favorable positions that result in maximal muscular stiffness,
proprioceptive feedback, and elastic energy, as the muscles are stretched to their
optimal range while maintaining optimal stiffness qualities.

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O ptim iz a tio n o f th e S tr etc h R eflex

(Th e R ea l O n e)

Many lifters are quick to justify the use of excessive range of motion and depth
during lifting as taking advantage of the stretch reflex. However, this argument
is inherently flawed. In fact, what many lifters and coaches consider to be
effective utilization of the stretch reflex is actually not the stretch reflex at
all. Rather, it is a rebound effect that occurs as a byproduct of using their
tendons, ligaments and connective tissue as flimsy and fragile springboards off of
which to bounce. This has little to do with the stretch reflex and is, in fact,
diametrically opposed to how one would ideally go about activating the stretch
reflex mechanism.

Optimal use of the stretch reflex requires a heightened level of structural

tightness and musculoskeletal stiffness, as this is fundamental to how muscle
spindles operate. As was previously discussed, muscle spindles are the key
players when it comes to activation of the stretch reflex mechanism. When
muscles stiffness qualities are minimal, as is commonly the case with excessive
range of motion, muscle spindle activation is disengaged or inhibited, thereby
minimizing the involvement of the stretch reflex mechanism.

As previously highlighted, reduced levels of muscular stiffness have been shown

to decrease proprioception and motor control, leading to further degradation of
mechanics, reduced kinesthetic awareness and, eventually, muscle spindle
desensitization. As a result the body becomes disengaged from its proprioceptive
mechanisms and, instead of producing increased sensory feedback when
presented with heavy loads, intense force, and high tension, the muscle spindles
gradually become inhibited and blunted from excessive stretch and exaggerated
ROM.

In the absence of properly functioning proprioceptive mechanisms, the body’s

ability to create optimal joint angles, fine-tune position, and make subtle
adjustments to technique and mechanics becomes greatly compromised, at
which point the individual has regrettably achieved the ability to override their
body’s natural protective barriers and the force-production mechanisms that
would normally resist an exaggerated stretch. Unfortunately, this becomes the
individual’s natural state of kinesthesia, not only during traditional strength
training movements, but during all related lower body movements and physical
activities.

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Fortunately, eccentric isometrics optimize muscle spindle activation and

ultimately maximize the stretch reflex mechanisms through enhanced muscle
stiffness, co-contraction, leverage, and joint angles. This not only maximizes
motor control and movement mechanics but also power output and force
production, both in the weight room and on the playing field.

O ptim iz a tio n o f M o b ility a n d S ta b ility

When it comes to optimizing body mechanics there is an optimal balance of

mobility and stability. Too much mobility can reduce stability and vice versa.
However, eccentric isometrics optimize these two components by first
addressing stability.

Performing mobility work to become more mobile seems logical. Ironically,

however, this can be the very issue that limits mobility. In fact, overdoing it on
mobility exercises, stretching, and soft tissue work can desensitize muscle
spindles, allowing the lifter to perform movements such as squats with excessive
ROM. This leads to localized chronic inflammation which over time is the very
thing that limits mobility and range of motion.

For most lifters, mobility is rarely the main issue regardless of whether or not
they appear to lack proper range of motion. Instead, the true issues are lack of
stability, tightness, and motor control. As the lifter gains stability their body
naturally begins to perform the movement patterns with the ideal range of
motion. In other words, by first gaining stability, optimal mobility naturally
follows, not the other way around. The last thing one wants to do is gain ROM
one cannot stabilize.

The popular practice of striving to gain ever more mobility is completely

contrary to the laws of human movement. Instead, the goal should be to find
optimal mobility (i.e. functional 90-degree joint angle positions) and maintain it.

All movements have both a maximal ROM and an optimal ROM. Rarely do the
two coincide. The same is true of any athletic skill or basic movement such as
punching, sprinting, throwing, kicking, hitting, etc. Each has an optimal range of
motion and the goal is to find the perfect balance between overly compact
motion and excessive ROM.

Eccentric isometrics allow the lifter to fine-tune their body mechanics, attend to
the sensory feedback from their muscles and, ultimately, find the ideal balance

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between mobility and stability through optimal range of motion (not maximal
range of motion). In fact, I rarely if ever incorporate mobility drills into the
training of my athletes and clients, as we rely purely on eccentric isometrics to
provide optimal mobility, flexibility, and range of motion. When stability and
faulty mechanics are the issue (as is typically the case), trying to force mobility
may induce a neural inhibitory response from the body as a safety mechanism,
ultimately making mobility worse.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Th e In ter n a l

S tr u c tu r a l Ph ys io lo g y o f M u s c u la r
C o n tr a c tio n s

During contraction maximal structural integrity of the muscle is achieved when

the length-tension relationship is optimal, as reflected by the optimal overlap of
actin and myosin filaments. This appears to occur at approximately 90-degree
joint angles, or in a moderately stretched position. Optimal muscle length has
also been shown to produce the greatest number of cross bridges during the
power stroke (a critical phase of intramuscular contractions) and the least
amount of structural interference. This cross-bridging effect at the deep
intramuscular level is critical not only for minimizing injury and tissue damage
but also for maximizing force production, power, and biomechanical efficiency
during movement. Eccentric isometrics help maximize this effect as the
isometric contraction position is where the greatest amount of cross bridging
occurs, while also producing the least amount of actin and myosin protein
filament structural inference.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Th e Po w er O u tpu t

Eq u a tio n

We’ve previously highlighted how eccentric isometrics optimize leverage,

neuromuscular physiology, biomechanics, structural physiology and many other
factors. The end result is enhanced body mechanics and force production, and
maximal power output and explosive capabilities for athletic performance.
However, eccentric isometrics also optimize the physics of movement, namely
the power output equation. That is, by honing in on the approximate 90 degree
joint angles for most movements, eccentric isometrics help maximize leverage
which, in turn, maximizes power output. Here’s why:

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At its simplest, the formula for expressing power can be written as: (Force x
Distance) / Time.

Time is the driving variable of this equation. As the component that has the
largest impact on the final power output it is the most critical when it comes to
maximizing power. The best way to maximize this is by incorporating 90 degree
joint angles, parallel joint segments, and perpendicular positions. Not only does
this produce more force, it decreases the time component (the driving variable).
That’s because the body is in the most biomechanically sound position for quick
and efficient torque production with little if any lag time. In addition, the
distance component is relatively small when compared to excessive range of
motion, thus further decreasing the time component of the power output
equation.

Many coaches are under the impression that increasing range of motion or using
a larger exaggerated movement will increase power output. If, in fact, the
distance component of the power output equation could be increased while
maintaining force and time invariant then, yes, in fact increasing distance would
increase power output. Unfortunately, nearly every scenario in which we
significantly increase distance beyond a 90 degree position, we decrease force
production (as the body is now in a biomechanically, neurophysiologically, and
structurally compromised position for creating force and torque), and more
importantly, we increase the driving variable, namely the time component, which
inevitably produces the greatest decrease in power.

Another way to think about it is that by increasing distance we increase time, a

less than ideal scenario for most movements. Similarly, by decreasing distance,
we decrease time which happens to be ideal for most movements. And while it
would be ideal to optimize both (minimize time and maximize distance), this is
physiologically and biomechanically impossible. Therefore, the time variable
must receive greater attention than distance due to its greater impact on the final
power output.

It should also be noted that excessively decreasing time at the cost of

significantly decreasing distance and force is also undesirable. For instance,
performing movements with limited range of motion would decrease time
further. However, the greater decrease in force production, as well as the
significant decrease in the distance variable, would outweigh the slight gain in
time. In other words, maximizing the power output equation requires finding
the ideal balance between the various components of force, distance, and time,

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which the 90-degree joint angle positions appear to optimize. In short, eccentric
isometrics help the lifter hone in on their ideal body position and optimal 90-
degree joint angles, thereby maximizing the power output relationship by
minimizing the time component and maximizing the force and distance variables
at once.

Tr a n s fer To a n d Im pa c t O n A ll O th er
M o v em en ts

The concepts and physiological principles previously discussed apply to other

performance enhancement activities including plyometric training, dynamic
movement and athletic performance. For example, it would never be advisable
to have an athlete perform plyometrics by collapsing on impact or using
excessive ROM. Instead, the goal is to maximize muscular tightness and stick
the landing by employing the biomechanical and physiological principles
described above. In turn, these factors optimize the stretch reflex allowing the
muscles to function like coiled springs rather than wet noodles. Again, eccentric
isometrics reinforce these attributes by incorporating and optimizing all of these
physiological principles.

In addition, because movement transfers (how we move when we train will

transfer to how we move in all other aspects of life and performance), eccentric
isometrics instill proper motor programs that have a positive transfer effect on
all physical activities including running, jumping, throwing, hitting, kicking, and
more. In fact, this represents the basic foundational principles of motor learning
in a nutshell. That being said I’ve found nothing more effective as a means of
improving spiriting mechanics, jumping technique, plyometric skills, agility, and
overall athleticisms than eccentric isometrics as they literally teach athletes the
optimal way to move by instilling proper recruitment patterns into the CNS.

Tea c h in g A c tiv e M o v em en t In s tea d o f

Pa s s iv e M o v em en t

Most physical activity should involve active movement (using our own muscles
to position our limbs and body) not passive movement (allowing external forces
such as gravity to position your body and dictate its limb placement).
Unfortunately, most individuals strength train and incorporate movements into
their routines that resemble passive movements, where little if any muscle

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activation is evident, as the individual simply hangs out on their joints, tendons,
ligaments, and connective tissue, while also bouncing out of the bottom of each
eccentric movement. In other words, the individual collapses, allowing gravity to
pull their body into the bottom position where they can simply use their body’s
structure for support.

In contrast, active movement represents the opposite type of motion as the lifter
fires their muscles aggressively in order to maintain stability, motor control,
force, and muscle stiffness, all of which are essential for taking strain off the
joints and using the muscles as shock absorbers. When a passive movement is
incorporated into strength training scenarios with heavy loads, the overly relaxed
and overly lengthened state of muscles, particularly on the eccentric motion,
stresses the joints and connective tissue rather than the muscles. Instead of
using the reciprocal muscle groups to pull the lifter into the proper position via
high levels of co-contraction, the individual relaxes/collapses to varying degrees
and relies on both gravity and the external load to pull them into the rock
bottom position.

In doing so the lifter exhibits low levels of proprioception and muscle activation
as muscle spindle recruitment is predicated on increased muscle stiffness and co-
contraction. This would suggest that not only is a significant amount of tension
being transferred from the muscles to the joints, but the ability to fine-tune
movement via proprioceptive-related feedback is limited due to the lack of
muscle spindle recruitment. The result is sloppy and uncontrolled movements
rather than tight and crisp motions.

Many lifters justify these sloppy motions with maximal range of motion (instead
of natural or optimal range of motion) by suggesting that the higher degree of
difficulty indicates a more effective stimulus. Unfortunately, this logic is flawed
at many levels. In fact, increased ROM beyond that which is considered optimal,
is never ideal for any movement and can oftentimes indicate dysfunction or
aberrations in movement patterns. Recent studies have shown that large ROM is
associated with fatigue, reduced proprioceptive feedback, and as a result,
increased risk of injury [29-32]. In other words, producing exaggerated ROMs
with ever-increasing levels of mobility doesn’t reflect productive movement. In
fact, these very characteristics have been shown to be associated with sloppy,
fatigue-related movements that involve decreased motor control, compromised
muscle function, increased risk of injury, reduced muscle activation,
neuromuscular inhibition, and decreased proprioception, all of which are far
from advantageous. Another way to think of this is that quality movement

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consists of controlled, crisp, and concise movements with moderate/natural

ROMs, whereas dysfunctional movements consist of the exact opposite, namely
excessive ROMs, and exaggerated motions in excess of 90-degree joint angles.

Proper eccentric isometrics are almost impossible to perform with anything but
active movement protocols as passive movements with excessive range of
motion would literally breach every tenet of eccentric isometrics. To slowly, yet
aggressively and deliberately, pull the body into the eccentric stretched position
requires intense intramuscular activation, muscle stiffness, co-contraction, spinal
rigidity, and full body tightness, which translates into ideal active-dynamic
movements. Through enhanced proprioceptive feedback, eccentric isometrics
also enable the lifter to feel and tune-into their body, and terminate the eccentric
motion before they collapse, lose tightness, and go into excessive range of
motion. In other words it allows them to feel for the appropriate end range of
motion.

O ptim iz a tio n o f Jo in t C en tr a tio n

When mastering movement it is important to understand how eccentric

isometrics help optimize something known as the centration model.

Optimal body mechanics are not only biomechanically sound and

neuromuscularly efficient, they are also structurally ideal, particularly from a
musculoskeletal standpoint. When determining what exactly a proper position is
for a given movement, one of the key components to examine is centration.
From a physiological and biomechanical perspective centration simply describes
the position in which optimal stress and tension are spread across the entire
structure(s), rather than focused excessively on one particular area of a given
structure(s) [33]. Some researchers and practitioners also refer to this as a
neutral or centered position. This topic has recently gained quite a bit of
attention in the fitness industry as more and more kinesiologists realize that
proper mechanics involve centrated positions as a means of ensuring that
tension is properly distributed around the involved structure(s) rather than
isolated to a particularly area which can lead to inflammation, injury, and other
health consequences.

When a joint, or group of joints, are centrated there is enhanced joint surface
congruency [33]. In addition, muscles that support the joint or joints are in the
most biomechanically advantageous positions to produce and absorb force as

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well as to provide enhanced movement accuracy. Simply put, a centrated

structure or joint allows for optimal transference of load and tension across the
involved joints and muscles, thereby placing the least amount of tension on the
ligaments, joints surfaces, cartilage, joint capsules, and other connective tissue.
Faulty positions that compromise centration lead to disproportionate stress on
isolated areas of the involved structures due to the inefficient transference of
load.

It’s important to highlight that when performing movement, particularly

eccentric isometrics, the lifter should be in tune with their body so they can
attend to 4 different forms of centration, namely (1) intra-joint centration, (2)
intra-muscular centration, (3) inter-joint centration, and (4) inter-muscular
centration.

Intra-joint centration involves creating equal or ideal tension across a specific joint.
For instance, when performing squats there should not be excessive tension on
only the medial or lateral portions, or even the anterior or posterior portions, of
the knee. Instead, the tension should be as equally displaced across the entire
joint as possible in order to avoid overstressing particular compartments of the
knee joint. For example, a squat with valgus knee collapse will tend to produce
excessive tension on the medial portion of the knee joint due to excess pressure
and tension build-up towards the inner portion of the knees. In this case, the
lack of intra-joint centration around that knee joint ultimately predisposes the
knee and other structures to greater risk of both chronic and acute injury as well
as inflammation. A proper squat performed with optimal mechanics and joint
positioning will distribute tension and force equally throughout the entire knee
joint. This same concept can, and should be, applied to all other joints of the
body as well as the spine.

Similarly, intra-muscular centration involves creating an equal amount of tension (or

as equal as possible for a specific movement) across the entire area of that
particular muscle. A functional or proper movement performed with ideal
biomechanics consists of positions where force is always dissipated equally
across the entire region of that muscle. For instance, when performing chest
exercises such as bench press, pushups or dips, it’s not uncommon for
individuals to feel a ripping or tearing sensation, or excessive isolated tension, on
a specific area of their muscles such as near the pectoral tendon or the outer
shoulder-pectoral insertion region. This is due to faulty mechanics and inefficient
positioning which produces excessive tension across a particular area of the chest
rather than producing relatively equal tension across the entire pectoral region.

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Besides minimizing the growth and strength stimulus to the involved

musculature, this also leads to chronic inflammation and tightness in that area
which can lead to postural abnormalities not to mention the heightened risk of
tears and injuries. In fact, pectoral tears are a common injury in weightlifting
circles. However, a majority of these tears can be attributed to lack of muscle
centration as the outer portion of the pectoral typically bears excessive tension in
relation to the other portions of the chest.

Inter-joint centration, as the name implies, occurs when force is equally or ideally
placed across the various involved joints during a particular movement. For
instance, during a squat we understand that the most functional position and
most biomechanically sound squat technique involves a position in which ample
tension is placed across both the hip and knee joints, not just one or the other.
An overly upright position that results in anterior knee drift over-stresses the
knee joints, whereas an excessively bent over position places too much tension
on the hips as well as the spine. Similar concepts can be applied to the inner and
outer portions of the legs, as too much pressure on the inner portions of the
thighs and hips can be indicative of valgus collapse or ankle pronation leading to
knee, hip, and ankle issues, whereas a squat performed with excessive spreading
of the knees can place too much tension on the outer portion of the knees, the
IT band, the outer hips, and groin. A proper squat involves ideal centration of
the hips and legs such that equal or optimal stress is distributed across both the
inner and outer regions of the lower body structures, as well as the anterior and
posterior portions.

Similarly, inter-muscular centration occurs when all of the involved musculature

experiences a proportional amount of tension rather than excessive tension on
some muscles and little tension on others. For instance, a proper dip involves
significant tension to the chest, shoulders, triceps, and lats. Attempting to place
added tension on the chest muscles by altering body mechanics until technique is
no longer biomechanically sound creates a scenario where there’s little muscle or
joint centration, thereby placing excessive tension on particular areas around the
chest. In this particular case much of the tension would be placed on the outer
portion of the pectoral region, towards the tendon insertion, and also on the
shoulder joint, as the lifter attempted to isolate the pectorals rather than produce
a biomechanically sound dip that involved all of the targeted musculature
equally. Similarly, a squat that’s overly upright, or that involves significant
anterior knee drift, will place excessive tension on the quads and not enough on
the posterior chain. A proper squat will involve significant tension across the
quads, glutes, and hamstrings. The same is true of most compound movements

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such as squats, hinges, lunges, presses, and pulls. Attempting to over-stress a

particular muscle group is a sure-fire way to produce a tight and spastic muscle
not to mention one that’s prone to pulls, strains, and tears.

From a functional position it is never the case that we want to eliminate or

minimize centration. Instead, the goal is to maximize each of these 4 forms of
centration as much as possible as this indicates optimal or near optimal
biomechanics. Yes, isolation movements, as well as certain variations of
compound movements may, in fact, place more tension on one specific muscle
or area of a muscle. However, even for isolation movements, there are protocols
and general biomechanical dictates that involve a relatively centrated position - as
much as is possible for a given movement. For example, a proper barbell curl
involves significant amount of tension in the upper back and shoulder stabilizers.
Attempting to over-elevate the shoulders or protract them at the top as a means
of producing a greater squeeze in the biceps can place undue stress on the front
deltoids and produce faulty postural alignment. It can also cause the bicep to
over-shorten significantly past the 90 degree joint angle, predisposing the biceps
to becoming overly tight, spastic, or prone to injury.

Simply put, one should focus on maintaining proper shoulder positioning and
spinal alignment even when performing isolation movements as all movements,
even bicep curls, have an optimal biomechanical position the lifter should attain.
The optimal position for any movement happens to represent the position where
there is ideal muscle and joint centration as well as a position that maximizes
load, safety, leverage, motor unit recruitment, joint safety, and most often 90
degree joint angle mechanics. These positions are also the healthiest positions for
the body as proper muscle function promotes healing and restoration. In
contrast, positions that don’t involve ample levels of joint centration tend to
produce significant inflammation and oxidative stress from faulty muscle
function, leading to a host of negative physiological consequences.

When performing eccentric isometrics, one of the main factors the lifter should
attend to is the 4 types of centration. As it turns out, eccentric isometrics
represent the single most effective tool for tuning into and attending to these
various forms of centration. For instance, if while performing a squat an
individual feels excessive tension across the knees relative to other joints, this
tells the lifter that he or she needs to make an adjustment based on the lack of
centration across the various joints (i.e. not enough tension spread across the
hips). Similarly, if the individual experiences significant knee pain or tension in
one particular area, such as the inside of the knee, this also indicates faulty

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positioning (i.e. perhaps valgus collapse or asymmetrical loading). In this case

the lifter needs to continue to adjust his or her biomechanics and positioning
throughout the controlled eccentric isometric phase as a means of fine-tuning
the movement until the pain or tension is significantly reduced, if not fully
eliminated. Attending to both muscle and joint centration during training is a
critical component when it comes to mastering body positioning and maximizing
the use of eccentric isometrics. In fact, it’s nearly impossible to master your
movement without incorporating these principles.

Section II
Additional Physiological Benefits
of Eccentric Isometrics
The benefits of eccentric isometrics discussed above are primarily related to their
direct effect on movement and body mechanics. However, it does not end
there. As I have experienced firsthand, they have a profound effect on numerous
aspects of human physiology and health, physically healing and restoring health.
That’s because they teach individuals how to move correctly and use their
muscles properly which has a tremendous impact on overall health. The
following sections describe a number of additional benefits and effects I’ve
observed over the years as a result of applying eccentric isometrics to myself, my
athletes, and my clients. These are further supported by accounts from other
trainers around the globe who have applied them to their training and that of
their clients.

Im pr o v e R ec o v er y a n d In c r ea s e
Tr a in in g Fr eq u en c y

There is an inverse correlation between technique and recovery. The better the
technique, the less recovery time is needed, as the exercise will essentially be
therapeutic and corrective. Poor technique demands greater recovery time in
order to deal with the negative consequences produced by dysfunctional
movement patterns. Because eccentric isometrics place greater emphasis on
technique than traditional training, not only do they serve as an excellent
diagnostic tool, properly performed eccentric isometrics promote recovery
which, in turn, allows for a higher frequency of training of any movement

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pattern. Eccentric isometrics not only promote recovery directly as a result of

spending so much time in the lengthened position (a therapeutic modality in and
of itself), they also teach proper osteokinematics and arthrokinematics which can
have a tremendous mitigating effect on joint and muscle inflammation.

When I first began incorporating eccentric isometrics into my athletes’ training

routines I noticed an obvious increase in their ability to recover. In fact, clients
who could previously only train each muscle group once every 5-7 days,
gradually became capable of training at much greater frequency. Most of my
athletes and clients now regularly train full body 3-6x per week.

En h a n c e M o b ility

The best thing one can do for mobility is to move correctly. Eccentric
isometrics, when performed properly, improve mobility almost immediately.
More importantly, they teach the body to move correctly via neuromuscular re-
education. The result is enhanced mobility due to the elimination of
dysfunctional movement patterns, muscular spasticity, and inflammation.

Spending more time in the stretched position while staying tight, and learning
how to co-contract reciprocal muscle groups during eccentric lengthening, is one
of the most effective methods for enhancing mobility. Furthermore, all mobility
gained from EI’s is purely functional. In contrast, mobility gained from other
traditional therapeutic modalities can produce dysfunctional mobility, or
hypermobility, due to the body oftentimes being overly treated or contorted into
unnatural positions.

Similarly, optimal levels of stiffness are essential for proper mobility, as low
levels of stiffness, which in turn produce instability, oftentimes cause the body to
avoid or hinder motion it cannot safely stabilize. Eccentric isometrics allow the
body to find the ideal balance of stiffness, stability, and mobility.

It should be noted that the term “muscle stiffness” used in this text refers to
optimal muscle tone or tension which is different from what is typically
considered “stiff”. Most people use the term “stiff” to describe lack of mobility,
lack of rhythmic motion, inability to produce full ROM, and spastic muscles that
are essentially knotted up as a result of dysfunctional movement. In this text, as
well as in the scientific literature, the term “muscle stiffness” refers to high
functioning muscle with enhanced rigidity and motor control, and is generally
considered to be a favorable characteristic.

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M a x im iz e H yp ertro p hy , S tren g th ,
Po w er , a n d O v er a ll M o v em en t

Properly executed eccentric isometrics result in significant enhancements in

power, strength, torque, potentiation, stability, symmetrical loading, mobility,
hypertrophy, and overall movement efficiency. Inability to produce similar
results is a sure fire indicator they are not being performed correctly.

After experimenting and studying dozens of training protocols over the years I
can honestly say that eccentric isometrics are not only the most effective means
of improving muscle function and mechanics, they are also the most effective
means of producing functional size, strength, and hypertrophy. The
combination of an occluded stretch, increased time under tension, and
heightened degree of motor unit recruitment, is a highly potent stimulus for
these structural changes. That is not to say that I do not use other training
methods, simply that none have contributed, and continue to contribute, more
to the success of my clients’ improvements in strength, power, and hypertrophy
than eccentric isometrics.

One of the reasons eccentric isometrics are so effective at inducing such

powerful changes in functional strength and muscle growth is that they take
advantage of all three mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy namely, muscle
damage, mechanical tension, and metabolic stress.

First, eccentric isometrics produce micro-trauma and muscle damage (without

over damaging the muscle) due to the prolonged time spent in the stretched
position. This is invaluable for eliciting strength and size gains as studies show
that this type of muscle damage, provided it’s not excessive, which can actually
atrophy a muscle, is a key player in terms of triggering new growth.

The second hypertrophy mechanism is mechanical tension. Eccentric isometrics

teach the lifter to stay incredibly tight as anything but maximal tension in the
stretched position will produce a sudden collapse. This high level of
intramuscular tension, combined with the stretched position, produces
significant mechanical tension and motor unit recruitment within the muscle,
which is critical for hypertrophy. Heightened intramuscular tension also
produces satellite signaling within the muscles which, in turn, triggers additional
new growth. Eccentric-accentuated training, even with relatively light loads
(60% 1RM), has also been shown to activate a majority of motor units which, in
turn, creates a significant hypertrophy stimulus, most likely due to increased
intramuscular tension. In addition, eccentric accentuated training, even with

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submaximal loads, has been shown to stimulate protein synthesis by activating

the all-important mTOR pathway which has been shown to be one the key
pathways that plays a role in building muscle mass and improving body
composition.

Finally, eccentric isometrics not only involve high levels of tension, they also
involve a significant degree of continuous or constant tension (without
relaxation) due to the prolonged isometric holds. This produces heighted
metabolic stress, cellular volumization, muscular pump, and cellular swelling, all
of which have been empirically shown to trigger significant hypertrophy.

In c r ea s e Fu n c tio n a l S tr en g th Th a t
Tr a n s fer s To M u s c le G r o w th

In addition to these direct effects, EI’s also have an indirect effect on strength
and size by helping establish incredibly strong and efficient motor programs and
efficient movement patterns. Grooving the proper neural pathways leads to
greater ability to overload with the end result being tremendous gains in strength
and size. In essence, optimizing technique allows the lifter to maximize the
overload effect and handle the heaviest weight in the safest and most
biomechanically sound fashion, which directly contributes to functional size
gains.

Eccentric isometrics also produce a significant post activation potentiation

(PAP) response. PAP allows athletes to produce greater force, power, and
torque throughout their workouts. In addition to enhancing explosive power
and speed, this allows maximal overload, which in turn, produces greater gains in
functional hypertrophy.

Pr o d u c e Fu n c tio n a l M u s c le Tis s u e
W h ile Lim itin g N o n -Fu n c tio n a l
H yper tr o ph y

It’s important to note that, unlike many training techniques, most of the size
accrued through eccentric isometrics is functional size and functional
hypertrophy, as a majority of the increase in the cross-sectional area of muscle
tissue is due to myofibrillar or sarcomere hypertrophy, not just sarcoplasmic
hypertrophy. In other words, the observed increase in size is due to gains in the
actual size of the contractile portions of the muscle. This is considered

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functional size, as the gain in mass contributes to greater force and torque
production during muscular contractions.

On the other hand, sarcoplasmic hypertrophy reflects cellular volumization

which, although beneficial in terms of size, does little in terms of functional
strength and movement efficiency. While eccentric isometrics actually produce
both sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar hypertrophy, a majority of the gains accrued
are due to increases in actual contractile myofibrils, due to the emphasis on the
eccentric phase, and not just intramuscular fluid retention. Therefore, most of
the muscle accrued through eccentric isometrics is considered functional muscle
tissue that will contribute to force, torque, and power generation.

A c tiv a te th e m TO R Pa th w a y o f M u s c le
G r o w th

As noted above, one of the main mechanisms by which eccentric isometrics

maximize hypertrophy is through activation of the mTOR pathway, a key
physiological mechanisms for muscle growth. Slow eccentrics and loaded
stretching movements activate this pathway which is directly responsible for up
regulating protein synthesis. This eccentric-induced mTOR activation occurs
even with relatively lighter or submaximal loads provided the eccentric motion is
accentuated (i.e. slow eccentrics). The reason for this is that eccentric training
with lighter loads (60% of 1RM) is sufficient to activate a majority of the motor
units and muscle fibers within muscles. Heavier loading, on the other hand,
primarily produces increased firing frequency of those same motor units, but
does not result in a higher number of motor units being recruited. In other
words, significant gains in muscle mass and strength can be achieved without the
need to incorporate inordinately heavy loads, as long as the eccentric phase is
emphasized, as it is during eccentric isometrics.

The fact that eccentric isometrics involve significantly less metabolic stress per
unit of time while simultaneously producing heightened levels of intramuscular
tension and muscle damage is another key reason why they are so effective at
optimizing the mTOR pathway. Studies have shown that excessive metabolic
stress, fatigue, and ATP expenditure can shut down the mTOR pathway,
ultimately inhibiting protein synthesis and muscle growth. Although a degree of
metabolic stress can produce cellular swelling and muscle volumization, which
can be advantageous for muscle growth, too much metabolic stress without
enough muscle damage and mechanical tension can actually be

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counterproductive in terms of muscle hypertrophy. Eccentric isometrics,

however, represents the perfect tool for creating the precise required balance of
physiological responses.

In fact, eccentric isometrics represent the ultimate tool for triggering the mTOR
pathway due to an improved ability to buffer lactic acid, and the reduced rate of
quick, repeated concentric contractions. A quick turnaround-rate of
contractions, and continuous and repeated concentric-emphasized movements,
have been shown to cause a significant increase in metabolic stress due the
nature of the excitation-contraction coupling process discussed in prior sections.
This ultimately inhibits the m-Tor pathway thereby minimizing protein synthesis
and muscle hypertrophy. In other words, in order to maximize the m-Tor
pathway, the key is to maximize eccentric stress, time under tension, and muscle
activation, while simultaneously minimizing fatigue and metabolic stress, all of
which are exact attributes and characteristics of eccentric isometric training
protocols

En h a n c es M en ta l C o n c en tr a tio n a n d
C o g n itio n

Eccentric isometrics are not just a physiological and biomechanical process.

They are psychologically and cognitively a very demanding experience that
requires the individual to be highly mentally engaged and focused on the purpose
of EI’s. Many individuals believe that just because they perform a slow eccentric
movement and hold the bottom position they’ve accomplished the goal of using
eccentric isometrics. However, if they are not tuning into the sensory feedback
from their muscles and other proprioceptive mechanisms, and conscientiously
trying to fine-tune their body mechanics, then eccentric isometrics are not only
ineffective but can be counterproductive. In other words, autopilot is not an
option. As an added benefit, I’ve had many athletes and clients tell me how EI’s
have positively impacted their ability to focus and concentrate, not only during
workouts, but when performing other cognitive tasks in their everyday life.

D ec r ea s e In fla m m a tio n a n d Im pr o v e
In s u lin R es is ta n c e

As discussed in earlier chapters, excessive inflammation and oxidative stress are

linked to nearly all known physical maladies and contribute to decreased insulin

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sensitivity, ultimately wreaking havoc on health, physique, and performance

attributes. Various studies have also shown that excessive levels of muscle
damage and delayed onset muscle soreness induced by resistance training can
lead to heightened levels of inflammation that can cause a significant increase in
insulin resistance, particularly to the muscle tissue. Eccentric isometrics, on the
other hand, program the body to move in the most biomechanically efficient
positions, inevitably leading to decreased joint and muscle inflammation and
enhanced performance.

Ironically, much of the research looking at the relationship between increased

inflammation, resistance training, and insulin resistance, points to eccentric
actions as being the key culprit. However, much, if not most, of this eccentric-
induced inflammation is simply a byproduct improperly absorbing force and
performing eccentric movements with poor technique and flawed movement
patterns. In fact, much of it comes down to the range of motion used to
perform eccentric motions. If optimal 90-degree joint angle mechanics are used,
the muscle damage produced by the level of eccentric contractions will be
moderate and ideal in terms of improving muscle function, growth, and insulin
sensitivity. However, if these 90-degree joint angle mechanics are breached and
the muscle is over-stretched there will be excessive levels of muscle damage and
trauma, producing heightened levels of delayed onset muscle soreness and
inflammation, ultimately leading to increased insulin resistance.

In other words, excessive eccentric-induced inflammation should not be

considered the standard norm or unavoidable. The issue lies in the manner in
which eccentric actions are performed. Done with improper movement patterns
and exaggerated ROM, they undoubtedly produce excessive inflammation and,
in fact, probably produce more inflammation than any other form of
movement. However, when performed correctly, the end result is decreased
inflammation and increased insulin sensitivity, not to mention a host of other
health benefits. Simply put, EI’s teach one how to deal with eccentric loads
properly and efficiently.

Furthermore, and as previously discussed, as the largest endocrine organ in the

body, muscles can be a significant source of inflammation. Simply put, if the
muscles are healthy the whole body is healthy. Unfortunately, the opposite is
true. When muscles are not functioning properly, or are hypertonic/spastic, they
release a host of inflammatory myokines, and stimulate production of others via
cytokine/myokine mediated crosstalk with other endocrine tissues. Fortunately,
through proper physiological rewiring and neuromuscular re-education, eccentric

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isometrics help restore optimal physiological function by addressing the root

cause of many diseases and inflammation, namely muscular dysfunction. This is
not to say eccentric isometrics can cure cancer or reverse fatal diseases, however,
the benefits of minimizing chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and free-
radical accumulation throughout the musculoskeletal system is something that
should not be taken lightly.

A d d r es s C o r r ec t V s . C o r r ec tiv e
Ex er c is e

When performed properly, eccentric isometrics are more corrective than any
“Corrective Exercise”. In fact, most movement should be corrective in
nature. However, when dysfunctional movement patterns become the go-to
movement strategies, physical activity begins to generate more and more
negative side effects (proportional to the degree of muscular dysfunction), while
gradually mitigating the positive effects of movement. Eccentric isometrics get
to the heart of this vicious cycle, repairing motor programs and restoring and
enhancing the therapeutic benefits of movement. In essence, eccentric
isometrics act as natural chiropractic adjustment and body re-alignment
mechanism through enhanced proprioceptive feedback and neuromuscular re-
programing.

Elim in a te Th e N eed Fo r S o ft Tis s u e

M o d a lities O r C o rr ec tiv e Ex erc is es

Movement should inevitably be therapeutic, therefore, tightness, aches, and pain

should not be accepted as part of the training norm. A consistent need to
perform soft tissue work, foam rolling, stretches, mobility drills, breathing
exercises, pelvic re-alignment drills and corrective exercises to loosen up and
release tension and inflammation is a clear indication that movement patterns are
flawed and lifting technique is incorrect to varying degrees. It is imperative one
get to the root of the issue which is dysfunctional movement patterns. Treat the
cause not the symptoms. Few if any of my clients and athletes ever foam roll or
utilize soft tissue work on a consistent basis as they simply don’t have a need for
it.

Additionally, if the goal is to foam roll and stretch in order to be able to achieve
a larger range of motion during training, chances are the muscle spindles have

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become de-sensitized from excessive use of these various self-treatment/soft

tissue modalities, causing the body to collapse due to loss of tension and muscle
tightness.

M itig a te O x id a tiv e S tres s a n d

In fla m m a tio n A s s o c ia ted w ith
D ys fu n c tio n a l M o v em en t

Muscle spasticity and hypertonicity are linked to a variety of physical conditions

all of which are associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. EI’s are a
highly effective tool for minimizing the various physical issues associated with
muscle spasticity-induced inflammation.

C o r r ec t Tec h n iq u e

When it comes to lifting as well as basic movement, most humans simply

reinforce their pre-existing level of movement. Unless they’re a genetic specimen
most individuals likely move incorrectly to some degree or another. This means
they are ingraining faulty mechanics. However eccentric isometrics build upon
optimal movement by correcting movement patterns rather than reinforcing old
habits or even worse, degrading muscle function further.

R ein fo r c es C o r r ec t M o to r U n it
R ec r u itm en t

All movement transfers, be it good or bad. If one lifts with any type of flawed
patterns this will gradually trickle into other aspects of movement, daily living, or
performance. Whether its throwing, jumping, hitting, running or walking,
proper movement patterns and efficient motor control are
paramount. Eccentric isometrics address this and establish ideal motor
programs not just for lifting but for movement in general.

In c r ea s e N eu r o -S en s itiv ity o f Pa in

Pain is an indicator that one is not in an ideal position nor using their muscles to
adequately absorb force. Even with significant injuries, individuals can often
perform intense movements that involve the injured site, as long as technique

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and intra/inter-muscular coordination are precise. Doing so takes tension off the
injured site and transfers it to the muscles. Furthermore, this provides
therapeutic and healing effects as proper movement promotes restoration and
repair. There are obviously extreme circumstances where such a scenario would
be impractical but this is typically not the case for a majority of injuries. In short,
if it hurts you’re doing it wrong.

C o r r ec t C o n c en tr ic M o v em en t

Proper eccentric positioning helps ensure correct concentric

movement. Achieving appropriate mechanics during eccentric muscle
lengthening establishes the proper groove and ultimately promotes refined
mechanics on the subsequent concentric phase. With efficient eccentric
isometrics, focusing excessively on concentric positioning is almost unnecessary,
as the muscles have been properly activated on the lengthening phase and will
stay so throughout the rest of the movement/shortening phase.

Im pr o v e Fo r c e A b s o r ptio n C a pa b ilities

Eccentric isometrics teach the body how to deal with eccentric forces as well as
how to absorb high impact force properly and efficiently. That’s because they
teach the body how to move correctly using the most biomechanically sound
positions and ideal osteokinematics.

In c r ea s e H ea lth Th r o u g h
Pr o pr io c eptiv e Feed b a c k

Eccentric isometrics emphasize the stretched position thereby increasing the

proprioceptive feedback that comes through the muscles. This enhances
technique, and movement patterns, while simultaneously providing a highly
effective and therapeutic modality of strength training. Essentially, when
performing EI’s one uses all of the heightened sensory information produced by
the muscles to master movement and perfect motor programs/movement
patterns. This inevitably affects how one moves and ultimately impacts overall
health. The healthier the muscles, the healthier one is in general.

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Tea c h Th e Lifter To B ec o m e Th eir O w n

Coach

When training an athlete or client my goal is not for them to simply listen to
every word I say when correcting a movement pattern. Instead, the ultimate
objective is to coach them and get them to the point where they can tune into
and attend to the inherent sensory feedback coming from their own body, and
use that to fine-tune their own movement. This teaches them to master their
body and become their own coach, rather than continuously relying on someone
else for feedback. In the field of motor learning and motor development this
represents the epitome of movement mastery.

In essence, the feedback that the individual uses is internal (the most powerful
methods of feedback) rather than from an external source. The best athletes and
trainees are those that adopt this methodology. Besides teaching the athlete or
individual to get to this point, eccentric isometrics require the utmost mental
focus and concentration, as attention to internal stimuli is critical, as is the
mental toughness required to work past physical discomfort (e.g. muscle burn
and fatigue). That being said, some individuals will ultimately fail when first
attempting to incorporate eccentric isometrics. This almost always comes down
to the mental component and being unwilling to put in the exertion, focus,
concentration, and mental engagement needed to effectively use this method.

R ein fo r c e O ptim a l R a n g e O f M o tio n ,

N o t M a x im a l R a n g e O f M o tio n

The goal with eccentric isometrics, and any proper movement, is to produce the
most natural range of motion while staying as tight as possible. In reality, this
does not produce a large range of motion but rather a biomechanically sound
range of motion which is oftentimes more abbreviated than what most
individuals are accustomed to. As mentioned throughout this text, these
positions typically involve 90 degree joint angles, parallel positions, and
perpendicular joint segments, all of which represent the most biomechanically
sound positions for both producing and absorbing force.

Pr o v id e th e U ltim a te S elf-D ia g n o s tic

To o l

Although this has been stated numerous times throughout this text, nothing is
more effective at producing gains in strength, size, and fitness than perfect

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technique. When used properly eccentric isometrics represent the perfect

method for making this happen. Simply, eccentric isometrics are one of, if not
the, best diagnostic tool when it comes to assessing, analyzing, and adjusting
technique and body positioning. Anytime movement mechanics need tweaking
or refinement, eccentric isometrics are a surefire method to hone in on these
issues and remedy the underlying problems.

Im pr o v e A u to n o m ic N er v o u s S y s tem
Fu n c tio n

Eccentric isometrics can help optimize the function of the autonomic nervous
system and help balance sympathetic and parasympathetic control. This is
something I’ve observed in my athletes and clients as well as myself. When muscle
function is amiss the autonomic nervous system is negatively stimulated, causing
excessive sympathetic tone and oftentimes sending the individual into a state of
fight or flight with increased anxiety and nervousness. This is in part simply due to
impaired postural mechanics, which disrupts breathing and oxygen utilization.

However, if muscle function is impaired, the entire musculature of the body can
experience altered blood flow, poor circulation, and excessive tone/tension
when at rest, much of which can be attributed to spastic muscles and the
associated oxidative stress. This then causes the sympathetic nervous system to
become overactive which, in addition to degrading neuromuscular coordination
and rhythmic movement, further disrupts breathing and oxygenation. The end
result is an increase in the levels of carbon dioxide which precipitates a more
acidic environment, and contributes further to an increased sympathetic drive.
Ultimately, the athlete will experience much quicker accumulation and higher
levels of metabolic wastes and lactic acid, which will not only alter performance
but also impair health and overall physiology. Eccentric isometrics address the
root of the problem by improving muscle function and eliminating faulty
recruitment patterns that can lead to spasticity and inflammation-induced
autonomic nervous system dysfunction.

Im pr o v e Th e B o d y’s A b ility to H a n d le
C a r b o h yd r a tes

An added benefit of eccentric isometrics is that by improving muscle function

they improve glucose metabolism in the body and muscles. This is likely due to

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the up regulation of GLUT4 receptors which, in turn, improves insulin

sensitivity in muscle cells and promotes enhanced metabolic function.

Eccentric isometrics also decrease inflammation in the body, which is pivotal

when it comes to insulin sensitivity and muscle glucose uptake. As a result of
using eccentric isometrics, individuals will experience enhanced uptake of
glucose molecules by muscle cells, allowing them to consume more
carbohydrates in their diet and lowering the risk of glucose molecules being
transported to fat cells or building up to toxic levels in their bloodstream. This is
something I have seen repeatedly in my athletes and clients.

In contrast, poor mechanics, often reinforced by traditional training techniques,

can increase systemic levels of inflammation which decreases insulin sensitivity
and impairs glucose metabolism. In fact, this is a common theme I’ve observed:
the worse an individual’s technique and mechanics are, the less efficient their
bodies are at handling carbohydrates. In contrast, the better an individual’s level
of muscle function and body mechanics are, the better their bodies can handle
high influxes of calories and carbohydrates due to the up-regulation of GLUT4
receptors and increased insulin sensitivity of their muscles.

It should be noted that while eccentric isometrics are very therapeutic, they are
also very physiologically demanding in terms of energy consumption, as the
amount of effort and neuromuscular recruitment required for each repetition of
every set is much higher than traditional forms of training. Because of this the
individual will often require additional calories in the form of both carbohydrates
and protein as well as healthy fats. The carbohydrates will help replenish the
glycogen stores depleted by the intense training, whereas the protein is needed to
help repair the muscle tissue after it’s been subjected to prolonged eccentric
stress and micro-trauma.

Simply put, increased caloric consumption is beneficial to the body when using
eccentric isometrics, as the added calories are put to effective use for physiologic
restoration. And, while diet should always be as dialed in and as precise as
possible, individuals who regularly perform eccentric isometrics will find there’s
more room for periodic dietary deviations. In other words, periodic deviations in
dietary habits (although not recommended) will have less of a negative impact on
their body than they would under traditional or less than favorable training
conditions.

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En h a n c e D ig es tiv e Fu n c tio n

Although optimal digestion is largely impacted by dietary intake and nutritional

habits, optimal muscle function is also pivotal. In fact, without proper muscle
function, digestive function will be compromised or significantly inhibited.

As noted above, dysfunctional movement patterns and muscular dysfunction lead to

altered autonomic nervous system function and increased sympathetic tone, which
disrupts breathing, digestion and overall health, and creates a toxic environment in
the body that negatively impacts all other systems and tissues, including the
gastrointestinal system. This contributes further to an increase in sympathetic tone
(i.e. increased anxiety, nervousness, mental distress, and inability to focus) creating a
continuous viscous cycle of impaired autonomic nervous system function, with
physiological function gradually degrading more and more over time.

Inflammation and oxidative stress, including that produced from faulty muscle
function, are also strongly correlated and related to digestive distress and
gastrointestinal issues. In contrast, exercise, particularly proper movement, has
been shown to produce an up-regulation in digestive enzymes thereby aiding
digestive function.

Eccentric isometrics are one of, if not the, single most powerful tool I’ve
encountered to improve digestive function. I’ve literally seen individuals with
food allergies who, by enhancing muscle function, improved their digestive
capabilities to such an extent they were able to return to foods they once
couldn’t tolerate. In contrast, I’ve also observed individuals develop food
allergies and intolerances almost “out of the blue” as a result of faulty muscle
function and improper movement mechanics. This is not to say that eccentric
isometrics can cure and eliminate all stomach issues, but the improvements many
individual will experience are greater than what most digestive medications and
over-the-counter drugs will provide.

Im pr o v es A b ility to B u ffer La c tic A c id

a n d In c r ea s es Tim e to Fa tig u e

Eccentric isometrics are an outstanding training tool to improve one’s ability to

handle and tolerate lactic acid accumulation. One reason is eccentric isometrics
actually improve the body’s ability to buffer and clear out lactic acid, hydrogen ions,
and other metabolites while producing intense muscular contractions. This is critical
for athletic performance as there will inevitably be a significant degree of metabolite

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accumulation and metabolic waste production. The key is to make sure the body is
capable of handling these so that it does not shut down or impair performance.

One thing individuals notice immediately with eccentric isometrics is how

quickly “the burn”, or hydrogen ions (lactic acid), begins to accumulate.
However, the adaptation process begins to occur typically within one or two
training sessions, at which point the athlete becomes much more physiologically
equipped to handle the lactate and hydrogen ion accumulation. Individuals will
also see a significant impact on the playing field as it will take much longer for
the athlete to experience the same level of lactate accumulation and fatigue they
were accustomed to producing prior to implementing eccentric isometrics. These
adaptations result in part from the increased total time under tension as eccentric
isometrics take much longer to perform, forcing the muscles to become more
metabolically efficient. They also provide more constant tension with less total
rest for the muscles during any given set, particularly if the eccentric isometric
position is held for a significant duration.

Another factor that’s perhaps even more significant when it comes to eccentric
isometrics and their ability to improve the lactate threshold is the decrease in
total hydrogen ion buildup for a given intensity or time under tension. In other
words, under the same relative conditions and similar intensities, there’s less total
lactic acid accumulation, not just because of the improved ability to buffer
hydrogen ions, but because once the athletes adapts to the eccentric isometrics
the muscles do not produce as much metabolic wastes and lactate as they did
before under the same conditions. This is simply due to improved muscle
function in terms of neuromuscular activation and recruitment patterns. For
example, many athletes have very tight or spastic muscles and poor postural
mechanics. This leads to impaired circulation and blood flow, a result of which is
the muscles produce more lactic acid, hydrogen ions, and toxins which can shut
down or greatly limit work capacity. The ensuing acidification of the
physiological environment and increased carbon dioxide buildup further
hampers performance and work capacity.

The increased hydrogen ion buildup and more acidic environment also
compromises the muscle’s ability to pump and re-uptake calcium, which is
critical when it comes to muscle function, performance, force production, time
to fatigue, and work capacity, as well as the muscle’s ability to relax post
contraction. In other words, the muscles will tend to stay overly taught which
further contributes to increased fatigue and lactic acid accumulation. Eccentric
isometrics re-train the nervous system to properly fire the muscles as well as

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produce the optimal levels of muscle tone at work and at rest. As a result,
circulation, blood flow, removal of metabolic wastes, intra- and inter-muscular
coordination, and intramuscular calcium release and re-uptake are greatly
improved, all of which have an enormous impact on time to fatigue and
hydrogen ion/lactic acid accumulation.

Im pr o v e Ph y s io lo g ic a l O x yg en a tio n

Proper breathing plays a significant role in the accumulation of lactic acid and
metabolic wastes. As already mentioned, when muscles do not activate properly
postural alignment and spinal positioning are negatively impacted which, in turn,
directly impacts breathing patterns leading to carbon dioxide buildup, lactic acid
accumulation, and accumulation of toxins that cause substantial fatigue and
health issues. Eccentric isometrics improve postural mechanics and optimize
breathing patterns. As a result optimal oxygen intake and oxygen flow are
produced which minimizes the accumulation of metabolites associated with
fatigue. This also promotes improved oxygenation throughout the body thereby
maximizing health and physiological function.

B o o s t Im m u n e S y s tem Fu n c tio n

Muscular dysfunction and faulty movement patterns can wreak havoc on the
body’s immune system due to excessive muscular spasticity, inflammation,
oxidative stress, acidity, and accumulation of free radicals throughout the body,
all of which have been shown to cause illness. Once individuals master their
body mechanics and their muscle function and physiologic state are optimized,
they immediately begin to notice they’re less prone to upper respiratory
infections, allergies, common colds, bacterial infections, viruses, and other
common illnesses. Eccentric isometrics help maximize this response ultimately
minimizing illness and disease both on a small scale (i.e. common cold), and a
larger scale (i.e. physical ailments and disease).

In d u c e Ph ys io lo g ic a l R ew ir in g V ia
n eu r o m u s c u la r R e -Ed u c a tio n

As stated numerous time throughout this text, the muscles make up the largest
endocrine organ in the body. Through cross-talk with other organs they have the

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power to impact all other systems of the body in a profound way by inducing
biochemical, hormonal, digestive changes, affecting endocrine and autonomic
nervous system function, psychological and psychosomatic components, and
directly impacting nearly all other known physiological systems of the human
body. In fact, most individuals have numerous health and physical issues many
of which can be linked to muscle tissue and muscle function. By retraining the
body and nervous system to activate the muscles properly, the neuromuscular re-
education process literally induces physiological rewiring, ultimately bringing
health, healing, and restoration to the individual.

This is something I’ve observed countless times with my own clients as well as
my own body, i.e. improving muscle function (regardless of other contributing
lifestyle factors) results in varying degrees of healing almost immediately.
Unfortunately, I’ve also witnessed situations in which individuals appear to have
all other lifestyle factors dialed in, including nutrition and generally healthy
behaviors, yet if muscle function is significantly amiss their health and well-being
is severely compromised. This is what I’ve also referred to multiple times in this
book as the “muscle malady cascade effect”. In other words, maximal health,
performance, and wellness can only be accomplished if the muscles are healthy
and performing as they were intended. Eccentric isometrics addresses the root
cause, not just the symptoms, associated with the muscle malady cascade effect,
and help induce positive physiological rewiring via neuromuscular re-education.

M itig a te P r o g ra m m in g P a r a lys is

Many strength coaches, lifters, and trainers have become obsessed with
principles of programming. This is not only unnecessary, it’s actually
counterproductive, as infinitely more attention should be paid to movement
mechanics and technique than to programming parameters. In reality, the better
one’s movement mechanics, muscle function, technique, and exercise execution
are, the less important specific details of programming and periodization
become, as each repetition of every movement produces a therapeutic effect
rather than a contratherapeutic one. In contrast, the worse an individuals’
training technique, movement mechanics, exercise form, and motor control are,
the more important programming and periodization become, as detailed
strategies must be meticulously implemented to deal with the negative
ramifications produced by each movement aberration.

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In summary, the more efficient your motor programs and overall lifting
technique are, the less important exercise programming becomes. I’m not saying
programming isn’t important as it definitely has its place. However, in
comparison to using the correct movement patterns and ingraining the
appropriate neural blueprints, exercise programming and periodization place a
distant second. One can take the world’s worst lifting routine and actually
achieve incredible results as long as proper technique and form are maintained in
all the basic exercises. However, one could also take the world’s greatest training
program but if technique is faulty the results will be marginal at best.

Eccentric isometrics instill proper mechanics thereby producing therapeutic

benefits for all movement patterns. As a result, designing the perfect training
program (which in fact does not exist) becomes inconsequential, provided the
basic movement patterns are routinely performed with textbook mechanics
(more on programming in chapter 6).

H elp M in im ize In ju r ies

Eccentric isometrics are arguably the most functional type of training an

individual can perform as they promote improved body mechanics by enhancing
proprioception, sense of body positioning, and kinesthetic awareness, all critical
aspects needed to maximize body mechanics and efficient movement.
Unfortunately, most forms of training lack these. In addition to teaching
improved neuromuscular efficiency and ideal body mechanics, eccentric
isometrics also prevent injury by strengthening tendons, ligaments, and
connective tissue not to mention the muscle tissue itself.

Im pr o v e C o lla g en S y n th es is

Eccentric isometrics also help reduce injuries not only by improving

biomechanics but also through structural remodeling, specifically that of collagen
fibers. Studies have shown that exercises that emphasize eccentric muscle stress
increase collagen synthesis in connective tissue which plays a key role in
preventing injury. Furthermore, connective tissue remodeling enhances the
muscles’ ability to handle intense stress, and the effectiveness with which they
absorb force and high impact during eccentric training.

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Im pr o v e Fo r c e A b s o r ptio n C a pa b ilities

Most individuals become injured during an abrupt eccentric contraction, such as

pulling a hamstring when running or placing excessive tension on the joints
when squatting, jumping or landing. Much of this comes down to force
absorption or a lack of force absorption capabilities. Most individuals lack the
ability to properly absorb high impact and incoming forces. As a result, much of
the strain is transferred to the joints and connective tissue and causes trauma to
the muscles themselves.

Despite significant advances in kinesiology over the last decade, many sports
have seen an alarming increase in the rates of injury. While all sports carry some
risk of injury, a large fraction of injuries occur for no apparent reason other than
improper muscle activation and recruitment patterns. Non-impact injuries such
as ACL tears, rotator cuff injuries, ankle sprains, and herniated discs have
become more frequent despite the “latest and greatest” strength and
conditioning protocols and therapeutic modalities.

Many of these injuries could be prevented if the athlete’s body were functioning
properly. An athlete’s potential for injury is very much contingent on whether
their muscles are performing one of their key roles, namely, force
absorption. When the nervous system properly activates and recruits the
appropriate motor units and fibers, it places the athlete’s limbs and joints in the
most biomechanically advantageous position in terms of performance and safety.
However, when forces and torques act on the body without correct
neuromuscular innervation, other structures such as tendons, joint capsules,
ligaments, and connective tissue absorb the force and impact. This creates
exponentially greater potential for both chronic and acute injuries, as well as
increased local and systemic inflammation.

Although increasing muscle strength is critical in order to prevent such

occurrences, it is only a small piece of the puzzle. Proper biomechanics, joint
positioning, motor unit recruitment patterns, arthrokinematics (movement of
joint surfaces), muscular symmetry, mobility, and joint stabilization are paramount
to injury prevention, performance, and overall health. Simply put, an athlete may
be exceptionally strong yet still have an incredibly high risk for injury.

Eccentric isometrics enhance the supporting musculature’s strength and ability

to perform all of these functions, thereby optimizing force/shock absorption.
Through improved body mechanics and movement efficiency, tension on the

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surrounding joints and connective tissue is minimized. In turn, this maximizes

speed, power, torque, and quality of movement in all aspects of performance.

A llo w In d iv id u a ls to A v o id S u r g er y
a n d W o r k A r o u n d /Elim in a te In ju r ies

Almost all individuals including athletes, aging individuals, general populations,

and trauma patients, experience joint pain and deterioration, which often leads to
therapy, surgery, and joint replacements. Again, this is often a result of improper
muscle function. For example, if the various muscles surrounding the hip joint
are not performing their roles correctly (i.e. absorbing force and producing
biomechanically sound movement), stress will inevitably be placed on the hip
joint and surrounding connective tissue. Over time this leads to capsular issues,
soft tissue abnormalities, osteoarthritis, and overall joint degeneration. While a
physician may label this as “overuse” or genetically predisposed structural
deficiencies, “improper use” is more accurate. The body’s joints and connective
tissue are highly resilient as long as the appropriate muscles are performing their
roles correctly and absorbing impact.

Proper muscle function not only prevents joint and tissue trauma, it can also
enable individuals with even the most severe pain and injuries (including tears,
osteoarthritis and joint degeneration) to avoid surgery and eliminate most if not
all associated symptoms such as pain, swelling, inflammation, incapacitation,
debilitation, and further injury. Although many injuries may never fully repair on
their own, without surgical or other intervention, these injuries and
inflammatory-related issues can still be overcome, and essentially become
inconsequential, provided the surrounding muscles are performing their roles.

For example, an individual with a significant rotator cuff injury could avoid
surgery and medical treatment almost indefinitely (regardless of whether or not
the injury healed on its own), if in fact that individual’s neuromuscular system
could be properly re-programmed to innervate surrounding muscles, which
would essentially absorb incoming forces and torque, alleviating most if not all
tension from the injured site. In essence, this individual could continue to play
their sport, move efficiently, and maintain high functionality of the upper
extremities. Although there are extreme cases where surgery and medical
treatment are the only viable options, many injuries can be overcome by re-
educating the nervous system and instilling optimal muscle function. This is

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something I’ve witnessed countless times in my clients as well as my own body

through the use of eccentric isometric training protocols.

Most physicians will recommend surgery (typically as a first line of action),

medication, or at best physical therapy, which oftentimes provides little relief,
and in some cases only exacerbates pre-existing injuries. Eccentric isometrics
transcends these approaches by teaching the body to move correctly using
natural movement patterns and activation strategies inherent to the human
body’s genetic makeup. This promotes natural healing, restoration, and health to
the injured site, as well as to the entire body, by reducing inflammation and
oxidative stress.

Elim in a te M u s c le C r a m ps

Over the past several decades the cause of muscle cramps has largely been
attributed to dehydration, perspiration, and loss of electrolytes. However, recent
studies have refuted this notion and shown that motor control, or lack thereof,
as well as improper muscle spindle function and Golgi tendon activation (i.e.
poor proprioception) may be largely responsible for exercise-induced cramps
[34]. In fact, it appears that the cause of spastic/hypertonic or tight muscles may
be similar to that associated with muscle cramps, as poor muscle function,
activation patterns, muscle spindle function, inefficient neuromuscular
activation, lack of motor control, and faulty muscle function are the key culprits.
Furthermore, researchers have suggested that impaired function of
proprioceptive mechanisms may be the key factor. These same mechanisms may
also be associated with resting cramps, such as those commonly experienced
while sleeping or at rest.

It also appears that when such cramping episodes occur it may be in part due to
disruption of the natural excitation-contraction coupling process caused by the
inability of the actin and myosin heads of the muscle to uncouple. In other
words, the muscles are unable to return to their normal position due to excessive
tone, spasticity, tightness, and inefficient recruitment patterns. This further
highlights the importance of muscle lengthening exercises (i.e. eccentric
movements) as it teaches the muscles to return to their optimal length, rather
than remain in their contracted/shortened state. If, in fact, these new findings
are valid it would suggest that improving muscle function and eliminating
muscular dysfunction through the use of proper neuromuscular re-education

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techniques such as eccentric isometrics may be vital for the management of

muscle cramps.

This is also a trend I’ve noticed repeatedly in my athletes and clients as well as
myself. When I first begin working with them, many athletes often complain of
pre-existing cramps during exercise and competition. Despite attempts to treat
these through the use of various nutritional strategies, oftentimes the only
effective course of action is improving body mechanics through the use of
eccentric isometrics. In fact, nearly every time I have athletes or clients
implement eccentric isometric training into their routines, not only does their
muscle function markedly improve in as little as several sessions, but exercise-
induced cramps, spasticity, and muscle tightness greatly diminish if not
eventually fully disappear.

En h a n c e En d o c r in e Fu n c tio n

A hormonal imbalance can have devastating physiological and psychological

consequences for men and women of all ages, therefore, proper hormonal
regulation is a critical factor in terms of maximizing performance, fitness, and
overall health [35].

Because muscles, through their function as an endocrine organ, directly and

indirectly impact nearly all other tissues and systems of the human body, optimal
endocrine function can only be achieved when the muscles are healthy. Eccentric
isometrics not only provide this stimulus by optimizing muscle function, they
also produce acute and temporary changes in various anabolic hormones such as
testosterone, HGH, and IGF-1.

Although the hormonal and endocrine effects of eccentric isometrics have yet to
be directly studied, anything that produces a high level of mechanical tension,
metabolic stress, intramuscular tension, cellular swelling, and lactic acid is also
going to be effective at eliciting a strong testosterone, HGH, and IGF-1
response. Most of these anabolic hormones are typically associated with higher
levels of tension as well as higher time under tension. Eccentric isometrics
involve heightened levels of both of these key components on every repetition,
to a greater extent than other training methods. Therefore, the natural release of
these various anabolic hormones is likely quite significant.

It should be highlighted that although no studies have directly examined the

effect of eccentric isometrics on the endocrine response, recent work has shown

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that slow eccentric contractions (3 seconds or greater in duration) such as those

used with eccentric isometrics, produce greater increases in growth hormone
than traditional forms of training [36].

In addition, research studies suggest that chronic inflammation and oxidative

stress are inversely related to optimal hormonal status. Excessive inflammation is
not only linked to many, if not all, illnesses, but such a state can have detrimental
effects on testosterone and other anabolic hormones, as well as magnifying the
negative consequences associated with cortisol, insulin, and estrogen. Improper
muscle function inevitably produces excessive inflammation, adrenal fatigue, and
elevated cortisol levels, ultimately leading to poor hormonal regulation, immune
function, metabolism, body composition, and various other health
consequences. Eccentric isometrics help optimize muscle function and reduce
chronic inflammation, thereby optimizing the body’s natural ability to regulate
hormones and endocrine function.

On a similar note, the impact that muscle function, or lack thereof, has on
cortisol levels is of critical importance. Although it’s an essential hormone,
cortisol is often considered the stress hormone involved in fight or flight
syndrome, as well as in excessive levels of mental and physical stress. This
hormone is both catabolic in that it breaks down muscle tissue, and commonly
associated with increased adiposity and fat accumulation in the lower stomach
region. There also appears to be a strong relationship between elevated cortisol
levels, decreased testosterone levels, and increased estrogen levels. In essence,
the goal of training and proper lifestyle habits is to minimize the release/effects
of cortisol.

Unfortunately, faulty muscle function plays a significant role in cortisol

production. When muscles aren’t firing properly and movement patterns are
amiss, internal stress to the joints, connective tissue, nerves, and other structural
systems is increased, producing chronic inflammation, free radical accumulation,
oxidative stress, and negatively altering the body’s internal biochemistry. All of
these factors are linked to increased cortisol levels due to the body being overly
stressed in a multitude of ways. Increased cortisol levels also appear to be related
to increased insulin resistance, making it more difficult for the muscle tissue to
absorb incoming nutrients, thereby increasing fat accumulation and raising the
risk of diabetic issues.

As the largest endocrine organ of the body, the impact of muscles on hormones
such as cortisol is significant. Incorporating proper eccentric isometrics training

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protocols re-educates the nervous system on how to use the muscles optimally,
thereby promoting therapeutic physiological responses rather than contra-
therapeutic ones.

Minimizing inflammation, oxidative stress, and catabolic hormones such as

cortisol are key factors when it comes to maximizing the positive endocrine
response achieved through training. Besides improving overall health and
wellness, which has its own hormonal benefits, eccentric isometrics are
incredibly powerful inducers of testosterone. This is again something I’ve
observed in my clients and athletes as well myself. The reason is they teach
individuals the most efficient movement mechanics and technique, ultimately
allowing them to use the heaviest training loads to create the most powerful
muscular contractions. The ability to move heavy loads and produce intense
muscular contractions with efficient movement patterns has been shown to
optimize natural testosterone production. In addition, eccentric isometrics
ingrain the most biomechanically sound and safest positions which limits cortisol
production, inflammation, and stress hormones, ultimately maximizing the
testosterone-to-cortisol ratio.

In addition to what the various research studies have shown, I’ve personally had
the opportunity over the years to consistently witness these hormonal benefits in
many athletes and clients, as the use of eccentric isometrics (along with proper
dietary modifications and lifestyle factors) almost always has a strong impact on
endocrine function and hormonal regulation. In addition, I’ve seen numerous
cases in which, despite proper dietary habits and lifestyle factors, endocrine
function is almost always compromised and impaired due to less than ideal
muscle function.

Im pr o v e S leep

One of the first things most individuals will notice when performing properly
executed eccentric isometrics is improved sleep. This is most likely due to a
number of factors including the ability of the muscles to relax due to decreased
intramuscular tension at rest, improved breathing patterns, decreased pain and
inflammation, and improved autonomic nervous system function (i.e. less fight
or flight syndrome).

In addition, most likely there is a strong hormonal component involved in

quality of sleep. In essence, studies show a strong correlation between sleep and

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anabolic hormones such as testosterone, IGF-1 and HGH release. In fact,

natural HGH production and IGF-1 appear to be critical in terms of sleep
quality and quantity. Resistance training programs that emphasize time under
tension are particularly effective at increasing the release of HGH and IGF-1.
Eccentric isometrics involve more time under tension than nearly all other forms
of functional resistance training programs. As a result the release of HGH, IGF-
1 and other beneficial hormones is increased ultimately leading to improved
sleep, rest, and physiological restoration. Finally, HGH also appears to be a key
hormone involved in decelerating the aging process as well as improving body
composition and overall fitness.

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Chapter 6

Master The
Big 7
Practical Application
of Eccentric Isometrics

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD

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CHAPTER 6
Master The
Big Seven
Practical Application of
Eccentric Isometrics

ost readers will have undoubtedly noticed that the scientific

M
rationale underlying eccentric isometrics is extensive and
quite complex. Fortunately, the practical application is
much more simple and straightforward. While the eccentric
isometric protocol can be applied to a majority of
movements and exercises, this text will focus
predominately on the foundational “Big 7” movement patterns. That’s because
most movement and muscle activation falls under one or more of the 7 basic
movement patterns. This includes 3 for the lower body, namely the squat, hinge,
and lunge, and 4 for the upper body, namely horizontal pull, horizontal push,
vertical pull, and vertical push. While not every movement necessarily falls into
one of these exact categories, by perfecting the “Big 7” the lifter will inevitably
improve their ability to perform nearly all other movements, physical activities,
and athletic skills.

For instance, the glute bridge or hip thrust does not necessarily fall into any one
of these 7 movement patterns although the hip hinge is obviously the closest.
However, mastering the squat, hip hinge, and lunge will provide most of the
benefits that are derived from glute bridges, as well as provide numerous
additional other benefits for muscle function, athletic performance, and quality
of movement. There’s nothing wrong with including glute bridges in one’s
training, I periodically employ them with my athletes, but they should never
replace any of the “Big 7” movement patterns.

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Similarly, mastering the “Big 7” will have a tremendous impact on rotational

movements, even though rotational movement patterns are not included in the
“Big 7”. That’s because the body’s ability to produce rotational power is
predicated primarily on hip mechanics, spinal positioning, postural control, and
upper body motor control.

Focusing on the “Big 7” allows the individual to maximize these qualities,

thereby enhancing rotational power more so than any amount of time spent
practicing rotational movements. That is not to say other movement patterns
such as rotational drills cannot be, or should not be, included in one’s training.
In fact, for various athletic skills they should be included. Simply, these
additional sub-categories of movement patterns, such as rotational exercises, will
provide only marginal improvement in rotational function above and beyond the
foundational “Big 7”.

Another way to think about it is by illustrating the concept with arbitrary, yet not
inconceivable numbers and percentages. Mastering the “Big 7” movement
patterns will maximize rotational power and rotational mechanics by 95% or
more. In contrast, focusing extensively on rotational movements, while
neglecting to master the “Big 7”, will likely produce only a fraction of these
improvements (25-50% movement mastery). However, mastering the “Big 7”,
then including a few additional rotational movement’s into one’s training
program, will most likely help the athlete master their rotational movement by
100%, as the added rotational movements may provide a very slight boost and
help transfer the mastered body mechanics into their actual sporting skill.

With that said, for athletes such as golfers, tennis players, baseball players, and
other sports that involve rotational power, the sheer act of practicing their sport
is typically all that’s needed to transfer the benefits derived from mastering the
“Big 7” and applying them to their specific sport and skill. In essence, to master
rotational power/mechanics, or any other movement skill, the best thing one can
do is master the foundational elements of human movement by focusing on
“The Big 7”

Movement Is Simple and Similar

One of the key principles of eccentric isometrics, motor learning, and human
movement in general, is that one variation of a particular movement pattern,
when performed properly, is quite similar to another. That’s because movement
is, in fact, quite simple in practice. In essence, a barbell chest press, a dumbbell

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chest press, a single arm incline kettlebell chest press, and a pushup, are all
different variations of the horizontal press, yet they are actually quite similar and
involve the same general motor program. The same is true of all the “Big 7”
movements, as each variation of a particular movement pattern is very similar to
the others, with only subtle differences unique to that specific variation or
loading tool. The basic foundational components such as the range of motion,
motor recruitment patterns, joint angles, and other fundamental features remain
constant from variation to variation.

As a result, improving one should help perfect the others, while faulty mechanics
on one will inevitably lead to flawed mechanics on the others. The fact that
variations of a motor program can impact other similar variations is a key
concept of motor learning and underscores the importance of proper mechanics,
as faulty mechanics and improper practice on one variation will impact the entire
general motor program for that movement, ultimately leading to a dysfunctional
movement pattern that trickles into daily activities and muscle function. With
this in mind, when it comes to perfecting a movement pattern, the exact
variations a lifter chooses and practices are significantly less important than how
they are performed. More important is that whatever variation they choose be
performed correctly and precisely.

This is one of the features individuals come to appreciate about eccentric

isometric training. Simply put, they take advantage of one of the key principles of
human movement which is that all movement is relatively simple and actually
quite similar. Rather than having to start from scratch and learn a movement
every time a new exercise variation is introduced, the same basic concepts used
previously on other variations of that movement pattern can be transferred over
and applied to the new version, regardless of how complex it is.

Yes, there may be some unique and subtle aspects of a movement that require
further mental engagement and unique activation of smaller stabilizers, but the
basic concepts and foundational elements stay the same. This is a key
observation each of my clients and athletes inevitably comes to realize after
several months of proper training. Once they’ve mastered the basic elements of a
movement pattern, I can have them attempt nearly any unique variation and
advanced version of that movement pattern. Regardless of how foreign or
unusual it may appear at first glance, they’re almost always able to perform it
with proper mechanics after only a few repetitions, as the same invariable
features they had mastered up to that point are also foundational to the new
exercise, regardless of how visually bizarre and advanced it may appear.

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In fact, this is one of the key indicators that an individual has mastered their
body mechanics and muscle function. Take any unique exercise variation and
they should be able to perform it with proper and smooth mechanics within
seconds of attempting it for the first time. In essence, their central nervous
system has been so precisely and properly re-educated that no matter what
activity or movement they are presented with, their body is ready for it.
Eccentric isometrics are the single most effective method for obtaining this
ninja-like level of movement mastery.

Mastering Exercise vs Movement

Each time a movement is practiced the focus should be on mastering the basic
foundational components and key features of the general motor program and
movement pattern that that particular exercise falls under, rather than the
specific exercise. For instance, when practicing or performing a seated cable row
the goal is not to simply master the seated row. The goal is to master the basic
constructs and elements of a row or horizontal pulling exercise so that the same
foundational elements and invariable features of that motor program are instilled
in the central nervous system and can be called upon anytime that skill is needed
to perform a similar variation or activity, i.e. any other rowing movement. The
same is true of all of the “Big 7” movement patterns. Focus on mastering the
movement, not the exercise.

With this in mind, some variety in terms of exercise selection in a training

program is essential. Many individuals will often chose only a few specific
movements such as a barbell squat or a barbell bench press, or a barbell deadlift,
and stick predominantly to those movement pattern variations. This is an
example of mastering an exercise rather than mastering a movement, and is why
at least several variations of a particular movement pattern (e.g. back squat, front
squat, Zercher squat, landmine squat) should be included in a training program.

Practicing several variations of an exercise not only provides more unique stimuli
that are more likely to wake up new motor units and produce more muscle
growth and functional strength, it is also more likely to lead to movement
mastery for that particular movement pattern. That’s because the individual
cannot simply go on autopilot but must, instead, think through the different
variations, as the subtle differences, while mostly similar, will provide enough of
a foreign stimulus they will force the individual to be more attentive and
mentally engaged when performing the exercise.

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Studies show that the more mentally engaged and attentive an individual is when
performing any skill including exercise, the more this helps them to learn and
master the movement, as there is a higher degree of focus and mental cognition
involved. When an individual is on autopilot there’s less mental engagement and
inevitably less learning and less movement mastery. Simply put, practicing several
types of squats rather than a single squat variation, such as a barbell back squat,
will help the individual master the squat movement pattern to a much greater
degree than had they focused exclusively on that one barbell squat. As a result,
their barbell back squat will also improve more so than if that variation had been
the only exercise choice consistently practiced for that movement pattern. In
sum, each time one practices a movement such as a squat the goal is not to
master that specific squat. Instead the goal should be to use that specific squat
to help master the basic squat pattern so that it transfers to all other squat
variations. The same is true for any other movement pattern.

While it’s not necessary to include an inordinately large number of variations for
each movement pattern, as several variations of each movement will suffice to
reap a majority of the benefits of eccentric isometrics, the more variations of a
movement pattern one can perform with perfect mechanics, the more likely it is
one has mastered the foundational elements of that movement pattern. That
being said, focusing on the basics and using a few traditional variations
approximately 75-80% of the time, while incorporating unique modifications and
more advanced complex variations about 20% of the time, represents an ideal
way to maximize functional strength and hypertrophy and also master
movement, body mechanics, and muscle function.

The Movements
Below is a detailed breakdown and description of each movement pattern along
with various photos and illustrations to help guide the reader on proper
mechanics. It’s important to note that although this section will begin with the
squat many, if not most, of the elements and technique cues discussed are just as
applicable to all the other “Big 7” movements. The squat is simply an easy
example through which to illustrate these. The following sections will also
highlight the more precise and intricate elements of each movement pattern that
are necessary to perfect movement mechanics and muscle function, and not the
basic elements of eccentric isometrics, many of which have already been
discussed in prior chapters. For more basic descriptions and general cuing of
eccentric isometrics, see chapter 4.

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The detailed descriptions and instructions laid out for each movement represent
the most biomechanically sound and physiologically beneficial method for
performing each movement pattern. Not only will performing these in
conjunction with eccentric isometrics provide the lifter with the most benefits,
using the eccentric isometric protocol will literally help the lifter adopt each of
the cues and tips that are given. That’s because the instructions and pointers for
each lift represent natural and optimal body positions and these vary little from
person to person. Under the right training conditions and with appropriate
guidance, the body will naturally gravitate towards these therapeutic positions.
The right training conditions are eccentric isometrics.

Finally, the mechanics related to each of the following movement patterns should not be
misconstrued as a unique or unusual approach that can be periodically employed based on one’s
goals or body type. Instead, the following instructions are an accurate representation of what
proper technique, mechanics, and body positioning should resemble for most, if not all, human
beings, period, with very little variability from individual to individual. Failing to adhere to
these protocols is not an indication that the lifter is performing a different type of variation. It is
an indication that they're performing the movements incorrectly. The mechanics presented below
are based on optimal human biomechanics, from both an osteokinematic and arthrokinematic
standpoint. Anything significantly different represents dysfunctional human mechanics that not
only make the various movements potentially dangerous and hazardous, they also reinforce
flawed recruitment patterns in the CNS, thereby impacting all other forms of movement and
physical activity.

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Lower Body
Movement Patterns
The Squat
Of all the “Big Seven”
movements patterns the
squat is without a doubt the
most controversial, complex,
and heavily debated in terms
of what constitutes proper
form. However, a proper
squat is actually quite simple,
involving as it does the basic
elements of human move-
ment discussed in the pre-
vious sections, such as 90-
degree joint angles, parallel body segments and perpendicular joint positions.
Unfortunately, most individuals, including expert coaches and trainers, are under
the false assumption that each person will have their own method of squatting,
unique to their body type. In addition, most coaches advocate squatting as deep as
is possible while maintaining a neutral spine and without incurring pain. These
views on squatting are incorrect and have no scientific support or rationale. In
fact, the science of human movement completely nullifies these notions, as human
movement is very similar from person to person.

Mobility assessments that demonstrate differences in human anthropometry,

particularly anatomical variations of the hip joint, are one of the key contributors
to faulty squat mechanics (i.e. excessive squat depth). These individual
differences have been interpreted to mean each person has an entirely unique set
of protocols when it comes to ideal squat depth and mechanics. Unfortunately,
this notion is flawed and inaccurate.

After spending well over a decade coaching hundreds of athletes of all different
sizes, shapes, heights, and ages, the one thing I can say is that while maximal
range of motion and mobility boundaries vary greatly from person to person,
proper squat depth, mechanics, and ideal range of motion are very similar from
individual to individual. In fact, with proper training and coaching a 5-foot

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female gymnast and a 7-foot male basketball player will have remarkably similar
squats. This concept applies to all of the basic human movement patterns. In
essence, individual differences in anthropometrics will only determine maximal
range of motion, which is distinct from ideal, or proper, range of motion.
Individual differences manifest themselves primarily when the squat, or any
other movement, is performed incorrectly, as there are endless variations when it
comes to faulty mechanics. In contrast, proper mechanics on any movement
including squats, presses, pulls, hinges, lunges, etc. produce a very similar
biomechanical outcome from person to person.

On a similar note, just because an individual can squat to extreme depth with no
apparent aberration in technique or spinal alignment (i.e. butt wink) does not
mean this is their ideal squatting depth. It is simply an indication of their
maximum achievable depth. In fact, these same individuals typically exhibit
significant laxity in their hips and hypermobility throughout their body, both of
which can be highly problematic. Although these subsection pointers are focused
predominately on the squat, it’s important to emphasize that these principles are
exactly the same for all human movement patterns including the “Big 7”. That
being said here’s what a proper squat should look like using 16 of my go-to cues.

1. R ea c h O ptim a l D epth N o t M a x im a l
D epth

As discussed extensively
throughout this entire text,
any proper movement will
involve positions that use
approximately 90-degree
joint angles, perpendicular
positions, and parallel joint
segments. The squat is no
different. There will be a
very slight degree of
variability from individual
to individual, however, this
is much more minute than
what most coaches typically
argue. The variability will range from a position where the thighs are
approximately parallel to the floor (roughly 110 degrees of knee flexion), to

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slightly above parallel at approximately 90 degrees of knee flexion. However,

most individuals will land much closer to the 90 degree joint angle position
rather than the parallel position, particularly as they master their form and motor
control. A common misconception is that parallel and 90 degree joint angles are
identical. While similar to each other, they are not identical, unless the individual
is performing a wall sit position in which the tibias are perfectly perpendicular to
the floor, a position that is impossible to achieve with any unsupported eccentric
isometric squat.

2. Fo c u s O n Th e H ip H in g e

In order to squat properly

it’s absolutely essential to
drive the butt back and
slightly hinge from the hips,
while simultaneously keep-
ing the core tight and not
letting the chest drop over.
In addition, when hinging
from the hips, the weight
should shift back towards
the heels, the core should be
braced, and the stomach
pulled in, while also
minimizing lumbar arch
and/or extension. And yes,
having a slight hinge during a squat means that the torso will have a slight, but
not excessive, lean forward, as this is the only way the hips can hinge back. Put
another way, the hips need to move both down and back, not just one or the
other.

When the hip hinge is implemented properly throughout the squat, the natural
stopping point will be somewhere between parallel and 90 degree joint angles.
Any deeper will feel very unnatural. Lack of proper hip hinge mechanics is one
of the key factors that inhibits optimal neuromuscular recruitment. This results
in the loss of optimal muscle stiffness qualities which, in turn, allows individuals
to collapse into excessive squat depth.

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3. Fo c u s o n Pr o d u c in g Eq u a l Lev els
o f H ip a n d K n ee Flex io n

A proper squat should involve simultaneous and relatively equal levels of hip and
knee flexion. In other words, the individual should focus on moving at the hips
(i.e. butt out) and knee joints (i.e. butt down) equally during the squat. It’s not
uncommon, however, for individuals to produce excessive flexion of one over
the other. A squat that involves excessive hip flexion will produce a squat pattern
with an overly-forward leaning torso position which can be problematic for the
low back and hip joints. In contrast, failing to keep the hips set back with ample
hip flexion while producing excessive movement at the knee joints will result in
an overly upright squat which can problematic for the knees as well as other
joints.

4 . S it B a c k

Optimal hip hinge mechanics are largely produced by sitting back rather than
focusing on leaning over or leaning forward. Many individuals will actually
produce optimal levels of hip hinge mechanics by simply focusing on sitting back
on their heels while keeping the spine neutral, and the entire foot in contact with
the floor. The optimal amount of forward lean will then naturally follow.

5. M a in ta in N eu tr a l S pin a l A lig n m en t

Maintaining proper spinal

alignment during the squat
is absolutely critical, and
will provide the appropriate
foundation for optimal
body mechanics. Keeping
the spine tightly locked in
will lower the likelihood of
collapse and result in better
squat form. This is where
the somewhat controversial
question of “back-arch”
comes in. The key is
finding the ideal balance between anterior core tightness and neutral arching of

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the spine. Typically an athlete will fall into one extreme or the other. At one end
of the spectrum are the lifters who overly-arch their lumbar spine to compensate
for various weaknesses and deficiencies including lack of upper back and core
strength. At the opposite end of the spectrum are the lifters who focus excessively
on squeezing their anterior core, thereby failing to create enough tension
throughout their back and spinal extensors. Although it’s important to keep the
anterior core aggressively engaged, it’s just as important to keep a neutral, rather
than flexed, spine. Several helpful cues will help accomplish this.

First, rather than over-arching the lumbar spine, focus on creating moderate
thoracic extension. Think about contracting the lats and upper back, as well as
pulling the shoulder blades down and back. An effective way to accomplish this
t-spine extension is by pulling the bar aggressively into the back which helps
emphasize keeping the chest out. As a result, the lifter will feel less inclined to
produce cervical hyperextension, a common means of compensating for reduced
upper back recruitment. The lifter should also emphasize keeping the spine tall
and elongated rather than compressed. It’s important to highlight that once the
lifter reaches the bottom of the squat, the back and spine position should be
relatively flat. When the spine can no longer hold these positions it is likely the
lifter has gone too deep.

6. K eep A Ta ll H ea d Po s itio n

On a similar note, head

position is just as critical when
discussing proper spinal
alignment in the squat. Similar
to the question of “back-arch”,
most lifter’s fall into one of
two extremes when it comes
to head placement. The most
common problem is cervical
hyperextension produced by
pulling the head up. This is
most often a by-product of
coaches erroneously telling
their athletes and lifters to look up on the squat. Although this ensures the chest
doesn’t drop over, it creates additional problems elsewhere. Most significantly, it
promotes neck impingement, increased neuromuscular inhibition, and short-circuiting

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of neural signals throughout the CNS. Furthermore, when the head tilts up, the traps
and shoulders tend to elevate thereby minimizing recruitment of the lats. As a result,
the ability to produce optimal t-spine extension is severely hampered.

Cervical hyperextension also promotes faulty biomechanics in the lower body.

When the head pulls up during the eccentric phase of the squat, the hips tend to
follow by extending forward and minimizing the “hips back” cue in the bottom
position. This places the lifter in both a biomechanically and neuromuscularly
disadvantageous position, with compromised hip hinge mechanics resulting in an
overly upright position.

At the other end of the spectrum are the lifters who over-emphasize anti-
extension. The result is either inadequate t-spine extension with rounding
shoulders or, in more extreme cases, varying degrees of cervical and thoracic
flexion (i.e. excessive head and chest drop). Although these lifters typically
produce adequate hip hinge mechanics, they also tend to be either excessively
flexed at the hips (too bent over) or overly flexed at the spine (rounded back),
both of which can produce significant injury.

Proper head positioning falls somewhere in between the two extremes. Once t-
spine extension has been maximized, the lifter should simply focus on elongating
the neck by keeping the head tall yet in line with the rest of the spine. As a result,
the head and natural gaze of the eyes will be straight ahead and slightly down.
This is what’s referred to as a neutral head position and is optimal not only for
squats but for most movements.

7. B r a c e a n d H o llo w Th e C o r e

Maintaining a tight core is

critical for all movements
including a squat. When
squatting, the lifter should
focus on maintaining
maximal full body tension
while also pulling the abs in
tight and bracing the core.
The effect should be similar
to the hollowed core
position that is seen in
gymnasts and is achieved by

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pulling in the abdominal musculature to help brace the core and maximize spinal
rigidity. The lower the individual descends into the squat, the more intense this
hollowed core effect should be, until it reaches a maximal level at an
approximately 90 degree joint angle or parallel position.

This effect is similar for all lower body movements including the lunge and
hinge. In fact, hollowing out the core is one of the most effective cues for
ensuring the lifter sets their hips back optimally during a squat, or any other
lower body movement, as it’s almost impossible to do one without the other.
Simply put, pulling the stomach in while keeping the core braced will almost
automatically cause the hips to hinge back and shift the lifter’s weight back onto
their heels, while simultaneously maintaining a neutral spine. When the lifter is
unable to maintain such a hollow and braced core position, it’s most likely
because they have squatted down too deep.

8. V a ls a lv a M a n eu v er

During the squat, or any other movement pattern, including all of the “Big 7”, the
lifter should hold their breath for most of the movement. This creates maximal
tightness, stability, and spinal rigidity. Most breathing should resemble sipping air
through a straw. Deep breaths should only be taken after passing the sticking point on
the concentric phase, or in between repetitions at the top of the lift. If the lifter lets
out their breath at any other point they’ll inevitably lose muscular tightness by relaxing
their muscles and collapsing their spinal column. And no, holding one’s breath is not
dangerous, but losing spinal rigidity, particularly during squats, certainly is.

9. Feel th e S to ppin g Po in t

Muscular tension and

neural recruitment on the
eccentric phase of the squat
is proportional to squat
depth, ultimately peaking at
the parallel position, as long
as proper mechanics are
employed. Beyond this
point activation gradually
decreases, as excessive
ROM can only be attained

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through intramuscular relaxation. The resulting neural inhibition and reduced

firing is proportional to how far one descends beyond 90 degree joint angles or
parallel position. In other words, beyond this point, the deeper one goes, the
greater the neuromuscular relaxation. With this in mind, when descending into a
squat the lifter should stop just before they feel their muscles begin to relax.

10 . A v o id Ex c es s iv e To e Fla r e

Allowing the feet to overly flare out (i.e. point outward) pushes the hips into a
more extended (i.e. hips forward) position, which minimizes the degree of hip
flexion (i.e. hips back position) that can be achieved during the eccentric phase.
When hip flexion is reduced, the ability to hinge follows suit, greatly increasing
the likelihood of collapsing at the bottom of the squat. Keeping the feet fairly
straight, on the other hand, allows only a very slight amount of external
rotation/toe flare (3-10 degrees at most).

11. A c tiv a te Y o u r Feet

Barefoot or minimalist shoes will reinforce the body’s natural osteokinematics,

activation patterns, and body positioning. The lifter should activate their feet by
screwing them into the ground and gripping the floor. They should also focus on
placing more pressure on the outside of the feet while pressing the base of the big
toe down into the ground. In addition, they should feel for a strong and aligned
ankle position. When the ankles begin to role/pronate, or the feet start
sliding/rotating outward, they’ve most likely gone too far. In fact, this is one of the
most effective ways to assess optimal squat depth. Simply observe at what point the
foot and ankle complex begins to misalign. Olympic lifters are often guilty of this.

12 . S it B a c k
When descending into a squat, the
lifter should shift a majority of their
weight onto the heels while still
keeping the toes, particularly the big
toe, in contact with the floor. This
will optimize weight distribution
allowing the greatest centration of all
lower body joints. One very effective

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indicator for determining whether or not one is sitting back enough is to feel for the
farthest position one can sit back into without losing balance or having the toes
come up.

13. K eep Th e K n ees O u t a n d B u tt O u t

This combination-cue of
pushing the knees out
(laterally) and sticking the
butt out (posteriorly),
without over-arching is
absolutely critical when it
comes to proper squatting.
Applied correctly form will
improve immediately. In
addition, it’s imperative to
feel when these qualities
begin to diminish. For example, during the eccentric phase, once the hips can no
longer fully sit back and have to shift anteriorly, it’s likely a sign the lifter has
descended too deep. In essence, the ideal stopping point for any squat variation
is right before hip-hinge mechanics are compromised.

14 . C r ea te A S tr o n g N a tu r a l S ta n c e

Going excessively wide on the squat

stance, particularly when using
extreme toe flare can be a surefire
way to bottom-out when
descending into a squat. Rather
than using a stance that allows
maximal range of motion, the lifter
should find a stance that feels
strong, stable, and powerful. This
tends to be at approximately
shoulder width although it will vary
from person to person. In addition,
multiple stances can be employed when squatting, as long as proper technique is
maintained throughout all variations (all of which will be quite similar).

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15. C h o o s e Th e A ppr o pr ia te S q u a t
S ta n c e

It’s important to point out that the wider an individual places their stance, the more
vertically upright their tibia/shins will be. In contrast, a closer stance squat involves
a more angled shin and tibia position. As a result, a wider squat stance will involve a
hip position that’s closer to parallel, oftentimes appearing deeper than a closer
stance due to the changes in tibia position. Nonetheless, the relative joint angles of
the hips and knees (approximately 90 degrees) stays relatively similar from position
to position not matter how close or wide the stance is. For individuals looking to
compete in powerlifting meets, however, a moderately wider stance will inevitably
get them closer to the man-made criteria of reaching a parallel squat depth.

16. N a il Th e D epth b u t W h en in D o u b t
S to p S h o r t

When squatting or performing any

movement pattern, it’s better to
stop a bit short than lose muscle
tightness and allow one’s body to
collapse. By focusing on stability
and mechanics, proper levels of
mobility will inevitably follow.
Performing a squat with 80% full
ROM while employing proper
mechanics is far superior to
performing an ATG squat with
aberrant technique. And yes,
squatting ATG for most individuals requires significant aberrations in muscle
function in order to allow such exaggerated depth.

17. Pu ll Y o u r s elf D o w n

One of the single most effective cues one can use to help all the previously
mentioned cues come together is to have the lifter focus on actively pulling
themselves down into the squat rather than simply letting gravity pull them down. In
other words, they should focus on pulling their body into the appropriate position by
flexing their hamstrings and hip flexors. In addition, firing the hamstrings to pull
their body down into the bottom of the squat is one of most effective techniques for
improving mobility, stability, and motor control in the squat.

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Squat Variations
One of the great features of squats is the endless number of variations available
from which to choose. Eccentric isometrics can be applied to all variations,
provided proper mechanics are employed. This includes, but is not limited to, the
low bar squat, high bar squat, front squat, goblet squat, overhead squat, kettlebell
squat, trap bar squat, eccentric isometric squat stance deadlift, hanging dumbbell
squat, safety bar squat, Zercher squat, and many others. Unfortunately, a common
misconception is that each of these variations is unique in terms of mechanics,
depth, and recruitment. Although the loading protocols unique to each variation
will tend to slightly alter mechanics, the differences in technique are much smaller
and more subtle than is typically assumed. In essence, the basic foundational
components are very similar if not the same for each variation.

The Hip Hinge

Proper hip function is
essential for performance,
strength, and daily living.
Knowing how to hinge from
the hips, rather than bending
at the spine, is something
every human being should
be capable of doing. Not
only does this save the spine,
it allows more efficient
movement in general, as the
hips are involved in nearly all
physical activities including
lower and upper body dominant exercises. Proper hip hinge mechanics and hip
function are also imperative for spinal positioning and postural alignment. A person
who is unable to hip hinge correctly inevitably ages their spine and ultimately their
whole body. Furthermore, the hip hinge is one of the most effective movements
when it comes to producing functional strength and hypertrophy throughout the
entire backside, including the glutes and hamstrings, as well as the lower, middle, and
upper back. The key to reaping the many benefits of the hip hinge is performing the
movement correctly while also incorporating the eccentric isometric protocol. Here
are the 14 basic principles and instructional cues I use to teach a proper hip hinge.

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1. B en d A t Th e H ips

Rather than bending over at the spine, think about bending from the hip joint by
setting the hips back posteriorly as far and as naturally as possible. This, in a
nutshell, is the definition of a hip hinge.

2. K eep Th e H ips Ta ll Th r o u g h o u t

One of the most important

cues during a hip hinge is to
focus on keeping the hips
tall. A highly effective cue I
use with my athletes and
clients is I tell them to
imagine 2 strings, one
attached to their hips/butt,
the other attached to the
chest. One string pulls the
chest down towards the
ground to create a forward
torso lean, a critical
component of a hip hinge,
while the other string pulls the butt/hips up, keeping them tall. This “double
string” pointer does wonders when it comes to teaching the foundational
elements of the hip hinge, particularly the “tall hips” cue.

A tall hip position is the

main cue that distinguishes
the hip hinge from the
squat. Although the squat
and hip hinge are actually
quite similar in that both
involve setting the hips
back by flexing at the hip
joint, the key underlying
difference is that the squat
involves dropping the hips
with ample knee flexion
while the hip hinge pattern
involves keeping the hips tall with only a small amount of knee flexion.

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However, both exercises are critical when it comes to mastering human

movement, and both variations should be treated as their own individual
movement patterns. Unfortunately, most individuals either squat too much
when attempting to perform a hinge or keep their legs overly straight, turning it
into the highly dangerous stiff leg deadlift. This leads directly to the next point.

3. M a in ta in a S o ft K n ee Po s itio n

One of the most common

mistakes I see during hip
hinge movements is
keeping an overly straight
leg position. Rather than
attempting to keep the legs
straight or overly stiff, the
knees need to maintain a
slight bend or “soft knee”
position (i.e.15-20 degrees
of knee bend) while
keeping the hips tall.
Keeping the knees overly
straight, as in the dangerous
stiff leg deadlift position,
places undue stress on the
lower hamstring insertion
and tendon, making the
lifter vulnerable to tears and
hamstring injuries as well as
sciatic issues. It also places
undue strain on the
vertebral column. Further-
more, it minimizes the
degree of activation to the
larger glute muscle. Keeping a soft knee position allows maximal targeting of the
larger glute and hamstring muscles. Biomechanically, it is also not only the safest
and strongest position, it is the ideal means by which to optimize movement and
muscle function. A straight or straighter-leg position, while visually pleasing, is
highly dysfunctional and unnatural.

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4 . D o n ’t U s e A n Ex c es s iv ely La r g e
R a n g e O f M o tio n

This goes hand in hand with

the above points regarding a
straight leg position. Rather
than aim for maximal range
of motion and excessive
stretch in the posterior chain,
the goal should be to achieve
optimal range of motion,
with the torso slightly above
parallel to the floor, and a hip
joint angle that’s close to 90 degrees. Going significantly lower than this promotes
hamstring tears and pulls, low back issues, and decreased force production.

No properly trained athlete

would ever jump or land or
perform any functional
activity with a hinge
position that involves
excessive stretch, or a hip
joint angle that’s
significantly greater than 90
degrees. Training the hip
hinge with an extreme
range of motion serves only
to reinforce faulty
movement patterns in the
central nervous system that
can eventually degrade natural body mechanics and athletic performance. In
essence, the lifter should focus on producing a natural, rather than an excessive
stretch in the glutes and hamstrings. Performing these stiff-legged, or with an
overly large range of motion, will not only compromise the benefits associated
with this movement, it will also ingrain a faulty hinge pattern. Remember, a
hinge is a natural, functional movement strategy, not an unnatural and forceful
distortion of the body’s ideal mechanics. Performing it in such a distorted and
overly-stretched fashion reduces stress to the working muscles and negates the
strength and hypertrophy stimulus of the exercise.

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5. M a in ta in A R ig id a n d N eu tr a l S pin e

Keeping the spine in a neutral

position is imperative on all
movements, particularly axial
loaded movements such as
the hip hinge. This point also
goes hand in hand with the
concept of avoiding
exaggerated range of
motion. In fact, when the
spine is set in the proper
position it’s nearly impossible
to collapse and go excessively deep. In contrast, when the spine is not rigid, the body’s
structure and function is compromised both biomechanically, due to suboptimal
leverage, and neurophysiologically, due to the short-circuiting of neural signals, the
inevitable result of which is an exaggerated ROM.

The proper neutral spinal

position includes a very
slight natural arch, as
opposed to an excessive
arch, and a tightly braced
core, with the stomach
pulled in, chest out,
shoulders pinned back, rib
cage pulled down and in,
scapula pulled down, head
tall and packed, and neck
elongated - not cocked back
or forward. Another more
subtle, yet also fairly
common mistake advanced lifters tend to make, is setting their spine and
performing a proper RDL or hinge, but rather than pause once they reach the
bottom position, and drive back to the top, they allow their spine to lose a slight
amount of structural rigidity for the sake of getting several more inches of
stretch and range of motion. Instead of attempting to go any further the lifter
should feel exactly where the natural stopping point is, lock it in with maximal
tension and optimal spinal rigidity, then drive back to the starting position.

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6. K eep Th e C o r e Tig h t

A commonly debated point

is how much of an arch a
lifter should maintain in
their spine when
performing axial loaded
movements such as the hip
hinge. The answer lies in
the core. Essentially, the
lifter should focus on
keeping the core as tight
and braced as possible,
keeping the stomach pulled
in and the rib cage pulled
down, while simultaneously trying to keep the chest out, shoulders pulled down
and back, and maintain a slight natural arch predominately at the t-spine/upper
back, not the lumbar spine.

The spine will actually

assume slightly different
levels of extension from
beginning to end of the
movement. From a visual
standpoint the spine will
have a slight arch in the top
half of the movement. At
the bottom half of the
hinge the spine should be
relatively flat. In essence,
most of the obvious and
visual spinal extension
elements should be
eliminated at the bottom, as the back will be almost perfectly flat, even though
the lifter will still be aggressively firing the lats and spinal erectors in conjunction
with the core. This occurs largely because of the extremity based spinal
positioning concept discussed in chapter 4. Lastly, sacrificing additional core
tension to create more of an arch is an indication that the lifter has gone too far
and created excessive arch with too much extension.

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7. P u s h th e K n ees O u t La ter a lly B u t

N o t Ex c es s iv ely

When it comes to squats, most competent coaches and trainers will instruct their
athletes to push their knees and ankles out laterally and place more of their
weight on the outside of their feet. Although it’s slightly more subtle, the same
general concept should be applied to the hip hinge. In fact, this is one of the
most important yet underrated training cues there is for the hip hinge. I’ve seen
this be a complete game changer for many athletes, acting as the final piece of
the puzzle that helps their hinge technique come together. I’ve also seen a
strong correlation between a lack of lateral knee spread and hamstring strains,
glute tweaks, sciatic issues, and low back pain. Pushing the knees and ankles out
and placing more tension on the outside of the feet, while keeping the big toes
pushed down, will eliminate most, if not all, of these issues particularly when
combined with all other aforementioned cues.

8. K eep Th e Feet S tr a ig h t

During any lower body

exercise including hip hinge
movements, activation
starts with the feet. To
ensure the feet and ankles
are firing properly and
performing in the manner
previously described, the
feet will need to be kept
relatively straight. Allowing
them to externally rotate to
a significant degree and
flare out, a common error
made by many lifters, not
only places undue stress on the hips, but minimizes foot and ankle activation.

9. Th in k B r o a d Ju m p

In terms of movement specificity, the hip hinge and broad jump position are one
and the same as the mechanics for both, particularly at the hip joint are identical.

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Understanding this concept and keeping it in mind when performing any hip
hinge can do wonders for technique. That’s because a broad jump requires
setting the hips back as far as possible with maximal hip flexion and soft knees in
order to achieve maximal hip extension on the jumping/concentric phase.

For anyone who’s ever performed a broad jump this cue is truly the quick and
dirty fix that will improve hip hinge mechanics within seconds. In fact, it’s one I
frequently use with my athletes, as the mere mention of it is what makes the
concept of a what proper hip hinge position looks like finally sink in.

10 . Th in k A b o u t A S tr o n g , C o iled H ip
Po s itio n

On a similar note, rather

than thinking of an RDL or
a hip hinge as a distorted,
overly-stretched yoga
position with the goal of
achieving as large a range of
motion as possible, think of
it as a means to achieve a
strong and coiled hip
position. The purpose of a
hip hinge movement is to
set the hips in a powerful
position so they can drive with maximal power and create high torque on the
extension phase. This can only happen if they are coiled back like a loaded
spring.

Another way to imagine this is by using the slingshot analogy. If we cock the
hips back only partially then, as would be the case with a sling shot that’s only
partially cocked back, we’ll produce only a fraction of the power at the release
phase. Similarly, when cocking the hips back there should be a point at which the
lifter feels maximal tension and coiling click into position, just like cocking a
sling shot or bow back to its maximally coiled position. It’s at this point that the
lifter should feel, both internally and externally, like one incredibly potentiated
and powerful unit, ready to unload at will, with maximal force and torque.

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11. C o n tr o l Th e N eg a tiv e

When it comes to proper execution of the RDL or hip hinge, smooth, crisp, and
controlled mechanics are essential, particularly during the eccentric phase of the
movement. Using excessive momentum, freefalling into the stretched position,
or bouncing out of the bottom are all sure-fire ways to either pull a hamstring or
injure the low back. For this reason, I recommend using an eccentric isometric
protocol when performing any hip hinge. Simply perform a slow and controlled
eccentric motion, pause in the bottom stretched position for several seconds
then smoothly, yet powerfully, drive back to the top position. In addition to
instilling a stronger muscle mind connection in the CNS, and creating greater
tension throughout the entire backside, this will also do wonders for cleaning up
form and mechanics.

12 . K eep Th e W eig h t C lo s e To Th e
B o d y /C en ter O f M a s s

Another common mistake

frequently made on the hip
hinge is allowing the load
to move too far out in
front of the center of mass.
The goal should be to keep
the weight pulled in as
close to the center of mass
and as near to the body as
possible. This helps
maximize motor control
and precision of
movement execution, and
places significantly more
tension on the glutes and hamstrings and far less strain on the spine. That’s
because for every centimeter the load travels out in front of the body, there’s an
exponential increase in shear and compressive forces on the spine. To minimize
back stress, keep the weight pulled against the body throughout the lift. Lastly,
there is a direct relationship between how close to the center of mass the load is
kept and hip hinge mechanics. The closer the lifter pulls the load towards their
body, the more it helps set the hips back and more posteriorly. In other words,
the hips follow the weight and vice versa.

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13. Flex th e La ts Th r o u g h o u t

On a related note, keeping

the bar close to the body
during an RDL, for
example, not only helps
maximize spinal safety and
hip hinge mechanics, it also
helps cue the lats to
contract. On the flip side,
firing the lats also helps
keep the bar close to the
body. In other words there is a direct and reciprocal relationship between lat
activation and bar positioning.

Keeping the lats activated and contracted throughout the hip hinge is one of the
key factors that contributes to maintaining a neutral spine and avoiding excessive
spinal flexion or shoulder rounding. In fact, overall postural alignment
throughout most movements, including the hip hinge, is predicated on upper
back and lat activation. A body that maintains aggressively activated lats while
performing a hip hinge will be capable of handling far more load and tension
than one in which lat activation is minimal.

14 . A v o id K y ph o tic Po s tu r e D u r in g Th e
To p Ex ten s io n Ph a s e

Over the last decade the fitness industry has developed an obsession with the
elimination of any and all traces of back extension even if that means eliminating
natural lordotic curvature. As a result many coaches and trainers erroneously
over cue posterior pelvic tilt with excessive shortening in the glutes especially
during hip extension. Unfortunately, this has led to a very common, yet highly
problematic, form of dysfunctional movement and postural aberration at the top
extended position of the hinge or deadlift movement, whereby the individual
loses all traces of postural neutrality and spinal rigidity.

Essentially, these individuals produce kyphotic posture, shoulder rounding, forward

heat tilt, and significant spinal flexion at the top of hinge and deadlift movements.
Although, frequently, the goal is to produce as much tension in the glutes as
possible (which actually doesn’t create any additional glute stimulation), such a

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dysfunctional position is highly undesirable and quite detrimental representing, as it

does, the same general postural alignment witnessed on elderly individuals.

Ironically, the hip hinge is one of the most beneficial movements there is as a
means of improving spinal mechanics and postural alignment, provided it’s
performed correctly. Unfortunately, when faulty postural alignment is assumed,
such as that described above, not only does the lifter lose many of the
aforementioned benefits, the movement actually degrades and ages the spine.

Simply put, if the goal is to age the spine and lose all elements of structural
rigidity in the vertebral column, then keep moving into excessive kyphosis and
spinal flexion when performing hip extension. If the goal is healthy spinal
mechanics, functional movement patterns, smooth coordinated muscular
contractions, and maximal stimulation to the targeted musculature, then focus on
keeping the spine tall and in a neutral position during all phases of movement,
including hip extension.

Foundational Hip Hinge

Movements

Although there are literally

hundreds of possible hip
hinge drills one can
perform, the key is to first
master the basics. The
most fundamental eccentric
isometric hinge movements
include the barbell Romanian
Deadlift (RDL), dumbbell
RDL, good morning, pull-
through, and single leg
RDL. It’s also worth
highlighting that each of
the 14 cues previously discussed applies to all hinge variations seeing as proper
hip hinge mechanics are almost identical across all variations, regardless of
whether one is performing an RDL, a good morning, or a kettlebell swing. Once
one masters the basics one can perform more advanced variations including
snatch grip RDL’s, single leg good mornings, band resisted RDL’s, split stance
RDL’s, and more.

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The Lunge, Split Squat, and

Bulgarian Squat
The lunge or split squat exercise has been one of the most popular lower body
exercises for decades. Unfortunately, most individuals, including many athletes
and “expert trainers”, perform them improperly, thereby negating the various
benefits associated with the movement.

In fact, when performed

with anything short of
perfect technique, lunges
can be one of the most
destructive movements there
is, leading to knee pain, hip
dysfunction, ankle issues,
groin pulls, low back pain,
and faulty lower body
mechanics. However, when
performed with proper
technique, the lunge may be
the single most effective
exercise there is not only to induce high levels of functional strength and
hypertrophy in the lower body, but also to eliminate hip dysfunction and
improve movement mechanics. That’s because the lunge represents a
deconstructed and controlled simulation of the human gait. Correct the lunge
and you’ll correct nearly every aspect of lower body function. In order to reap
the maximal benefits of lunges these need to be performed correctly, and in an
eccentric isometric fashion. Lastly, the lunge is perhaps the most biomechanically
challenging of all the “Big 7” movements as the front and back leg are
performing two entirely different maneuvers. Therefore, while the following
section may appear to be overly-detailed and lengthy it is by necessity. That
being said, here are 25 cues that must be implemented on eccentric isometric
lunges in order to master the lunge and split squat mechanics.

1. O ptim iz e Th e S ta r tin g Po s itio n

The single most important factor when it comes to correct lunge form is optimal
starting position. Without proper setup at the top of a lunge it’s nearly
impossible to perform the remainder of the movement correctly.

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2. G et Ta ll a n d D o n’t S a g

There are several key factors regarding the proper starting position. First, the
individual needs to assume a very tall position on the back foot by keeping the
heel of the back leg up and perpendicular to the ground. Allowing the body to
sag on the back leg, with the heel dropping towards the floor, is one of the
biggest mistakes lifters routinely make when performing lunges. This causes the
hips to drop down and forward, thereby eliminating activation to the posterior
chain, while simultaneously placing greater stress on the lumbar spine. Instead,
the heel should be lifted as far away from the floor as possible with all of the
pressure placed on the ball and toes of that back foot. This helps facilitate the
next critical cue – i.e. forward lean.

3. U s e H ip H in g e M ech a n ic s w ith
Fo r w a r d Lea n

Most people think a lunge

or split squat is an upright
movement in which the
torso is maintained per-
pendicular to the ground
throughout. However, this
represents flawed mechanics.
Maintaining a forward
torso lean, with the weight
shifted onto the heel of the
front leg, is essential for
proper lunge technique. In
fact, if I had to just recommend one cue for the lunge this may be the most
critical one, as it ensures the hips are pushed back posteriorly and actively
engaged throughout the movement. Simply put, a proper lunge involves solid hip
hinge mechanics. An overly upright torso position places greater stress on the
knees and low back while minimizing stress to the glutes and upper thighs.
Achieving a hip hinge position necessitates a slight forward torso lean similar to
the beginning phase of a Romanian deadlift or proper squat. Start the lunge with
a solid torso lean and keep that same position throughout. If the lifter has
trouble feeling their glutes on lunges, or tends to experience knee pain while
performing them, they’ll want to emphasize this cue.

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4 . H o llo w Th e C o r e a n d B r a c e Th e A b s

Hollowing out the core and

keeping the abs pulled in and
braced are key technique cues
for the lunge. This ensures the
hips are set back rather than
sagging forward. In fact,
sagging hips are directly
correlated with excessive
lumbar extension and lack of
core activation. In contrast, a
braced and tight core
musculature helps facilitate the
tall forward lean discussed
above. When the lifter adheres to the aforementioned cues, they should notice
that the core musculature automatically becomes engaged. Additional cueing of
core activation promotes even stricter form and further adherence to the above
cues, as each piece works together. That’s because all movements including a
lunge pattern require a rigid and neutral spine to achieve optimal mechanics.
This can only occur when the core is intensely engaged.

5. O ptim ize W eig h t D is tr ib u tio n

Although it will vary slightly

from individual to individual, as
well as from variation to
variation, a significant portion
of the weight during a lunge will
be placed on the front leg.
After doing some basic pilot
investigation on a force
platform I found that the
common weight distribution is
approximately a “70-75/25-30”
split with 70-75% of the weight
on the front/plant leg and 25-30% on the rear/support leg. Faulty lunge and hip
mechanics will alter these number significantly, oftentimes placing too little or
too much stress on one extremity.

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6. C r ea te a S em i-In -Lin e Fo o t S ta n c e

Stance position in terms of

medial-lateral placement is a
technique component of
lunges that’s frequently
overlooked and ignored.
However, when it comes to
inner and outer hip function
as well as groin health, stance
width is critical. Ideally,
individuals should assume a
semi-inline or semi-
overlapping stride position.
This means that, if looking at the person front on, the back and front foot
should either intersect each other or both feet should line up right next to each
other with no space between them. Unfortunately, most individuals perform
lunges and split squats with something I refer to as a straddled or staggered
stance where there are several inches of space or more between each foot. This
ingrains faulty hip activation and dysfunctional stride mechanics that translate to
groin pulls and inflammation to the hip joint. This also promotes energy leaks
throughout the lower body that result in loss of torque, power, and stability, not
only for the lunge itself, but also during other related lower body movements.

On a side note, many

individuals will naturally
assume a faulty straddled
stance because their feet and
ankles are too weak and
dysfunctional to allow them
to maintain balance in a
semi-inline stride position. In
these instances, additional
foot and ankle exercises,
such as single leg stand
variations and single leg swaps are warranted to help eliminate these deficiencies.
In addition, conscientiously making the effort to bring the feet closer together
and force the body to assume a semi-overlapped stride position while
performing eccentric isometric lunges will do wonders in terms of improving
foot and ankle mechanics, as well as balance and stability.

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7. C r ea te Pr o per S pin a l A lig n m en t

a n d H ea d Po s itio n

Similar to a squat or
deadlift, the spine also
needs to be set in a neutral
position during lunges.
This involves a very slight,
but not excessive arch with
the shoulders slightly
retracted and depressed
throughout the majority of
the movement. Once the
lifter reaches the bottom
position there will be less
arch as the spine will
essentially be flat according to the principles of extremity based spinal
positioning discussed in chapter 4. In addition, the head should be kept neutral
rather than hyperextended at the cervical spine.

Because the head will be kept neutral while maintaining a forward torso lean, the
gaze will be out and down, with the eyes fixed roughly 5-10 feet on the ground in
front. If the lifter’s gaze is straight ahead while performing a lunge, or if they’re
looking in the mirror, they are either too upright and practicing incorrect hip hinge
mechanics, or they’re producing cervical hyperextension by pulling the head up.

8. D o n ’t S q u eeze Th e G lu tes

If the goal is to work the glutes during the lunge the single worst thing one can
do when lunging is to squeeze the glutes. Yes, that sounds completely
contradictory but it isn’t. Here’s why. As previously mentioned, a proper lunge
requires strong hip hinge mechanics, particularly during the eccentric phase of
the movement. In order to tax the glute muscles they must be eccentrically
elongated during the negative phase of the movement. That means the hips have
to sit back posteriorly, rather than be allowed to drift forward.

Squeezing the glutes during a lunge facilitates an overly-upright body position

that eliminates the all-important hip hinge. In addition, it minimizes the degree
of eccentric elongation of the glute muscles. As a result, squeezing the glutes

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during a lunge not only degrades optimal body mechanics and destroys the
knees, it also eliminates the ability to fully tax the posterior chain.

A proper lunge is one of the single most effective exercises one can do to tax the
glutes, but it requires the technique adjustments presented here. In essence, when
performing a lunge, one should think about sticking the butt out, without letting
the chest drop. Just be prepared for extreme muscle soreness in the glutes.

On a side note, many lifters believe that it’s necessary to squeeze the glutes as
they drive up and away from the floor on the concentric phase of the lunge. This
is unnecessary, and oftentimes counterproductive, as proper eccentric
positioning will result in optimal muscle recruitment on the subsequent
concentric phase of the lift. Squeezing the glutes on any portion of the lunge,
including the concentric phase, will disrupt optimal body mechanics and pull the
body out of it’s ideal alignment.

9. A v o id A n ter io r Fr o n t K n ee D r ift

Viewed from the side, and

depending on stance length,
the front knee will be
positioned somewhere
above, and in-line with the
front ankle and mid-foot
during a lunge. Lunges with
overall larger/longer stride
mechanics will typically
exhibit a knee position with
the patella roughly above
and in-line with the ankle.
Shorter stride mechanics
and close-stance lunges will typically have a very slight anterior knee drift with
the knee positioned somewhat in-line with the arch or mid foot. Allowing the
front knee to drift towards the toes and beyond represents faulty mechanics with
excessive anterior knee drift. This is simply a byproduct of faulty hip mechanics
and a failure to properly hinge at the hip joint and shift the hip joint back
posteriorly.

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10 . A v o id V a lg u s K n ee C o lla ps e B y
O ptim izin g M ed ia l-La ter a l H ip
M ec h a n ic s

When it comes to lining up

the hip, knee, ankles, and
feet from a medial-lateral
position (as viewed from
the front on), many coaches
recommend a variety of
instructional cues on the
lunge. Although there isn’t
necessarily anything wrong
with this, I’ve found that
forcing the lifter to assume
a semi in-line stride position
by simply having them
stand on a line, then having them perform controlled eccentric isometric lunges,
promotes proper lower body biomechanics, particularly in terms of the medial-
lateral components and, inevitably, the hip, knee, ankles and feet end up in the
optimal position, as anything less will result in a loss of balance. It’s actually quite
fascinating to watch an athlete go through eccentric isometric lunges properly for
the first time and see lower body mechanics begin to self-correct out of pure
necessity.

Only when a faulty stance position and rushed sloppy movements are being used
does over-addressing medial-lateral alignment issues become necessary.
However, one brief cue I’ll periodically give my athletes, particularly if there is
any valgus knee and ankle collapse, is to push the knee and ankle of the front leg
out laterally, similar to spreading the knees and ankles on a squat. However, as
previously mentioned, this typically is not needed if a proper stance is assumed,
as the athlete will naturally and quickly discover this for themselves if any
semblance of balance and body control is to be maintained. It’s only when a
faulty staggered or straddled lunge stance is assumed that individuals can get
away with flawed hip and ankle alignment, and dysfunctional mechanics can be
temporarily incorporated with no immediate ramifications. Long-term issues,
however, can be significant.

For those who are fascinated by the technical details and are looking for more in
depth analysis of lower body mechanics, there should be a slight diagonal

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alignment of approximately 5-10 degrees when viewing the hip, knee, ankle, and
foot of the front leg from the front. That is, the outer hip will sit more laterally
than the knee, while the knee will sit more laterally than the ankle and foot
complex. This represents optimal alignment for single leg dominant movements,
as the hip joint is naturally going to present the widest portion of the frame
when examining the lower body complex.

Although the knee will sit more medially and closer to the midline of the body
than the hip, this does not represent valgus mechanics as many coaches believe.
To be considered true valgus collapse, the knee would have to be positioned
more medially, or closer to the midline of the body than the foot and ankle
complex. Positioning the foot and ankle complex closer to the midline of the
body relative to the knee represents optimal lower body mechanics and, in fact,
promotes the elimination of valgus mechanics. In other words, having the knee
inside the hip is fine as long as the foot stays inside the knee. When the foot is
positioned out laterally relative to the knee is when one runs into valgus collapse
issues.

11. Fin d Th e O ptim a l R a n g e o f M o tio n :

A v o id C o lla ps in g

While it’s important

to achieve a full
range of motion on
a lunge, many
individuals collapse
to the floor as a
result of losing
tension and muscular
tightness. Touching
the floor does not
necessarily represent
flawed recruitment
patterns as long as
the individual con-
trols the decent and
gently touches or slowly settles to the floor while maintaining proper mechanics
and body alignment. However, for most individuals, terminating the range of
motion with the back knee 1-3 inches above floor height will typically be ideal.

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12. B ew a r e o f D efic it Lu n g es

Deficit lunges, in which the individual stands on two boxes or benches to

achieve a greater range of motion, have gained popularity of the last several
years. In fact, this was something I used to incorporate with my own athletes.
Although it provides a large stretch, I began to notice client complaints of
tightness and inflammation in the lower extremities, as well as slight alterations
to other movements including gait mechanics. Once we eliminated these and
focused on natural lunge motions, the dysfunctional symptoms quickly faded.
As I frequently preach in this text, the goal of any movement, including a lunge
is, an optimal and natural range of motion, not an excessive range of motion.
For most individuals dropping the back knee significantly below floor height,
particularly when loaded with additional weights, represents excessive range of
motion that can degrade lower body function regardless of how strict and
methodically the movement is performed.

13. S to p D o in g W a lk in g Lu n g es

Walking lunges represent one of the most popular methods for performing
lunges. However, most individuals should not perform lunges in a walking
fashion as this dynamic method often causes form and mechanics to degrade to
a greater extent. The reasons for this are several.

First, forward momentum has a tendency to drive the hips too far anteriorly
making it difficult to maintain optimal hip hinge mechanics. It’s for this very
reason that many individuals often complain of knee and low back pain
associated with lunges.

Second, body positioning during a walking or stepping lunge is much more

difficult to correct and fine-tune as the movement occurs too quickly to make
subtle adjustments to form and technique. This is true of both forward and
reverse lunges, as well as any lunge that involves one or both feet continuously
moving throughout the set. Stationary lunges, particularly when performed in a
controlled and methodical fashion, such as with eccentric isometrics, allow the
individual to tune into their mechanics and make the necessary adjustments.

Finally, most individuals have very poor balance and stability. Having an athlete
who displays faulty hip, foot, and ankle mechanics perform walking or stepping
lunges is setting them up for failure and further degradations in technique. As a
result the individual will be forced to rely on compensation patterns and

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straddled stance alignment, rather than semi-inline foot positioning, in order to

maintain any semblance of balance and body control.

This is not to say that it’s impossible to maintain optimal body mechanics on
walking or stepping lunges, only that it’s much more difficult, particularly if the
individual has poor hip function to begin with. However, once proper lunge
technique is mastered, and all traces of dysfunction are eliminated, performing
walking lunges can still provide unique benefits. It’s for this reason that I won’t
have any of my athletes perform walking lunges until they display masterful
execution of the stationary versions of lunges. Once they’ve accomplished this,
walking lunges simply represent another variation in the tool box to be used in
the training process. With this in mind, the mechanics, particularly the bottom
position of a walking lunge, reverse lunge, and stationary split squat should look
nearly identical when performed correctly. In addition, when it comes to
mastering lunge mechanics with eccentric isometrics most of the lunges and split
squats should be performed in a stationary fashion.

14 . A v o id B a c k Leg D r ift

A subtle yet fairly

common issue that
occurs during lunges is
for the knee and foot of
the back leg to drift
laterally (out) or
medially (in) to
compensate for the lack
of appropriate hip and
ankle strength.
Although it’s rarely
extreme it’s something
to take note of and
correct, as the foot,
ankle, knee, and hip of
the back leg should all
be kept in alignment. Oftentimes, correcting stance width and assuming a semi-
inline or semi-overlapped stride position will resolve this, as the straddled stance
position is what often promotes faulty mechanics in both the front and back leg.

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15. D o n ’t Let S ta n c e Len g th D ic ta te

A lter Yo u r M ec h a n ic s

Lunges can be performed with a variety of stance or stride lengths ranging from
a long stance to a shorter stance. Longer stance positions generally target the
hips and glutes more intensely, while shorter positions tends to target the quads.
The key is not letting stance length dictate lunge technique, as form and body
mechanics should remain relatively constant regardless of stance length.

A very close stance can make it difficult, but not impossible, to keep the hips
pushed back, thereby promoting significant anterior knee drift. In contrast, a
stance that is too large (a.k.a. a fencer stance) can cause the hips to collapse,
promoting lumbar hyperextension, lack of hip hinge mechanics, and
overstretching of the hip flexors.

16. D o n ’t Tr y to O v er s tr etc h t h e H ip
Flex o r s

On a similar note, many

individuals will assume a
position and perform
lunges with the intention of
creating a large stretching
sensation in the hip flexors.
Doing so eliminates optimal
hip hinge mechanics,
promotes excessive lordotic
curvature of the spine, and
places extreme strain on the
posterior hip flexor. This
can also lead to pulls and
tweaks in the groin and hip
area, particularly when implemented into a training routine that involves running
and sprinting. Working with high-level athletes I’ve seen firsthand how the
exaggerated stretch negatively impacts other movement such as running
mechanics. While the stretching sensation may feel relieving during the
movement, the hip flexors and surrounding muscles tend to rebound back with a
vengeance several hours later, feeling even tighter and more spastic than before.

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As discussed earlier in this text, this represents a safety mechanism used by the
body to ensure such an exaggerated stretch doesn’t occur again.

Rather than aiming for a large stretching sensation on lunges, one should find
the strongest and most stable position while achieving proper mechanics. This
will allow the hip flexors to be stretched optimally and to their natural extent,
not beyond it.

17. Pr o d u c e M u ltiple 90-D eg r ee Jo in t

A n g les

When the hips are

positioned properly in a
lunge both the front and
back knee will create a sharp
90-degree joint angle at the
bottom of the movement.
These angles will vary
slightly depending on the
length of the stride position.
When the hips are not set
properly the position of the
back knee tends to resemble
a smooth curve rather than
a sharp angle. In fact, a proper lunge should produce 4 joint angles that are
approximately 90 degrees. This includes 3 on the front leg (hip, knee, and ankle)
and 1 on the back leg (the knee). In addition, the femur of the front leg and the
tibia of the back leg should be approximately parallel to the ground at the bottom
of the movement. The femur of the back leg should also be approximately
perpendicular to the floor. This will not necessarily be the case on larger stride
variation although close to it. These features represent optimal biomechanics not
only in terms of producing force, but also in terms of absorbing force, maximizing
power, and minimizing stress to the joints and connective tissue.

18. M o v e S tr a ig h t U p, S tr a ig h t D o w n

When performing a stationary lunge or split squat, the torso should move
straight up and down while maintaining a continuous forward lean. Any

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horizontal displacement of the torso indicates faulty hip mechanics and lack of
spinal rigidity. In other words, if one were to take a snap shot at the top and the
bottom of a lunge, the only difference should be the movement in the lower
extremities. The angle of the torso, on the other hand, should appear the same.
That is, it should remain constant, with a slight forward lean, both at the top and
the bottom of the lunge. Another way to think of this is once the starting
position is set, the hips should move straight up and down, not forward or back.
This also helps reinforce optimal balance and stability since the center of mass is
positioned ideally relative to the rest of your body. For athletes this can have
tremendous transfer to quality of movement on the playing field, particularly
when it comes acceleration, deceleration, and agility.

19. S tr en g th en Yo u r Feet Fir s t

Before I ever have clients

perform lunges we spend a
significant amount of time
(1-4 weeks) strengthening
their feet and ankles and
correcting their mechanics.
Trying to teach someone to
lunge properly without first
addressing foot and ankle
mechanics is incompetent
coaching at best. Strengthen
the feet and ankles first and
performing proper lunges
will become significantly
more manageable. Teaching someone to lunge who is barely able to maintain
balance on one leg makes about as much sense as having an athlete who’s unable
to hold a solid plank position perform ring pushups. Unfortunately, I see this
quite often with trainers and coaches. It is imperative the foundation be built
first. For lunges that foundation begins with the feet and ankles.

20 . G o B a r efo o t o r M in im a lis t

On a similar note, I recommend either going barefoot or using minimalist shoes

when performing lunges. Nothing will degrade lunge mechanics more than thick,
clunky shoes with exaggerated foot and ankle support. If lunging in barefoot or

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minimalist conditions bothers the lifter’s feet and toes or causes pain, it is an
indication that their mechanics are amiss, or their feet and ankles need to be
strengthened, or both. In fact, faulty hip positioning overstresses the toes of the
back leg by overstretching the surrounding ligaments and tendons. In addition,
once one’s built enough foot and ankle strength to successfully perform correct
lunge mechanics, few exercises do more for improving foot and ankle mechanics
than doing controlled weighted lunges in barefoot or minimalist conditions.

21. Pr o d u c e S tr o n g Lu n g e M ec h a n ic s
a n d A s s es s Yo u r S tr en g th

Proper lunge mechanics produce the most biomechanically sound osteokinematics,

allowing the lifter to safely handle the heaviest loads with the greatest efficiency. If
they are unsure as to whether or not they have strong lunge mechanics and efficient
technique they may want to assess their strength on the movement. A good rule of
thumb is they should be able to use a load that is at least 50% of their squat 1RM to
perform several proper lunges with controlled technique and smooth form. If
they’re unable to do this then their lunge mechanics are most likely amiss.

22. In c o r po r a te Th e Eyes C lo s ed R u le

To truly master the lunge and split squat, at some point the lifter will need to
become efficient at performing them under eyes closed conditions. In fact, any
athlete who trains with me is eventually forced to do this as I’ve seen a strong
correlation between the ability to perform eyes closed lunges and body
mechanics, motor control, and injury prevention. Eventually they should be
capable of performing eyes closed lunges with a load equivalent to at least 50%
of their bodyweight (e.g. a 200 pound individual would use two 50 pound
dumbbells or a 100 pound barbell). These should be done under barefoot or
minimalist conditions in addition to pausing at the bottom (1-3 inches from the
floor) in an eccentric isometric fashion.

23. U s e th e Lu n g e-to -S q u a t-to -Lu n g e

Tes t

A simple self-diagnostic assessment one can perform to analyze whether or not

they’re achieving optimal hip hinge mechanics is to do a test I refer to as the

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lunge-to squat-to-lunge test. Assume the bottom of a lunge position then move
into a squat without adjusting hip mechanics or torso angle. Then do the reverse
by going from the squat back to the lunge while keeping the same general body
alignment.

If one is able to perform this test seamlessly, without losing balance or feeling
pulled out of position, most likely their lunge mechanics, as well as their squat
technique, are pretty solid. If they find this test to be difficult then it’s time to
clean up their lunge form.

24 . Em plo y H ig her Fr eq u en c y To
M a s ter Y o u r Lu n g e

The key with mastering any movement is to re-program the CNS and re-educate
the nervous system with appropriate mechanics while eliminating faulty
recruitment patterns. This comes down to proper execution combined with high
frequency of practice in order to consistently groove the appropriate neural
pathways and motor patterns.

The lunge is no different. In fact, when it comes to mastering lunge mechanics,

frequency of high quality practice is key. That doesn’t mean one has to perform
heavy or intense lunges on a frequent basis. Practicing with bodyweight or light
loads almost daily is a surefire way to master the lunge as well as improve motor
control and muscle function throughout the body.

25. A pply Th e C o r r ec t M eth o d

The mechanics discussed in this text are not meant to be applied to a specific
lunge variation only (or any other of the “Big 7” movements), but are an
accurate representation of what a proper lunge should resemble, period. Failing
to adhere to these protocols does not suggest that one is performing a different
type of lunge. Instead it suggests they are performing the lunge incorrectly, as the
mechanics presented in this article are based on optimal human biomechanics
from both an osteokinematic and arthrokinematic standpoint. Anything that
deviates significantly from these protocols represents dysfunctional human stride
mechanics that not only make the lunge a potentially dangerous and hazardous
movement, but also acts to reinforce flawed recruitment patterns into one’s
natural walking and running gait.

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What About Other

Lunge Positions?
I’m often asked various questions about lunge mechanics, the answers to which I
feel it is important I lay out for the reader. These include:

Is there ever an appropriate time to perform upright lunges?

Doesn’t lunge technique depend on your goals and what you’re training for?
Everyone’s body is different right, so shouldn’t everyone’s lunge be different?

Answer: Unless one is performing a Yoga pose or training for ballet, fine arts,
or other forms of exotic dance, the upright lunge represents a dysfunctional
pattern that should not be practiced on a consistent basis. If the goal is low back
pain, reinforcing dysfunctional mechanics in the CNS and ruining one’s natural
body mechanics then, yes, the upright lunge is ideal. If the goal is maximal
performance, lower body hypertrophy, decreased joint pain, joint stability,
balance, and ideal postural alignment, then the lunge with a forward torso lean
and hip hinge is ideal. So, yes, it definitely comes down to goals and training
objectives (and yes I know this is harsh). And while each person was created to
be different and unique, the human body is 99% similar from person to person.
That 1% variance is not enough to ever warrant complete reconfiguration of any
movement pattern for the sole purpose of satisfying that individual’s specific and
unique forms of dysfunction.

Lunge Variations
When it comes to lunges there are literally dozens of variations that can be used
for eccentric isometrics including barbell lunges, goblet lunges, dumbbell lunges,
kettlebell lunges, overhead versions, and Zercher lunges. In addition, it should be
noted that Bulgarian squats and split squats make use of the exact same
mechanics outlined for lunges, the key difference being the back foot is
positioned on a bench or box instead of the floor. The benefits are very similar,
with slightly more stretching of the hip flexors of the back leg. However, there is
typically less stability involved with slightly greater emphasis on mobility. Simply
put, when incorporating the lunge movement pattern into eccentric isometrics
the three main options are lunge, split squat, and Bulgarian squat variations, all
of which fall under the same movement pattern and involve roughly the same
cues and protocols.

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Other Important
Lower Body Cues
The previous set of instructions and pointers for the various lower body
movement patterns including the squat, hinge, and lunge should be carefully and
meticulously studied. Each movement has its own precise set of cues that’s
pivotal to helping master the movements. However, there are certain general
cues and principles that can and should be applied to all lower body movements.

1. K eep Th e Feet R ela tiv ely S tr a ig h t

The feet should remain relatively straight not only for lower body movements,
but for nearly all exercises in general, with the lateral lunge being one of the few
exceptions. That being said, there are subtle differences between single leg and
double leg exercises. When performing double leg or bilateral movements, such
as squats or RDLs, the feet can have a very slight amount of external rotation
ranging from 0 to 10 degrees (turned out). However, this is significantly less than
what most coaches advocate, as any more than this can promote dysfunction in
the lower extremities and contribute to poor gait mechanics.

In contrast, single leg variations including single leg squats, single leg RDLs, lunges,
Bulgarian squats, and any single leg exercise will either be perfectly straight or have
a very slight amount of internal rotation of the foot, ranging from 0 to 10 degrees
(turned in). That’s because this creates more torque into the floor and also simulates
optimal stride mechanics. In addition, this slight internal rotation of the foot will be
even more pronounced during the lunge, as the front foot can and should be
rotated inward 5 to 10 degrees. That’s because the lunge is a deconstructed stride or
running position and studies have shown that optimal running mechanics involve
keeping the feet totally straight until the lead foot plants into the ground, at which
point it will rotate inward slightly to create more torque into the ground.

2. A lw a ys H ip H in g e
Having gone through the instructional pointers for the squat, hinge, and lunge
the reader should have noticed a common hip hinge theme throughout. In fact,
all lower body movements, when performed properly, involve a significant
degree of hip hinge mechanics. Simply put, keep the hips back and maintain
either a slight to moderate torso lean for squats and lunges, or a large forward
torso lean throughout for RDLs and hip hinge exercises.

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3. A llo w Ex tr em ity B a s ed S pin a l

Po s itio n in g

As mentioned in chapter 4, there will be an inevitable degree of spinal

repositioning depending on the location of the extremities relative to the torso.
This is most noticeable on lower body movements. For instance, during the top
of a lunge, squat, or hinge, the spine will be neutral, but slightly more on the
extended side, with a bit more natural curvature and arch. In contrast, when
moving into the flexed or bottom position of these lower body drills, the spine
will still remain neutral but will adjust slightly more into a flexed or flat position
due to the core hollowing effect. In other words, the deeper one moves into
flexion the more the core should engage thereby eliminating a slight amount of
arch. However, this is all very subtle and should simply be noticed and allowed,
not forced or prohibited.

4 . K eep Th e K n ees O u t

Although this should never be excessive, the knees should always remain
somewhat pushed out laterally on all lower body movements. This will be least
emphasized during lunges and most emphasized during squats and hinges. To
ensure it is not excessive and falls within the ideal natural boundaries of “knee
and ankle push out”, focus on keeping the big toes pushed down throughout
while keeping the feet relatively straight.

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Upper Body
Movement Patterns
The Horizontal Pull And Row
If I had to choose one
upper body movement to
enhance posture and
muscle function it would
be the horizontal pull. A
horizontal movement
pattern is nothing more
than a rowing exercise.
While rowing exercises are
something that can be seen
at nearly any gym at any
time of the day, most
individuals perform these improperly, negating the benefits of horizontal pulling
exercise and producing muscular dysfunction. Here are the various cues and tips
the lifter will want to implement on eccentric isometric rows to improve
horizontal pulling technique and, ultimately, upper body mechanics and posture.

1. Lo c k Y o u r S pin e In

The key to any movement

including horizontal pulls
and rows is spinal
alignment. During the
eccentric phase, the muscles
should be stretched as far as
possible without letting the
shoulders round, or the
spine move out of
position. In other words,
the lifter should keep military-style posture throughout, while allowing the
elbows to fully straighten without hyperextending.

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2. K eep A Ta ll A n d Elo n g a ted H ea d ,

N o t A S h o r t A n d C o m p res s ed Hea d

Keeping a tall head throughout horizontal pulling movements is key as it helps

lock the spine in. Many individuals allow their head either to hyperextend at the
top by looking up and cocking the head up (cervical hyperextension), or allow
the head to move into forward flexion. Focus on keeping the head as tall and
elongated on the spine as possible yet still neutrally aligned.

3. Lo c k Yo u r S h o u ld er s In

Most lifters tend to produce excessive protraction in the stretched position of

rows, and too much shoulder retraction in the contracted position. That’s
because they allow their shoulders to move excessively throughout the
movement. In reality, natural scapulohumeral rhythm, that is the movement of
the shoulders and scapula back and forth and around the upper back, is much
more subtle and compact than many coaches suggest. In fact, the goal should
not be exaggerated movement at the shoulders and scapula. Instead, the
emphasis should be on shoulder stability with natural movement of the scapula.

4 . U s e Pr o per R a n g e O f M o tio n a n d
D o n ’t O v er R o w

This is the single most

important cue when it
comes to proper horizontal
pulling mechanics, as over-
rowing will lead to, or is at
least directly related to, all
other common mistakes
seen on rows. In fact, using
excessive range of motion
is a very common mistake I
see in rowing technique,
and it negatively affects all
other components of
horizontal pulling mechanics. The natural tendency for many lifters is to achieve
maximal range of motion as a means of promoting mobility. Unfortunately, this

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has the opposite effect, as exaggerated range of motion produces faulty

mechanics and inflammation around the joints, which happens to be the very
thing that restricts mobility. On rowing exercises, this frequently occurs at both
the contracted and stretched positions and, as a result, negatively impacts
shoulder health and muscle function.

When pulling into the

contracted position the
elbows and triceps/humerus
shouldn’t go significantly
beyond the plane of the
torso. A lack of appropriate
lat activation, especially in
the lower lats, as well as
insufficient scapular
stabilization, causes the
elbows to move too far
beyond the line of the torso.
This also creates more
tension in the neck,
shoulders and upper traps, rather than the lats and middle-upper back muscles.
Instead of achieving appropriate external rotation, the shoulders are pulled into
internal rotation, as they’re essentially forced out of their ideal mechanics.

If the lifter engages the

appropriate muscles and
utilizes proper rowing
mechanics, the bar /
handles / hands should
stop several inches away
from the body when in the
fully contracted position.
During the stretched
position, similar rules
apply. The ideal end range
of motion should produce
a natural stretch of the mid
and upper back but not an
excessive one. As the load pulls the lifter into a stretch, the elbows will fully

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straighten, however the shoulders will stay somewhat retracted and not
excessively protracted. Contrary to what many strength coaches advocate,
allowing complete protraction of the shoulders and scapula, such that that the
shoulders and spine are pulled out of neutral position, represents a highly
dysfunctional and hazardous position. Unfortunately, this is where many lifters
make the common mistake of allowing their upper back and lats to stretch so
much that the shoulders and upper back round forward, causing the muscles of
the lats and upper back predominantly to disengage. Instead, it is the tendons,
ligaments, and connective tissue around the shoulder, scapula, and spine that
become stretched, which is never advisable.

Besides minimizing activation of the targeted muscles, this also promotes

scapular instability and laxity of the shoulder girdle. Whether it’s during rows or
other movements, chances are the lifter will eventually succumb to a shoulder
injury having ingrained dysfunctional movement and faulty upper body
mechanics that are sure to trickle into other aspects of life. To achieve proper
end range of motion, and avoid excessive stretch on rows or any other
movement, requires the chest to remain tall, the shoulders to stay packed, and
the spine to maintain its neutrally arched structural integrity.

5. S to p A t 90 D eg r ees

The natural stopping point on rows, which is when the humerus is in line with
the torso, occurs at approximately a 90-degree elbow bend position. Going
significantly farther than this promotes over-rowing as previously described.

6. Th in k B ig C h es t
W ith S to m a c h In

Cueing the lifter to keep their chest

out and their stomach in is a quick
and dirty combination cue, yet also
highly effective, as it helps eliminate
most postural issues and spinal
misalignment. Think military-style
posture throughout especially in the
contracted position.

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7. K eep Th e C o r e Tig h t

Although it’s better to have too much of an arch than too much spinal flexion,
excessive arch can also cause low back tension and tightness in the upper traps.
While it’s imperative to keep the chest out with a tall elongated spine and
military-like posture, failing to engage the core can lead to excessive lumbar
extension with too much arch. The focus should be on creating most of the
extension through the t-spine, while keeping the core tight and braced
throughout, as well as pulling the stomach in.

8. Keep Your Elbows Close To Your Body

Keeping the elbows

relatively close to the body
is something that’s critical
for nearly all upper body
movements such as pulls
and presses. When it comes
to rows, allowing the
elbows to flare not only
eliminates many of the
benefits derived from rows,
it can also lead to shoulder issues. The lifter should keep the elbows close to the
torso, but not too tight or crowded, by simply firing the lats, depressing the
scapula, and medially rotating the scapula towards the middle of the spine as they
pull into the contracted position. If the spine and shoulders are in the proper
position to start with, the rest should naturally follow and not have to be forced.

9. Feel Th e
Lo w er La ts
A c tiv a te

One of the main reasons

many individuals struggle to
keep their elbows tucked with
perfect posture during any
upper body movement,
including rows, is the lack of
lower lat activation. Rather

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than focusing on feeling the upper lats and upper back towards the shoulders fire
during horizontal pulling movements, the lifter should try to engage the lower
lats almost towards the middle of their waist (i.e. mid torso region). In reality, the
sensation of the lower lats firing is more of a “complete contraction” throughout
the entire lats, as the lats attach close to the lower back musculature. Most
individuals mistake activation and tension in the teres major muscle, the muscle
right under the armpits, as the lats when in fact it isn’t. A true lat contraction is
felt much lower on the lats and mid back than most individuals realize.

10 . Elim in a te Ten s io n In Th e U pper

Tr a ps A n d N ec k

On a similar note, not only

should individuals focus on
contracting their lower lat
muscles during rows, they
should simultaneously
concentrate on minimizing
tension in their upper traps,
neck, and shoulders. When
these muscles are overly
activated it detracts from the
all-important lat muscles,
causing postural aberrations
and shoulder issues.

11. R em em b er
th e “A t & U p”
R u le

When it comes to lat and

back activation I often
recommend to my athletes that they use the “At and Up” Rule. Essentially, this
means that wherever they feel the most tension in their back when performing
horizontal puling movements, it’s from that point and upwards of that point
where all of the muscle activation is taking place. Simply put, if the lifter feels
most of the tension in their middle upper traps that means very little muscle
activation is occurring below that region, such as in the middle and lower lats,
which are critical for posture and shoulder stability, thereby negating the true

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purpose of the movement. However, if the lifter feels the lower lats engage that
means all of the musculature from that point and the entire region of the back
upwards from it is also firing, making the movement a full back activation
exercise with proper recruitment patterns.

12 . Pa u s e A n d S q u eez e A t Th e To p

When it comes to performing

eccentric isometrics, the key is
pausing in the stretched
position. Yet, when per-
forming rows and horizontal
pulling movements, as well as
most vertical puling
movements such as pullups,
the focus should be on pausing
and squeezing in the contracted
position as well to allow
maximal stimulation of the
targeted musculature and
ensure a more effective and purposeful eccentric isometric hold.

13. Pr es s D u r in g Th e Ec c en tr ic

Similar to any other

movement, in order to lock
in the eccentric phase of the
row it’s important to recruit
the antagonist muscles to
create eccentric induced co-
contraction. For the row
that means firing the chest,
shoulders, and triceps,
particularly towards the end
phase of the eccentric or
most stretched position. Simply put, once the lifter reaches the fully lengthened
position, with arms fully extended in front of them, and the spine locked into
position, it should feel as though they are pushing the weight away from them
rather than trying to pull against the load or resist lengthening. This should occur

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almost automatically simply by achieving the proper position and allowing full
lengthening and elongation of the upper back/lats to occur while maintaining
perfect posture.

H o r izo n ta l Pu llin g V a r ia tio n s

Any traditional rowing exercise performed with proper technique will fit into this
category. Seated cable rows, bent over barbell rows, inverted rows, one arm
dumbbell rows, incline dumbbell rows, T-bar rows and even certain machine
rows are all great options for performing eccentric isometric rows.

Horizontal Press
Everyone loves to work on
their bench press strength
and build their chest,
shoulders, and triceps.
However, to reap the
benefits of performing
eccentric isometric
horizontal presses requires
precise execution and
perfect technique.
Horizontal pulling, as
described above (i.e. row), and horizontal pushing (i.e. chest press) should,
essentially, be mirror images of each other. If this is not the case then the
technique for one or potentially both lifts is amiss. Here are some critical cues to
keep in mind when it comes to horizontal chest presses.

1. Keep The
Elbows Close
To The Body

Keeping the elbows close to

the torso is done by
engaging the lats and pulling
the shoulders down and
back. This becomes even
more important the lower

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one goes on their chest press. In other words, the lower one goes the more one
engages their back and lats. Again, this should mimic and feel almost identical to a
row. Performing chest movements in this fashion greatly enhances recovery time
and growth. For example, flaring of the elbows on bench press can induce
soreness of the pectoral muscles, particularly near the tendon insertion, that can
last for multiple days.
This is rarely beneficial and
can often induce muscular
atrophy due to com-
promised structural re-
covery. However, when the
shoulders and elbows are
positioned properly, that is
tucked, the degree of
DOMS is exponentially
reduced, if not all but
eliminated. As a result, the
lifter will experience much
quicker recovery with greater strength and hypertrophy gains. Remember, the
worst mistake one can make is performing eccentric isometrics improperly, as
that will simply result in the grooving of faulty movement patterns in the CNS,
not to mention increase the potential for injury.

2. D o n ’t C r o w d Th e S h o u ld er s B y
K eepin g The Elb o w s Ex c es s iv ely C lo s e

On a related note, some

individuals will try to keep
their elbows so close to
their body they crowd their
shoulders. This can
produce inflammation in
the glenohumeral joint.
Instead, the elbows should
remain naturally close and
angled, approximately 15-
30 degrees away from the torso, which again is close, but not excessively or
unnaturally close. This allows the arms to move around the body, further
opening up the chest rather than crowding the shoulders.

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3. K eep Th e
C h es t O u t
Th r o u g h o u t

The lower the individual

moves into the eccentric
phase of the press, the
more the chest should push
out. However, this should
occur by pulling the
shoulders down and back
and extending the t-spine, not the lumbar spine.

4 . A v o id Ex c es s iv e Lu m b a r A r c h
To avoid excessive lumbar extension and low back arch one must keep the
stomach pulled in and the core tight throughout. This also enhances full body
rigidity and shoulder stability, allowing greater loads to be used on the chest press

5. M a k e S u r e Th e Feet A r e Per fec tly

S tr a ig h t
Whether the lifter decides to perform their presses with the legs down, elevated,
or with a leg raise/hollow body hold, all of which are perfectly acceptable, the
feet should remain straight. This helps optimize hip alignment and create better
spinal positioning. Ultimately, this impacts shoulder mechanics as well, since
every part of the kinetic chain impacts other segments.

6. D o n ’t O v er s tr etc h O r G o To o D eep

Just like all the other

movements, a proper chest press
should involve approximately
90-degree joint angles (i.e.
perpendicular elbow/arm
position). In addition, the
humerus and tricep should not
move beyond the plane of the
torso. Instead they should be
approximately in-line with the
upper torso/upper lats and back when in the stretched/bottom position.

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7. D o n ’t Let Th e H a n d s D r ift In Fr o n t
O f Th e Elb o w s

When performing chest presses, the elbows and wrists should always remain
relatively stacked on top of each other. One common mistake lifters often make
when first learning to tuck their elbows is to allow the hands to drift in front of
the elbows towards their hips, which can place undue stress on the shoulders,
and elbows. Focus instead on keeping the wrists and elbows relatively stacked on
top of each other. In fact, if the hands were to move in one direction it would be
ideal to have them angled just slightly behind the elbows, towards the neck,
which will help reinforce a more packed shoulder position.

8. K eep Th e H ea d Pu s h ed B a c k A n d
Ta ll O n Th e S pin e

Rather than letting the head

simply sit and relax on the
bench, focus on pushing
the head against the pad by
pushing the entire torso,
upper back, and back of the
head into the bench. The
lower one moves into the
eccentric phase and the
closer one gets to the
bottom of the movement,
the more this should be emphasized. This helps centrate and pack the shoulder
into the optimal position. In addition, the head-off technique, with the head
hanging off the bench and the base of the neck on the edge of the bench, can
further help reinforce proper t-spine alignment and cervical elongation. That’s
because the head is not compressed against another surface but, instead, can
extend back slightly allowing cervical elongation and enhanced postural
alignment. Simply put, whether the lifter uses the head on or off protocol, the
cervical spine and head should remain as tall and elongated as possible.

9. D o n ’t A im Fo r Yo u r C h es t

Most lifters will try to lower the barbell, or their hands, toward their chest.
However, this represents faulty bar path and movement mechanics that can

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produce shoulder issues over time, as it typically causes shoulder elevation and
inhibition of the lats. Instead, the lifter should lower the bar and/or hands to the
upper abs, or just below the location of sternum. This represents optimal horizontal
pressing mechanics, as it allows ideal scapular depression and lat activation.

10 . S c r ew
Th e Elb o w s
Fo r w a r d

When performing any

horizontal press, focus on
screwing the elbows
forward towards the feet,
rather than out, during the
eccentric phase. For most lifters this will feel very extreme at first however it
represents ideal pressing mechanics and joint positioning.

11. D o n ’t Pu ll Th e B a r A pa r t.

With barbell variations, rather than trying to pull the bar apart (a common
powerlifting cue), the goal should be to bend the bar apart, as if one were
holding a flimsy stick and trying to break it. This helps activate the lats and
reinforce elbow tuck even further. In contrast, trying to pull the bar apart can
cause the elbows to flare out by disengaging the lower lats and over-activating
the upper traps and shoulders.

12. Use A
Neutral Grip
When Possible

For dumbbell variations,

employ a neutral or semi-
neutral grip. Using a pronated
grip while performing dumb-
bell presses makes it nearly
impossible to perform
proper horizontal pressing mechanics. A pronated grip with a barbell is quite
different, however, as the lifter can use the bar as a gripping anchor to screw the
elbows forward and fire the lats. Firing the lats and tucking the elbows when
performing dumbbell presses should inevitably lead to a neutral grip or close to it.

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If, in fact, this does not occur when performing dumbbell chest presses then the
lifter’s technique is most likely amiss.

H o r izo n ta l Pr es s in g V a r ia tio n s

The best options for eccentric

isometric horizontal pressing
movements are bench press
variations with dumbbells,
kettlebells, and barbells (flat, incline
or decline), pushups (on handles,
knuckles, or rings), dips (standard
or rings), or specialty barbells such
as trap bar and football bar
presses. It should also be noted
that for many lifters, with the
exception of heavier large-chested
athletes, the ideal stopping point
on standard eccentric isometric
barbell chest presses will typically
be 1-5 cm away from the
torso. This is where the humerus
(tricep) is in-line with the plane of the torso. Touching the bar to the torso requires
the tricep and humerus to move beyond this point, producing aberrations in
shoulder mechanics and spinal alignment. With this in mind, eccentric isometric
chest presses performed with a barbell will be solid options for most individuals
provided they don’t touch their chest/torso.

The Vertical Pull

For many lifters the vertical pull or pullup/chin-up motion can be difficult to
master. Much of this has to do with the shoulders and scapula being directly pulled on
by gravitational forces applied vertically to the arms. This is also where most athletes
let the shoulders essentially get yanked out of position by allowing the scapula to pull
up, over, and out rather than back, down, and in. With that said mastering eccentric
isometrics applied to vertical pulling motions can do wonders for shoulder function
and postural restoration. Here are the key pointers to make that happen.

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1. D o N o t U s e A n
Ex c es s iv e R a n g e
O f M o tio n

A highly common training mistake

I see in beginners and advanced
lifters alike is trying to pull too far
and too high on vertical pulling
motions such as pullups and lat
pull-downs. Rather than trying to
touch the bar to their chest or
reaching over the bar with their
chin, both of which can produce
dysfunctional mechanics, the goal
should be to achieve proper upper
back and lat activation by pulling to
a position where the bar is
approximately level with the middle
of the face/mouth.

2. Lea n B a c k

The lifter needs to create ample t-

spine extension, particularly in the
contracted position, by keeping the
chest out and tall. In other words,
focus on leaning back slightly
throughout the motion. The higher
the lifter moves into the contracted
position, or the closer they pull the
bar towards them, the more they
should lean back by extending the t-
spine not the lumbar spine. The head
and neck should also remain tall to
allow optimal cervical elongation,
which further helps ingrain proper
thoracic extension. This helps
centrate the glenohumeral joint into the optimal position. Lack of t-spine
extension facilitates a very unstable shoulder joint allowing excessive range of

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motion and promoting faulty mechanics. This is largely why many lifters touch
the bar to their chest when performing pullups and pull-downs. This in no way
reflects strong levels of mobility or strength, instead, it indicates faulty activation
patterns and dysfunctional movement.

3. A im Fo r Th e S ter n u m B u t D o n ’t
To u c h It

Another important cue that promotes ideal vertical pulling mechanics is pulling
towards the sternum rather than towards the clavicle. Pulling towards the clavicle
or neck minimizes activation in the lat muscles, particularly the lower lats, as the
shoulders and scapula can’t fully depress and medially rotate towards the spine.
Pulling towards the sternum not only places the shoulders in the most
biomechanically sound position, it requires an incredible amount of lat activation
even with relatively light loads. One cue that can be helpful is to think about
pulling your body away from the bar rather than towards it. On a side note, this
cue does not imply that the lifter should touch the bar to the sternum, instead
they should aim for a position in which the sternum is directly underneath and
in-line with the bar.

As previously mentioned, the

bar should end up somewhere
around mid-face or mouth
height when in the fully
contracted top position and
rarely, if ever, go below chin
level. Any further than that,
such as going past chin level or
touching the bar to the chest,
and the lifter will sacrifice
optimal scapulohumeral
rhythm, as the glenohumeral
joint will be in a faulty position.

4 . S c r ew Th e
Elb o w s
Fo r w a r d

Screwing the elbows forward is

another critical yet often times

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overlooked component of pullups and pulldowns. Regardless of the grip

(pronated, supinated, neutral), or hand placement (wide, medium, or close grip),
the elbows need to point straight ahead throughout the movement, rather than
out to the sides. This helps engage the entire musculature of the lats, rather than
just the upper regions. It also ensures the lifter is not pulling from the upper
traps and shoulders.

5. K eep Th e Feet U n d er Th e To r s o

Keep the feet directly under

the torso in the stretched
position. Once the lifter
begins to pull into the
contracted position, the
body will naturally begin to
angle slightly, and the feet
will move slightly in front
of the torso. However, the
entire body, from head to
toe, should still remain in a
perfectly straight line.

6. D o r s iflex
Th e A n k les

Dorsiflexion is an
important aspect of proper
pullup mechanics,
particularly when using the
straight leg position. This is
accomplished by pushing the heels down towards the ground and pointing the
toes up towards the ceiling. This dorsiflexion cue helps create proper body
alignment and spinal positioning. That’s because dorsiflexion of the ankles
lengthens and stretches the muscles of the posterior chain in the lower body.
Moderately stretching the gastrocnemius, hamstrings, and glutes helps reinforce
a natural arch and elongated spine.

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Plantarflexed ankles, often accompanied by lethargic lower body activation,

makes it nearly impossible to produce optimal neural firing patterns, as the
shortened calve position impairs spinal positioning. As previously stated, it’s
impossible to properly contract the upper back or to perform correct pullups
unless postural alignment is ideal.

In addition, activating the

ankles and feet helps create
concurrent activation
potentiation and irradiation
thereby increasing neural
drive and activation
throughout the kinetic
chain. Allowing the feet
and ankles to remain loose,
even during hanging
movements such as
pullups, promotes energy
leaks and lethargic activation
patterns, thereby short-
changing the effective- ness
of the movement, not to
mention instilling faulty
recruitment patterns in the
CNS. On a similar note,
crossing the legs is typically
counterproductive, as it allows the feet and ankles to remain in a minimally
activated state, not to mention it produces an asymmetrical lumbopelvic hip
position that disrupts posture and movement mechanics. Simply put, keep the
legs in a symmetrical position while also maintaining strict dorsiflexion. It should
also be pointed out that even when the legs are bent backwards at a 90-degree
joint angle, the ankles should still remained dorsiflexed.

7. K eep Th e Lo w er B o d y S till

During pullups and chin-ups avoid aggressive shifting of the hips particularly hip
flexion and kipping. A very common cheating method you’ll see many lifters
incorporate into their pullups is hip flexion or leg drive. At times this can be

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subtle, as when the individual hits a sticking point and begins to contract the hip
flexors to help reach the top position. At other times this can be more obvious
and blatant, as is commonly seen with popular kipping pullups. Regardless of the
severity of hip drive, flexing the hips tends to disrupt optimal spinal alignment
and postural positioning.

When hip flexion is more subtle, as in the first example, the end result is usually
kyphotic posture and rounded shoulders. In contrast, the aggressive leg drive
that is seen with kipping pullups tends to produce excessive back arch and
hyperextension of the lumbar and cervical spine as well as rounding
shoulders. Both forms of dysfunction are highly undesirable and can create long-
term issues throughout the kinetic chain. During a pullup the lower body should
remain completely still with no movement throughout the exercise.

8. D o n ’t O v er s tr etc h

Although the arms should fully

extend and there should be a
natural stretch and lengthening
in the lats, the shoulders should
not elevate excessively. In other
words, don’t overstretch or get
overly loose at the bottom
position. Yes, there will be a
slight elevation and protraction,
but this is much more mild
than most coaches preach. In
essence, focus on fully
lengthening and stretching at
the bottom while remaining
tight and keeping perfect spinal
alignment. The moment the
shoulders significantly roll up
and over indicates not only
faulty mechanics, it also places
undue stress on the shoulder
joint and neck. Simply put,
keep the chest out throughout

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the motion, even while in the bottom stretched position, although in that
position it won’t be as exaggerated as it is in the concentric contracted position.

9. A v o id A n Ex c es s iv ely W id e G r ip.

One of the most common

problems on vertical
pulling motions that
promotes faulty mechanics
is using an excessively wide
grip. Such a grip causes the
elbows to flare out and
makes it very difficult, if
not nearly impossible, to
pack the shoulders into the
ideal position. Also, this
does not work the lats to a
greater extent, contrary to
what most coaches suggest.
In fact, it’s quite the
opposite, as the lats are not
able to contract or elongate
optimally. Instead, focus
on using a strong and natural grip. This typically involves using a grip or hand
width that ranges from just outside shoulder width to slightly inside shoulder
width position.

10 . Pu s h D u r in g th e Ec c en tr ic

Similar to the row, as well as any other movement, lock in the eccentric phase of
the vertical pulling motion by recruiting the antagonist muscles and creating
eccentric-induced co-contraction. For the vertical pulling motion that means
firing the shoulders, upper, chest, and triceps, particularly towards the end phase
of the eccentric top stretched position. Simply put, once the lifter reaches the
fully lengthened position with arms extended overhead and the spine locked into
position, it should feel as though they are pushing the bar away from them rather
than trying to pull against the load or resist lengthening. This should occur
almost automatically simply by achieving the proper position and allowing full

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lengthening and elongation of the upper back/lats to occur while maintaining

perfect posture, i.e. chest out with core tight and stomach in.

V er tic a l Pu llin g V a r ia tio n s

Any lat pulldown or pullup/chin-up variation is ideal for performing eccentric

isometric vertical pulling motions. In addition, multiple grips and positions
should be mixed in periodically to target the muscles from different angles.
However, the activation and difference between the various grips is much more
subtle than what most coaches advocate, particularly when proper mechanics are
employed throughout each variation.

The Vertical Press

Once you nail proper technique
for vertical pulling, understanding
and applying those cues to
overhead pressing movements will
make more sense. Unfortunately,
the overhead press or vertical
pushing motion is the most
challenging upper body lift for
individuals to dial in, as there are
numerous critical components to
remember.

Additionally, if there is a weak link

anywhere in the body the
overhead press will quickly expose
it, particularly when applied to the
eccentric isometric protocol.
However, if performed correctly it
can also act as the very tool needed to fix numerous upper body weaknesses,
eliminate muscular imbalances, and enhance postural mechanics. With this in
mind make sure technique is proper in order to avoid injury and maximize its
effectiveness for size, strength, and performance.

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Generally speaking when it comes to overhead pressing technique, thoracic spine

mobility and scapular positioning are two of the most important factors. In
addition, the lifter should keep the chest out, pack the head tall, not let the hips
collapse, and keep the core incredibly tight throughout. Similar to horizontal
pressing and pulling this should mimic and feel almost identical to pullups or
pulldowns (vertical pulling motions). The lifter should also focus on driving the
elbows more towards the front of the body rather than the sides. Additionally,
most individuals try to stay too upright during overhead pressing. Allowing the
top third of your upper torso to slightly lean back while maintaining proper
lumbopelvic alignment represents the epitome of T-spine mobility. Here’s a
more extensive breakdown of each of these critical cues as well as others that
will help teach proper eccentric isometric overhead pressing mechanics.

1. N a il Th e Ec c en tr ic Ph a s e w ith Th e
H ips a n d T -S pin e

Lack of thoracic positioning and T-

spine mobility is a very common
problem I see in individuals
performing the overhead press.
Proper T-spine mobility is
especially necessary on the eccentric
phase of the lift, as well as in the
bottom position. In order to have
the best understanding of proper
overhead pressing mechanics it’s
best to deconstruct the movement
by starting with the eccentric phase
moving from top to bottom.

When initiating the eccentric or

lowering phase of the overhead
press the lifter should start by
setting the feet, hips, and low back
tightly in place, while allowing the top third of their upper torso to slightly lean
back, particularly at the very bottom of the press, all while keeping the core tight
and the hips back. This represents optimal T-spine mobility requiring the lats
and upper back to fire with extreme intensity.

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Keeping the hips set back throughout is a key component that most lifters
neglect. Allowing the hips to come forward represents a compensation pattern
whereby the individual substitutes thoracic extension with lumbar extension. In
fact, the notion that overhead presses lead to low back pain can be traced back
to this very issue, as letting the hips collapse and shoot forward can spell disaster
for the low back. With this in mind, cuing a lifter to squeeze their glutes during
the overhead press can be one of the single worst pointers to give an athlete as it
will cause the hips to shift forward even more so. Instead, remind them to keep
their hips set back throughout, with the weight on their heels and the chest tall.

2. Nail The
Concentric Phase

Once they reach the bottom, the

lifter should pause momentarily then
drive the weight up and slightly back,
ensuring the arms are in-line or just
behind the ears at the top. Similar to
the slot position of the jerk or snatch
seen in Olympic Weightlifting, this
portion of the movement can either
make or break the lift. It’s in this
phase that the T-spine will no longer
be in an extended position (tilted
back) but will essentially drive into neutral as the lifter pushes their head through and
slightly forward at the top of the movement. At this point the hips will be set slightly
behind the rest of the torso in a very minor hip hinge and forward torso lean.

3. Dial-In The Core

and Lumbar Spine
Throughout the entire movement
the lifter should lock their core in by
keeping the abs tight and braced as
well as by pulling the stomach in.
They should also allow a natural, but
not excessive, lordotic curvature of
the spine. Think military posture;
head tall, chest out, hips back, and
stomach in. This natural arch will be

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slightly more pronounced at the bottom of the press due to the necessary
thoracic extension.

4 . D o n ’t S ta y O v er ly U pr ig h t

Trying to stay excessively

upright and avoiding a tall chest
position is the single biggest
mistake I see on the overhead
press. Over the last several
years many coaches have been
advocating the idea of
maintaining a rigid core with
minimal ribcage protrusion.
Although this has its merits, the
idea is oftentimes taken too far.
In fact, many coaches miscue
the overhead press by
instructing individuals to keep a
neutral t-spine rather than an
extended t-spine, especially in
the bottom position, as a means
of minimizing ribcage protrusion. Unfortunately, it’s impossible to create
optimal t-spine extension and proper shoulder mechanics unless the individual
sets their chest high and tilts their upper torso up and back. In order to avoid
excessive ribcage protrusion the lifter simply needs to be instructed to keep their
core braced and set the hips under their torso while extending the t-spine.

Besides significantly
limiting the total load
one can handle on the
overhead press, lack
of t-spine mobility
places the scapula and
glenohumeral joint
into a biomechanically
disadvantageous posi-
tion by promoting in-
ternal rotation of the
shoulder instead of external rotation. These faulty mechanics can contribute

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significantly to neck, shoulder, elbow, and even low back pain. Fortunately,
creating optimal t-spine extension and proper mechanics during overhead
pressing can actually act as a cure for these common ailments.

This can be seen in strong

men competitors or
Olympic weightlifters who
are forced to get proper t-
spine extension by setting
their chest very high. One
would never see them keep
the t-spine in neutral
position as it’s incorrect,
weak, and dangerous. If still
not convinced, have the
lifter try any bottoms-up
overhead pressing variation
with appreciable loads and
take note of their body
position. In order to
stabilize the load and control the highly volatile bottoms-up object they’ll be
forced to extend the t-spine and keep a tall chest. Any lack of thoracic extension
will quickly result in the load being dumped.

In fact, in the absence of ample t-

spine extension it’s nearly impossible
to produce perfectly vertical force
vectors as some of the energy is
angled horizontally. This produces de-
stabilizing forces on the load, not to
mention the fact that it compromises
force-producing capabilities. This is
one of several reasons why many
lifters often struggle with bottoms up
movements. They’re simply working
against, rather than with, their body’s
optimal me-chanics. Just remember
the ex- tension happens from the
thoracic region (upper back) of the
spine not the cervical (neck) or lumbar area (low back).

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5. U s e Th e H a t Tr ic k
If the lifter is unsure as to whether or not they are achieving the proper levels of
thoracic extension during their barbell overhead pressing movements, have them
wear a standard sports cap and see if the bar clears it without running into the bill. If
they clear it chances are they are achieving proper thoracic extension. If they
consistently run into the bill then they definitely need to work on achieving greater t-
spine extension. This variation will also force them to tuck their elbows out in front
of the body, as flaring the elbows will cause the bar to stay too close to the neck rather
than the upper chest, which will resulting in the hat being popped off during the
bottom half of the movement. Just make sure they are not cheating the movement by
producing excessive cervical hyperextension and tilting the head straight up. Although
there will be a slight degree of natural cervical extension that follows the same arch
path created through the t-spine, there won’t be excessive extension as would be the
case when cocking the head straight up. Just remember most of the extension occurs
from the thoracic region not the lumbar or cervical areas.

6. O ptim iz e S c a pu la Po s itio n in g

Throughout the movement you’ll need to

allow for correct shoulder mechanics and
scapula positioning. During the eccentric
phase, particularly at the bottom, tuck the
elbows out in front of the body by
flexing the lats and screwing the elbows
forward. This is done by retracting,
depressing, and medially rotating the
shoulder blades. Put another way, pulling

the shoulders back and down, and pulling

the scapula towards the spine. During the
concentric phase, particularly at the top,
allow the shoulders to elevate and rotate
out slightly without over-shrugging at the
top or losing proper spinal alignment.
Following these cues will promote ideal
glenohumeral arthrokinematics and
osteokinematics (shoulder positioning)
for proper scapulohumeral rhythm
(shoulder movement).

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7. D o n ’t G o Ex c es s iv ely D eep o r
C o lla ps e

The question as to whether or not

one should allow the weight to
completely settle to the upper chest
during an overhead press is a
commonly debated issue amongst
strength coaches. Technically speak-
ing, the natural stopping point
during the eccentric phase of an
overhead press is roughly at the
same point as in the contracted
position of a pullup. In other
words, when performing eccentric
isometrics and ingraining proper
eccentric mechanics, the
hands/weight should not go below chin level, with the natural stopping point
occurring somewhere around mid-face for most individuals. Beyond this
sacrifices scapular stability as the muscles actually relax to a degree in order to
allow greater range of motion.

When performing overhead presses

many lifters allow the weight to rest
slightly on the upper chest/shoulder
region between each repetition.
That’s completely acceptable,
however, that is not the position
that should be isolated as part of the
eccentric isometric protocol, as it
represents a racked position that is
significantly deeper than the ideal 90
degree joint angle position, and not
the bottom of a biomechanically
sound vertical pressing movement.
Simply put, setting the bar on the
chest/shoulders is where one would allow the weight to sit when performing
push press movements, front squats, or dead-stop overhead presses, but not
overhead presses.

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If the lifter is going to lower the weight back to their torso by letting it rest on their
shoulders/chest, then once they reach the end range of the eccentric isometric at
mid-face level, they should simply allow the weight to gently free-fall to their body
rather than try to use eccentric strength to control this extremely stretched bottom
position. Simply put, when the arms are forced to assume a position that’s deeper
than the ideal 90-degree joint angle eccentric isometric, the lifter should use their
body/front rack position to support and hold the weight, rather than the targeted
musculature, as the muscles are no longer in the ideal position to provide the
needed support and take stress off the involved joints. On a side note, for
traditional push press variations that don’t involve eccentric isometrics, I typically
recommend letting the weight settle to the upper chest and shoulders as a platform
from which to launch the weight if the eccentric phase is not emphasized.

8. U n d er s ta n d Th e R ela tio n s h ip
B etw een Th e H ips a n d To r s o

In previous sections I
discussed how reciprocal
motions, particularly those of
the upper body, should look
quite similar to each other.
For instance, a horizontal
push and pull should look
nearly identical to each other
just as a vertical push and
vertical pull should have
almost identical osteokinematics
and biomechanical attributes.
How- ever, the overhead
position of the vertical push
and vertical pulling motions
are a key exception to this
rule. Here’s what I mean. As
previously mentioned when at the top of an overhead press, the head will slightly
push through and the arms will extend slightly behind the head. In other words, at
the top of the movement, the arms will be approximately in-line with the ears.
However, it’s important to understand that the head is not actually moving, instead
the illusion of the head popping through/between the arms is, in reality, a result of a
slight shift in torso and hip position.

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In other words, at the bottom of an

overhead press, the upper torso is
slightly tilted back as a result of
thoracic extension, while the hips
are slightly forward and directly
under the stomach. Once the lifter
begins to lock the movement out
overhead, the hips will gradually
and naturally shift posteriorly while
the upper torso will move
anteriorly. Simply put, at the top of
an overhead press there should be a
slight hip hinge position and a
forward torso lean of approximately
5-10 degrees similar to that at the
start of a squat motion. This represents the ideal finishing position for an
overhead press, also known as the slot position in Olympic weightlifting.
Mastering this position can do wonders not only for overhead pressing
mechanics, but also for overall muscle function from head to toe.

Another common cue I use with my

athletes is the “teeter totter”
illustration showing how the torso
position continually shifts and
adjusts as one moves from the
bottom to the top of an overhead
press and vice versa. This shifting
position, or teeter totter effect,
occurs in every segment of every
rep, each time one goes from
eccentric to concentric, or
concentric to eccentric. It’s also
important to note that the main
difference, and perhaps the only
visual difference, between the
vertical press and vertical pulling
motion is the top overhead position. During vertical pulling motions such as
pullups the torso will lean slightly back and remain so throughout, even in the fully
extended overhead position (i.e. the bottom dead-hang position). This is in

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contrast to the large shift in torso position that occurs on overhead presses, when
the upper body actually pushes through at the top of the movement as a result of
the hips hinging back. That is, the shift in torso position is directly connected to
the change in hip position. In other words, one cannot occur without the other.

Another way to think of it is that in

order to be able to hip hinge when in
an arms raised position one has to
work with gravitational forces. This
requires the feet to be firmly planted
on the ground in order to maneuver
the torso position. Since hinging the
hips is impossible, or at least very
unnatural, in the fully extended
position of a vertical pulling motion
such as pullups, the significant shift of
the upper torso and head placement
commonly seen on vertical pushing or
overhead pressing exercises does not occur. Therein lies the key biomechanical and
osteokinematic difference seen between a vertical push and vertical pulling motion.

Note on Overhead Athletes and

Shoulder Health
In the field of strength and
conditioning it’s typically
recommended that individuals with
pre-existing shoulder injuries, as well
athletes who throw or are involved in
overhead sports, avoid overhead
pressing movements. However, this
recommendation is nothing more than
a training fallacy and misconception
perpetuated by the fact that most
coaches and trainers don’t know how
to coach the overhead press properly,
or how to correct their athletes’
movement mechanics. In fact, a properly performed overhead press is one of
the most therapeutic movements one can perform for the shoulders. However,

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an improperly performed overhead press can also be one of the most damaging
movements on the glenohumeral joint.

It is also often suggested

that certain individuals with
specific types of shoulder
structures and acromions
avoid overhead pressing as
their bodies are not suited
for it. Again, this is nothing
more than a training
misconception perpetuated
by the inability to properly
coach an overhead press.
While it’s true that certain
individuals will have more
difficulty with overhead
pressing movements, these
instances simply require
more precise coaching, training, and execution of the movement, which may be
challenging but by no means impossible.

I’ve worked with thousands of individuals, ranging from high level athletes to
special populations and elderly individuals, and I’ve never seen a case where an
individual could not perform an overhead press as long as they were properly
cued. Some instances required a bit more coaching, instruction, and body
adjustments, however, this never required more than several sessions to
accomplish. In fact, any pre-existing limitations were gradually eliminated as the
individual learned how to press properly.

Again, this did not take endless hours of corrective exercise, therapy, and soft
tissue modalities, it simply required proper cuing, neuromuscular re-
education/rewiring, spinal manipulation, and re-programming of their nervous
systems with appropriate movement patterns. To summarize, if a strength coach
recommends that a certain individual avoid overhead presses, or spend months
on corrective exercises before allowing them to perform presses, it simply
exposes the fact that the coach lacks a thorough understanding of proper
overhead biomechanics and is, therefore, limited in their ability to provide the
appropriate instruction.

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V er tic a l Pr es s in g V a r ia tio n s

For eccentric isometric

vertical pushing motions,
most overhead press
variations (with the
exception of push presses)
will suffice. This includes
dumbbell, barbell, kettle-
bell, bottoms up, trap bar,
landmine presses, high
incline presses, and other
similar variations that allow
the lifter to hone in on their
eccentric isometric position
with proper mechanics.

I also suggest performing a

majority of overhead
pressing movements with-
out back support. In other
words, most overhead presses should be performed either standing, kneeling, or
seated without back support. However, some individuals may find that a high
incline position with slight back support is more ideal for their body structures.
Over time, with proper training they should be able to progress to the point
where they consistently incorporate standing and non-supported variations,
although the supported or high incline variations can still be consistently mixed
into their routine.

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Other Important
Upper Body Cues
Similar to the lower body, there are general cues, mechanics, and common
mistakes that are shared across each upper body movement pattern (horizontal
push and pull and vertical push and pull).

1. K eep Th e Elb o w s Tu c k ed .

On all upper body movements the elbows should remain screwed forward,
particularly as the lifter moves into shoulder extension and elbow flexion, i.e. the
90 degree joint angle position. This should occur by packing and centrating the
shoulders, that is, by retracting, depressing, and medially rotating the shoulders
towards the spine.

2. A v o id Ps eu d o Elb o w Tu c k

Although the elbow tuck

cue is critical, many lifters
inadvertently create issues
by unknowingly implementing
something I refer to as a
pseudo elbow tuck. Such is
the case when the ma-
neuver occurs from the
elbows and arms rather
than the shoulders and
scapula. This can be highly
problematic.

Implementing elbow tuck

without proper shoulder
positioning is, actually,
more dangerous than
elbow flare, as this produces shoulder crowding which resembles internal
rotation and anterior displacement of the shoulder girdle. Rather than fixating
too much on elbow positioning, focus more on locking the shoulders in by
retracting and depressing the scapula. As one moves further and further into

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shoulder extension the scapula should medially rotate slightly towards the spine.
In doing so the elbows will naturally find their ideal position. If that sounds too
complex, simply keep the chest out with the shoulders pulled back and squeeze
the lats while keeping the core tight. Whether it’s a dumbbell press, barbell press,
pushup, dip, overhead press, row, or pullup, the elbow tuck should result from
proper shoulder positioning not the other way around.

3. K eep Th e S to m a c h In A n d C h es t O u t

Keeping the stomach in and chest out is paramount in all upper body
movements. However, doing one without the other, i.e. keeping the stomach in
without also keeping the chest out, or vice versa, can cause numerous forms of
dysfunction. Therefore, both need to be equally emphasized.

4 . K eep Th e Feet A c tiv a ted A n d

R ela tiv ely S tr a ig h t

Although proper foot and ankle alignment is paramount in all lower body
movements, it’s also critical for upper body movements, as this helps create
better tension, signaling, and body alignment all the way up the kinetic chain.
This is even more important for standing exercises such as overhead presses.

5. D o n ’t A llo w G r ip O r S ta n c e W id th
To D ic ta te M ec h a n ic s .

This is one of the most

common problems I see in
gym settings, and one that
is just as prevalent amongst
beginners and intermediate
lifters as it is with advanced
lifters. Essentially, what
happens is the lifter allows
the grip position or hand
placement to dictate their
shoulder mechanics and
body positioning. This
should never occur. Proper scapulohumeral rhythm occurs very precisely and is
dependent on keeping the shoulders retracted, depressed, and medially rotated,

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all while keeping the elbows tucked. Any deviations from this during any upper
body push or pull movement are simply wrong. Regardless of the variation,
whether it’s a wide grip incline press, a reverse grip bench press, a pushup, or a
simple dumbbell press, the elbows, shoulders, and scapula positioning will
remain nearly identical with little if any difference in pressing mechanics. The
same is true of any rowing movements, overhead presses, or pullups/pulldowns.
Regardless of the grip width and placement, each variation of that particular
movement pattern will be nearly identical in terms of movement mechanics and
osteokinematic joint positioning. In other words, while the hand position and
grip changes, the shoulders and elbow position should remain constant.

And yes, this means that in

the case of an extremely
wide grip the forearms will
not be quite perpendicular
to the floor as the hands
will be slightly wider than
the elbows. Although some
trainees assume that main-
taining a perpendicular arm
position is necessary, this is
only the case with more
moderate grips. Unfortunately,
with a very wide grip it
becomes impossible to
maintain perpendicular joint segments without sacrificing neuromuscular
recruitment and internal arthrokinematics (movement of joint surfaces). And
because our bodies are highly complex and interconnected structures, not
mechanical robots constructed of isolated parts, maintaining optimal
neuromuscular recruitment patterns and internal arthrokinematics is more
important than external kinematics.

With this in mind, I typically recommend that competitive powerlifters use the
widest grip they can handle that will allow for perpendicular joint segment
positions to occur in conjunction with optimal shoulder mechanics and
neuromuscular recruitment patterns. This grip placement is typically several
inches in each direction beyond shoulder width, as that is typically the most
conducive to proper lat activation, scapula positioning, and elbow tuck.
However, many professional powerlifters can achieve great success with more
extreme grips, as long as appropriate mechanics are applied.

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In fact, many of the top bench press powerlifters in the world, including Scott
Mendelson, Ryan Kennelly, Dave Hoff, and Hugene Rychlack, use such a wide
grip in competition, in conjunction with significant lat activation and degree of
elbow tuck that’s similar to a close grip bench press, that their arm angles deviate
significantly from perpendicular. In order to incorporate perpendicular angles with
such wide hand placement, they would have to forfeit lat activation and allow
significant elbow flare. Not only would this compromise their pressing power and
intramuscular tension, it would most likely result in an immediate pectoral tear.

The point is, whether you decide to

use a moderate grip or more
extreme grip, hand placement
should not cause deviations in
technique or neuromuscular
recruitment. It’s also important to
point out that although many
advanced lifters will strategically
alter their body mechanics in
conjunction with grip adjustments
as a means of targeting different
areas of a muscle group, this
training philosophy can lead to
dysfunctional movement patterns,
inflammation, and injury. Instead of altering joint mechanics to isolate a specific
area, simply incorporate pre-exhaustion and pre-activation techniques, in
addition to targeting the muscles
from different angles, all while
maintaining proper technique
throughout the movements. This
same principles is true of stance
width on lower body movements
including squats and hinges. As long
as proper 90-degree joint angles are
employed using optimal body
mechanics, a variety of stance
widths, including extra wide stances
and unusually narrow stances, are
acceptable provided the extreme
width does not cause alterations in

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optimal body mechanics. Similarly, the lunge can involve a large stride, short
stride, or anything in between, as long as optimal osteokinematics and joint
positioning is used while simultaneously adhering to the foundational elements
of that movement pattern (i.e. hip hinge position, semi-inline stride, neutral
spine, hips back, driving through front, heel, slight forward lean etc.)

Other Movement
Patterns And Exercises
Although the “Big 7”
represent the most
important movement
patterns for mastering body
mechanics, there are other
exercises and movements
that can be incorporated
into one’s training routine
based on goals and specific
weaknesses that need to be
addressed. For instance, if
an individual has weak feet
and ankles, adding an 8th
category of foot and ankle stabilization in the form of various single leg stands
would be helpful. However, it should be noted that simply performing correctly
executed lower body eccentric isometrics such as squats, hinges, and lunges, as
well as single leg versions of these (e.g. single leg squats and single leg RDLs) will
do wonders for foot and
ankle mechanics. However,
adding in extra foot and
ankle work can expedite
this process significantly.
Similarly, if the individual
has a weak core, adding an
additional category of core
stability in the form of
planks, Pallof presses and
anti-extension movements

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could be helpful. However, just as in the foot and ankle category, properly
performed eccentric isometrics require incredible core activation and
stabilization, therefore, incorporating excessive core work is often unnecessary,
although by no means detrimental, provided the core exercises are done with
proper form.

If an individual desires still greater core activation, each movement pattern can
be performed unilaterally such as a single arm dumbbell press, single arm lat
pulldown, or single leg RDLs, all of which greatly challenge the core musculature
and rotational muscles, particularly when performed as an eccentric isometric.
Furthermore, exercise selections can be made for each movement pattern that
further target the core, such as eccentric isometric chest presses performed while
holding a hollow body leg raise, ring pushups, or single arm rows performed
while holding a plank position (i.e. renegade row).

Isolation exercises for both the lower and upper body, many of which can and
should be performed in an eccentric isometric fashion, can also be incorporated.
This includes pullover variations, leg curls, leg extensions, bicep exercises, tricep
movements, chest flyes, calve raises, and various shoulder isolation drills such as
lateral raises and front raises. Most of these isolation movements, however, will
not add significantly to function or mastering body mechanics, but can be used
for aesthetic purposes (i.e. bodybuilding goals).

The key for each of these movements is adhering to the same fundamental
eccentric isometric principles applied to the other “Big 7” movements, including
the use of a natural, not excessive range of motion, neutral spine, and feeling for
the ideal position based on one’s body’s proprioceptive feedback.

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Chapter 7

Eccentric Isometrics

Training
Protocols
Programming &
Periodization

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CHAPTER 7
- Training Protocols -
Programming &
Periodization
xercise programming, while an important component of training,

E
should always be secondary to technique and movement mechanics.
However, it’s important to have a general game plan laid out ahead
of time realizing there will be continuous adjustments and
modifications made along the way. When it comes to exercise
programming with eccentric isometrics, the key is designing a routine
that allows the individual to maximize the effectiveness of the eccentric isometric
principles in order to take full advantage of the benefits. With that said, the
single most important component to remember when programming a routine is
to frequently and consistently incorporate the “Big 7” movement patterns into
one’s training, and apply the eccentric isometric protocol to each movement
pattern.

In reality, determining the exact order, volume, sets, reps, rest, and precise
variations is significantly less important than actually executing the “Big 7”
movement patterns repeatedly, with perfect eccentric isometrics technique.
Again, the key during your training is to include the squat, hinge, lunge,
horizontal push and pull, and vertical push and pull with perfect execution.
Whether one starts off with a squat, push, or pull exercise, or creates a random
circuit of the “Big 7” is irrelevant, provided each of these 7 is consistently and
masterfully executed. Generally speaking, by applying these principles the lifter
will achieve 80-90% of the results they would obtain from the most precisely and
meticulously crafted workout routine. However, most individuals, including
myself, aim to get 100% out of their training to maximize their progress and
results. The following sections outline the main components to consider when
designing a routine.

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Pr a c tic e M a k es Per fec t

The key to mastering movement and optimizing the effects of eccentric

isometrics is practicing the “Big 7” frequently. Performing a movement such as a
squat once or twice per week is not sufficient repetition to ingrain the optimal
movement patterns. Ideally, each movement pattern should be practiced at a
minimum three times per week, and as frequently as every day, or even multiple
times per day (without using excessive loads too frequently).

Fo c u s O n Fu ll B o d y

With frequency being key to mastering movement and eccentric isometric

protocols, programming full body routines becomes a necessity. Although
specific muscles or movement patterns can be emphasized on certain days,
ideally, performing each of the “Big 7” as frequently as possible is key. That
means incorporating the “Big 7” in each workout, or at minimum every other
workout. If the individual wants to focus on specific muscles, for example lower
body, on a specific day, they can perform heavier, more intense sets of squats,
hinges, and lunges yet still incorporate lighter sets of the upper body drills (i.e.
upper body presses and pulls).

W h en a n d H o w to In c o r po r a te H ea v y
Lo a d s

The key is to practice the basic foundational movement patterns as frequently as

possible with perfect form. However, going heavy on each of the movement
patterns every day, or too frequently, is not necessary. In fact, performing a good
portion of the movements with lighter or moderate loads can be beneficial in
terms of improving mechanics and form. I do recommend performing heavy, or
semi-heavy sets of each of the “Big 7” ,with perfect form, at least once per week.
The reason for this is heavier loads, combined with precisely executed eccentric
isometrics, produce the strongest neural connections and motor programs. As a
result, the neural blueprints (aka muscle memory) will be more strongly ingrained
in the central nervous system. In contrast, performing movement incorrectly
with heavier loads is one of the most powerful stimuli for instilling flawed motor
programs in the CNS. Simply put, when heavier loads are incorporated, which
they should be at least periodically, it is even more vital these be handled with
perfect mechanics. One rule of thumb I use with my clients and athletes when

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going heavy and intense, is to choose the heaviest load or maximal intensity that
allows the movement to be performed with textbook mechanics and still be
therapeutic. If form beings to breakdown it is a sure indicator that the load or
intensity is too heavy.

Lastly, when first diving into eccentric isometrics I recommend the lifter
gradually build up to heavier loads by incorporating a 4-12 week adaptation
period. During this time the individual should practice the movements with the
frequency described above, however, they should refrain from heavy weights
during and focus solely on mastering the movements with light to moderate
loads. That means using bodyweight or empty bar movements, as well as
gradually progressing up to loads that are approximately 60% of the 1RM. Once
the individual feels they have built a proper foundation and adequately learned
the basic tenets of each movement, heavier loads (greater than 65% of 1RM) can
be periodically incorporated while still returning to lighter loads on a frequent
basis to hone in on and reinforce perfect form. Determining whether this
process takes 4-12 weeks, or somewhere in between, simply depends on how
committed the individual is to mastering their mechanics, and how quickly they
catch on to the technique.

Pr a c tic e Per fec t Po s tu r e D a ily

As mentioned in prior chapters, proper posture and spinal alignment are key to
mastering movement and performing eccentric isometrics correctly. Without
proper posture it’s literally impossible to perform any movement pattern
correctly. Practicing perfect posture multiple times per day, for 1-3 minutes at a
time, can do wonders to improve eccentric isometric performance and,
ultimately, achieve movement mastery, as this will ensure the individual’s body is
pre-set and in the correct alignment even before they begin their workout for the
day. This is something I have nearly all my clients practice on a consistent basis.

To practice perfect posture simply stand tall with military posture, feet straight,
stomach pulled in, hips in line with the spine, chest out, arms relaxed, shoulders
pulled down and slightly back, upper arms in line with the torso (neither in front
or back), and head tall and elongated. In addition, focus on activating the feet
and ankles by pushing towards the outsides of the feet while gripping into the
floor aggressively with the big toes. Also focus on spreading all of the toes,
especially the big toes, rather than allowing them to crowd together. Performing
this perfect posture drill is also very effective when combined with single leg

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holds as it addresses stability, balance, and alignment to an even greater extent,

and improves foot and ankle strength.

S im u la te M o v em en t Pa tter n s M u ltiple
Tim es Per D a y

It should be clear by now how important frequency of practice is when it comes

to mastering body mechanics. That being said, for many individuals, going to the
gym every day of the week may not be practical. However, individuals can still
master their body mechanics by working out 1-2 times per week. This would
require practicing the “Big 7” repeatedly throughout the day. Simply, practicing
the “Big 7” periodically throughout the day, with no loading, allows the
individual to retrace the same neural pathways used when performing the
movement with heavier loads and intensities. In essence, to master something
requires practicing as frequently as possible. Taking 2-5 minutes a few times per
day and simply going through the motions with bodyweight variations, or even
simulating the movements with no weight, or with an empty dowel, can have a
tremendous impact on movement mastery. The same is true for individuals who
are able to work out in the gym every day of the week.

For instance, an individual at work or in their office who has been sitting for a
period of several hours, should stand up periodically and perform a few
bodyweight squats, lunges, and hinges. They can also stand and simulate
overhead presses, pullups/pulldowns, rows, and chest presses with their arms.
Even if they take only a few minutes to perform 3-4 repetitions of each exercise,
the benefits will be immense, provided they focus on feeling for the proper
position and fine-tuning their mechanics. It should also be noted that, in this
case, practicing the “Big 7” requires performing only 5 of the movements, as
going through the bench press motions while standing simulates both the
horizontal push and pull. The same is true of an overhead press with an empty
dowel or no-load simulation, in which the individual will be simulating both the
vertical push and the vertical pull at the same time.

A v o id Ex c es s iv e Fa tig u e

During the actual workouts, it’s important to incorporate the “Big 7” as

consistently as possible, while also avoiding excessive fatigue. That’s because, as
mentioned earlier in this text, fatigue is the enemy of motor programming,

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causing desensitization of muscle spindles and proprioceptive feedback. If a lifter

feels their form begin to break down during a workout simply because of fatigue,
they should either incorporate longer rest periods, lighter loads, decreased
intensities, or less overall volume. Trying to work through extreme fatigue and
exhaustion is setting the lifter up for failure, as form is more likely to break
down, and cause faulty movement patterns to be instilled in the CNS.

R ep R a n g es

Although any rep range can be used to master movement and perform eccentric
isometrics, quality time under tension is infinitely more important than any rep
range. Simply put, an individual is better off performing one or two precisely
executed eccentric isometric reps of a movement than multiple sets of 10-12 reps
with mediocre mechanics. It’s also important to understand that each repetition
of an eccentric isometric lasts 2-4 times the duration of a traditional repetition
due to the extended time under tension. In addition, and as previously stated,
avoiding fatigue is key to mastering body mechanics and form. In general, I
recommend using slightly lower rep ranges of 3-6 reps on eccentric isometrics.
This provides enough time under tension and repetition to instill proper
neuromuscular recruitment and activation while avoiding excessive fatigue.

S ets

There is no such thing as a magic number of sets or reps. The thought that 5x5
or 10x3 or 4x6 somehow holds the key to optimizing performance is incorrect,
as our internal physiology makes very little distinction between many of these
protocols. The key is finding what protocol allows each lifter to best dial in their
mechanics and movement patterns. Some individuals may find they need slightly
fewer reps but more sets, while others may favor fewer sets and slightly more
reps. Although the different rep ranges, i.e. low vs. high reps, can emphasize
slightly different types of performance attributes, generally speaking, the number
of total sets is less critical. That being said, I’ve found that 2-5 sets of each
movement pattern is ideal. Most often I incorporate 3 sets in my own training
and that of my clients and athletes.

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R es t

As repeatedly stated, minimizing fatigue is critical for maximizing movement

mechanics and technique. However, taking an inordinately long time to rest
between sets is less than ideal, as the individual will get very little accomplished
during their workout. In truth, local recovery, that is, recovery of the targeted
muscles, is more important than systemic recovery during workouts. In other
words, even if the individual is somewhat winded, and their heart rate is still
somewhat elevated (to a degree), on balance, it’s more important that the
targeted musculature to be used during the set be recovered and not overly
fatigued, as local fatigue will blunt the proprioceptive feedback response. The
lifter should, therefore, focus more on local recovery of the actual muscles and
less on systemic recovery (i.e. heart rate and general fatigue), although both are
important.

C ir c u its

To maximize the efficiency of training, that is, performing as much work as

possible within a certain time period, while still optimizing recovery, I
recommend using various forms of movement pattern circuits when training.
For instance, rather than just performing one exercise, resting several minutes,
then repeating the same exercise, group together several non-overlapping
exercises such as squats, push, and pull movements into one circuit. Perform
each movement with 30-90 seconds of rest in between each exercise, then repeat
this circuit. This will allow ample recovery between sets of the same movement
(allowing local recovery and minimizing local fatigue), while still allowing the
individual to keep the heart rate somewhat elevated and maximize training
density, that is, perform a relatively high volume of work in a short period of
time. A circuit can combine anywhere from 2-7 exercises provided overlap
between muscles and local fatigue is kept to a relative minimum.

Pa ir U p A n ta g o n is tic M o v em en ts A n d
N o n -O v er la ppin g Ex er c is es

Minimizing significant overlap between muscles is critical. For instance, it would

not be ideal to perform a horizontal push and vertical push in the same circuit,
or back to back, as this would over-fatigue upper body pressing muscles. Pairing

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antagonist movements together, however, can be highly beneficial for mastering

movement.

Pairing opposing movements together during a workout circuit, such as a pullup

and overhead press (i.e. vertical pull and push), or row and chest press (i.e.
horizontal pull and push), is a great way to optimize body mechanics, as there is
strong carryover from one movement to the other. Technically speaking, the
more similar the opposing movements are to each other in terms of joint angles
and body positioning, the greater this response.

Besides optimizing technique, this allows the athlete to handle heavier weights
on each movement. That’s because the very similar, yet opposing mechanics,
allow the lifter to directly work antagonist muscle groups each set. This produces
optimal co-contraction of reciprocal muscles on the eccentric phase. For
instance, performing a pullup before an overhead press helps activate the lats.
When the individual performs the overhead press, particularly during the
eccentric phase of the movement, they will produce greater lat activation and co-
contraction as a result of the previous pullups set, thereby maximizing technique,
motor control, and reciprocal inhibition on the concentric phase. In other words,
they’ll have more power, torque, and force production on the subsequent
exercise. Simply put, performing upper body pulls prior to upper body presses
helps the upper body press and vice versa.

It should be noted that this agonist and antagonist pairing works better for upper
body than lower body, as there’s typically too much overlap between movements
like the squat and lunge to perform in the same circuit. When programming
specific circuits I generally recommend pairing two upper body antagonist
movements, such as a row and chest press or pullup/pulldown and press, with
another lower body movement such as a squat, lunge, or hinge.

However, steps should also be taken to minimize low back fatigue. For instance,
pairing overhead presses and pullups with squats may not be ideal for some
individuals as both the squat and overhead press can produce low back fatigue.
Adding something as simple as a brief core movement, such as a plank variation,
would help counteract this issue. Performing squats, pullups, overhead press, and
planks for several sets in that order would be one of an infinite number of ways
to program an appropriate circuit. Lastly, I’ve found that placing lunges and
hinges in the same circuit can work without excessive local fatigue and overlap,
provided low back fatigue is not too significant for that individual.

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C o n tex tu a l In ter fer en c e

Programming circuits not only provides the aforementioned physiological

benefits, it also helps take advantage of a neuromuscular phenomenon known as
contextual interference. In the field of motor learning and neurophysiology,
contextual interference is described as interference generated by the context in
which the skills, movements, or activities are being learned, which can disrupt
performance during practice, but also tends to increase the overall learning effect
[1]. For instance, performing multiple sets of squats (e.g. 5x5) one after another,
with no other movement programmed in between these sets, may make it easier
and less complicated for the individual as they can simply get into a neural
groove and essentially go on auto-pilot. Unfortunately, as soon as the individual
gets into this type of neural groove there’s less cognition and mental engagement
required to perform the movement.

Studies show that very little learning and skill acquisition takes place under these
conditions. When it comes to learning and mastering movement, incorporating
the highest levels of mental concentration, focus, and cognition are critical, as
this helps to instill the strongest neural blue prints in the CNS. Without this high
degree of mental focus and attention, very little is accomplished in terms of long-
term acquisition of skill or movement mastery. In other words, autopilot is not
ideal when it comes to programming movements for the sake of movement
mastery, as mental cognition is minimal under these circumstances.

Performing a set of squats followed by a set of upper body pulls, then upper
body press, or any other movement pattern, creates a high degree of contextual
interference by including several exercises the lifter must attend to and
repeatedly reconstruct during their routine. Each time the individual returns to
any one movement, after time spent performing other activities, they are forced
to re-trace their steps more precisely and distinguish between the various
movements. In other words, after a single round of this circuit, which may take
4-6 minutes, and with no chance of getting into a groove, returning to the squat
requires the individual to retrieve and recall the various neuromuscular steps
needed to properly perform the squat. This level of mental concentration and
cognition produces the highest levels of skill and movement acquisition.

In addition, programming movements in the same circuit that are similar but
have distinct differences (e.g. eccentric isometric squats paired with hang cleans),
forces the individual to differentiate and distinguish between the various
movements to avoid neuromuscular confusion. This requires even further

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cognition and mental focus, which creates and etches the strongest neural
blueprints and motor program in the CNS, and helps master movement even
further. As a result, the individual will be able to recall, at the conscious and
subconscious level, any similar movements, under any circumstances, at any
time.

For instance, once the squat pattern has been mastered at the highest level, the
general squat pattern will have become permanently ingrained in the CNS,
positively impacting all other similar movements and allowing the individual to
perform these movements, e.g. jump, land, squat, cut, or sprint, anywhere,
anytime, with proper technique. In essence, this describes movement mastery,
that is, the point at which the basic movement patterns have been so perfectly
and permanently etched in the individual’s CNS that every related movement
they do, during any physical activity, will be biomechanically and
neurophysiologically sound and correct, once a basic level of adaptation and
learning has taken place for that activity and skill.

With this in mind anyone who wants to master their movement must be
prepared to exert their mind just as much as their body, as proper movement
requires inordinately high levels of both physical and mental effort.

Lastly, individuals can take the contextual interference effect a step further by
combining all 7 or more movements into one large circuit then repeating that
circuit for several rounds for that workout.

Fr eq u en c y O f W o r k o u ts

At the risk of sounding repetitive, when it comes to mastering any skill or

movement, practice makes perfect, therefore, frequency is key. Likewise, when it
comes to eccentric isometrics, performing the basic movement patterns as
frequently as possible is ideal. Once the individual has fully mastered their
technique, they can perform intense full body workouts daily. Keep in mind,
both local and systemic recovery are greatly enhanced from eccentric isometric
training, therefore, allowing enough recovery for growth and strength gains to
accrue between workouts is rarely an issue. However, rotating between various
intensities (e.g. heavy lower and light upper on day 1, heavy upper and light
lower on day 2, then repeat), can be ideal as a means of staying fresh.

In addition to producing greater improvements in neuromuscular efficiency and

movement related skills, studies now suggest that higher frequency training may

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produce just as much, if not more, muscle growth and strength gains, when
compared to traditional training regimens, such as traditional bodybuilding
workouts, that consist of high volume training with more rest days between sets
[2, 3]. Simply put, high frequency full body workouts are not only the key to
mastering movement mechanics and the acquisition of skills, they also appear to
have more of a positive impact in terms of strength gains, body composition,
and muscle growth, as well as metabolic adaptations, and caloric expenditure.

A recent study by Crewther et al. reiterates these points and suggests that full-
body routines may be superior to traditional body splits [4]. The authors found
that full body training produced greater gains in muscle mass, as well as
significantly greater levels of fat loss in comparison to split style workouts, and
had a positive impact on endocrine function as evidenced by an improved
testosterone to cortisol ratio. In addition to positively impacting physique,
performance, and body composition, these results also suggest that full body
training may have a greater positive impact on overall health and well-being
compared to other workout protocols.

Th e U ltim a te Pr o g r a m Fo r M a s ter in g
M o v em en t

What truly separates intermediate trainees from advanced lifters? Is it strength,

size, body composition, massive PR’s, or the number of years they’ve been
training? Actually it’s none of the above. The true mark of distinction, and an
indication that a lifter has become advanced, is how well they’ve mastered their
body mechanics, technique, and movement patterns. Becoming the master and
coach of their own body, needing little if any feedback from outside sources, is
the sign of a true iron game specialist. Unfortunately, this is becoming more and
more of a rarity

While there are numerous eccentric isometric methods that can be used to
accomplish this, one protocol I’ve found particularly useful for expediting the
process is performing heavy full body eccentric isometrics every single day, for
an extended period of time (i.e. several weeks or longer or indefinitely). In fact,
I’ve used this protocol myself as well as with many of my advanced athletes and
it’s something I recommend every individual periodically employ when applying
eccentric isometrics. That’s because it’s one of the most eye-opening and
informative experiences a lifter can go through when it comes to mastering their
body mechanics, as it literally exposes any and all forms of dysfunction. But it’s

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far from a pleasant process and, in many ways, can be one of the most physically
and mentally brutal experiences they’ll ever go through. However, the rewards
are well worth it. In fact, this will tell the lifter more about their body, mechanics,
and mental toughness than any other training approach, as every single workout
will provide feedback on the quality of their movement. Here’s what I mean.

A majority of lifters, including those that consider themselves advanced in the art
of training, have numerous forms of dysfunction, movement aberrations, and
flawed mechanics. Unfortunately, most of these individuals are either unaware of
their movement aberrations or are simply too lazy and undisciplined to do
anything about it, failing to see the long-term negative ramifications. In addition
to minimizing the total load they can handle due to neuromuscular inefficiency,
these dysfunctional patterns gradually give rise to injuries and inflammation that
can lead to indefinite stagnation and training plateaus, not to mention the host of
negative issues associated with the “muscle malady cascade effect”.

When a lifter begins to perform all of the basic human movement patterns
(squat, hinge, lunge, horizontal push, horizontal pull, vertical push, and vertical
pull) with an eccentric isometric protocol, in a fairly heavy fashion (at least 60%
of their 1RM), and on a daily basis, several key things occur. First, after about 2-
7 days the individual will most likely experience significant pain in their joints,
connective tissue, and muscles. These are surefire signs of varying degrees of
mechanics and activation pattern dysfunction, as performing the basic
movement patterns with eccentric isometrics, even when fairly heavy, should be
therapeutic on the body not damaging and contratherapeutic. Simply put, most,
if not all pain, and particularly musculoskeletal pain, is directly related to body
mechanics. In fact, I’ve yet to run into a single instance where this wasn’t the
case, although I’m sure rare exceptions do exist.

To continue training these same movements on a daily basis, particularly with

relatively heavy loads, the lifter will be forced to quickly clean up their technique
or else the pain, inflammation, and physical discomfort will persist and increase
exponentially at a rapid rate. For example, if an individual squats with valgus
knee collapse they may be able to get away with it for a period of time. However,
performing the squat on a daily basis with heavy loads while exhibiting those
same movement aberrations, will cause significant inflammation to the knees,
hips, low back, and ankles, as the high frequency of training will expose these
dysfunctional patterns in the form of joint and structural pain.

This is also where mental fortitude comes in. Rather than throw in the towel and

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abandon ship, the lifter has to commit to staying the course, realizing that the
pain and inflammation they’re experiencing will actually diminish, if not all
together cease, once they begin to dial in their body
mechanics, at the most precise level, by using eccentric isometrics. In fact, rather
than rest the inflamed or injured sites, as most lifters would, and lay off from
heavy loading, the existing pain is actually the very key to helping them master
their body mechanics. Instead of discontinuing the routine and eliminating the
exercises that caused the pain, the lifter needs to realize that this is a golden
opportunity to master their mechanics on those very movements.

In essence, pain and inflammation that results from improper movement are
always a blessing in disguise, as they give us more feedback than any coach or
trainer can give regarding the quality of our movement. In fact, if one is moving
improperly, the best thing that can occur is for the body to send pain signals,
notifying us that our mechanics are amiss. Don’t try and remove or mask these
symptoms by stretching, foam rolling, icing, massaging, adding frequent
chiropractic adjustments, prolonged warm-ups, dry needling, or the latest and
greatest soft tissue modality, as that’s simply putting a band aid on a larger,
continuous, never-ending and self-inflicting wound. Instead, the lifter should
accept the fact that their movement mechanics are flawed, attend to the sensory
feedback, and continue to fine-tune and modify the movement until there is no
pain. This is movement mastery in a nutshell, and it’s what the eccentric
isometric training principle is predicated on. To accomplish this feat, the lifter
will be required to rely on every and all means necessary, including advanced
variations of eccentric isometrics that involve even more rigorous protocols,
including eyes closed versions and unstable training protocols such as bottoms
up and hanging band technique variations.

By going through this process the individual will not only jump-start new-found
levels of strength and size, and build incredible mental fortitude, but most
importantly, they will master the art of movement, as the elimination of pain can
only be accomplished when movement mastery has been achieved. Many lifters
will decide to keep training this way indefinitely due to the continuous feedback
and never-ending improvements in movement efficiency, strength, and size. This
is the exact method I’ve personally used for over 7 years and use for my
advanced athletes. It’s also the very method I used to help me perfect the
eccentric isometric training protocols laid out in this book. However, my
experience was rather painful, arduous, and drawn-out, as I had no frame of
reference when it came to optimal mechanics. Instead, I was forced to use trial
and error and pore over the various research studies to figure out what

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constitutes optimal mechanics. By laying out the ideal methods and highlighting
the potential pitfalls to avoid in order to master the art of movement I hope to
save the reader from going through the same experiences I had.

In ten s ity

When it comes to intensity a number of protocols will work. As previously

stated, the more one’s mechanics are dialed in, the more frequently and intensely
one can perform the various movements. However, when it comes terminating
sets, the lifter should rarely if ever perform the “Big 7” movement patterns to
failure (the point at which no further repetitions are possible), as this level of
fatigue and exhaustion will likely cause technique and body mechanics to break
down. The highest relative intensity I recommend is terminating a set of the “Big
7” 1-2 reps short of failure. Another way to think of it is this, once perfect
mechanics and textbook form are no longer possible, and the movement no
longer feels therapeutic, that’s when the set should end, although it could, and
often times should, be terminated sooner.

Training with extreme intensity by taking sets to failure places greater demands
on both local and systemic recovery, making it difficult to continue to perform
the “Big 7” and practice them often. If the body is overly fatigued due to
extreme intensity it will be difficult to train the basic movement patterns
frequently and with proper form. It should be noted that periodically
incorporating sets to failure on isolation movements such as curls, tricep
extensions, chest flyes, leg press, leg extensions, and shoulder raises, to name a
few, is acceptable for the purpose of creating additional growth.

However, the amount of additional hypertrophy this will produce in relation to

performing the “Big 7” on a frequent basis and mastering these movements is
almost insignificant. In reality, performing the “Big 7” in a fairly heavy fashion,
on a frequent basis, will be more productive in terms of functional strength and
size than any combination of exercise protocols or movements combined.
Incorporating additional isolation movements, while not detrimental or harmful
(as long as proper form and volume is used), may only provide a very small
benefit and for some individuals an insignificant degree of additional strength
and size.

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B a c k -O ff S ets

Periodically a lifter may want to push the envelope in terms of weight and
intensity or simply shoot for new PR’s (Personal Records). While this is
something I don’t frequently advocate, occasionally doing so can help a lifter
push through plateaus and blast through training stagnation. However, such
attempts should only be performed once technique and form are perfect. If an
individual does decide to periodically employ this method I suggest using back-
off sets immediately following.

For example, if a lifter performs a very heavy set of squats (e.g. a new 5 rep PR),
then they should drop the weight by at least 25-50% for 1-2 additional sets,
focusing exclusively on form and mechanics. This will allow the lifter to re-dial
in their form and eliminate any type of movement aberration that may have
creeped as a result of performing such heavy loads at such high intensities.
Simply put, this method gives the lifter the opportunity to push heavy iron while
also locking in their form immediately after as a means of ensuring the nervous
system remembers only the perfect mechanics. Even if the heavy sets were not
inordinately heavy, back-off sets can be a very effective habit to get into on a
consistent basis to avoid etching faulty mechanics into the CNS.

Pr o g r a m m in g Is o la tio n M o v em en ts

As previously stated, performing isolation exercises is completely acceptable

when it comes to eccentric isometric training. However, isolation exercises will
do little in terms of movement mastery and are predominately incorporated for
hypertrophy purposes. It should be noted that occasionally using isolation
exercises to help activate targeted muscles that are semi-dormant is also an
effective training technique. For instance, this can be helpful when training the
glutes and posterior chain, as many individuals will find that employing glute
bridges, hip thrusters, and leg curls are beneficial not only for building more
strength and size in the posterior chain, but also for waking up dormant muscles
in the backside of their body. However, once the basic lower body movement
patterns (squat, hinge, and lunge) are mastered with perfect mechanics and
optimal recruitment patterns (which may take months and years for some
individuals), lower body isolation movements, including glute bridges, provide
little if any additional benefits. That’s because learning to squat, hinge, and lunge
correctly will provide all of the necessary stimulation and activation to the lower
body including that of the glutes and hamstrings.

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It should also be noted that if an individual does decide to employ isolation

movements and tax a particular muscle group then additional rest and recovery
should be employed for that muscle before going heavy or intense on their next
workout. For example, if an individual decides to perform a full body workout
but emphasize the chest muscles for an additional 5-10 minutes at the end of the
workout by performing chest flyes and or additional chest presses, it would be
ideal to wait at least 48 hours before performing heavy or intense horizontal
pushing movements to allow the chest, shoulders, and triceps to fully recover.
However, the lifter can, and still should, perform horizontal presses on all
subsequent days, including the very next day, but intensity should be kept to a
minimum, using lighter loads and simply focusing on honing in the mechanics of
the horizontal pressing movement pattern.

M u s c le Ta r g etin g a n d Ex erc is e
Pr o g r a m m in g

Many lifters will attempt to target specific muscles by adjusting their natural
mechanics on a specific movement pattern. For instance, a common trend seen
with dips is to alter the joint angles and mechanics to target the triceps. This is
often accomplished by creating an overly and unnatural upright body position by
consciously eliminating optimal forward lean. Unfortunately, altering natural
body mechanics is a great way to promote dysfunctional movement patterns and
destroy the joints. This is something I refer to as "erroneous muscle targeting"
seeing as the lifter has to abandon proper activation patterns in the hopes of
isolating specific muscles.

A properly performed horizontal pressing movement should involve upper body

centration with equal stress spread across the joints and involved musculature,
rather than isolating a specific area. In addition to saving the joints, this places
the lifter into the strongest position to handle the most weight for the most reps,
ultimately maximizing muscle growth.

If the goal is to target a specific muscle group, there's a more efficient method
available. Instead of butchering the body's natural mechanics and reinforcing
faulty movement, try using pre-exhaustion or pre-activation, while maintaining
ideal mechanics and technique for that movement.

For example, if the goal is to hit the triceps more effectively on dips or any chest
press, and minimize stimulation to the chest and shoulders, perform an isolation

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movement such as triceps press-downs or extensions immediately prior to

hitting a set of dips. This will cause the triceps to fatigue and fail before the chest
and shoulders give out.

More importantly, this will emphasize a particular muscle group while keeping
the movement pattern intact rather than wrecking the body’s natural mechanics
with a mutated variation of the exercise. The same is true of all other movement
patterns.

Other common mistakes are allowing the elbows to flare out on chest presses
with the hope of targeting the chest, or allowing the knees to shift excessively
anteriorly during squats to target the quads. Again, each of these adjustments
represents faulty mechanics, and actually does not place greater stress on the
targeted muscles. Focus on using proper form and pre-exhausting with isolation
movements. For the chest press, performing a set of flyes before the press
would be one way to accomplish this, as it would place more tension on the
chest without having to change the mechanics of the actual chest press. Similarly,
performing leg extensions prior to squats would place more tension on the
quadriceps muscles, without having to negatively alter or degrade natural
squatting mechanics.

Simply put when it comes to isolating muscles, adjusting optimal body

positioning and abandoning natural body mechanics in the hopes of isolating a
specific muscle group is never advisable, and only leads to further movement
aberrations, ultimately impairing performance and compromising growth.

When using eccentric isometrics, focus on finding the optimal and most natural
position for each movement rather than attempting to overly isolate one
particular muscle group. Doing the latter inevitably leads to flawed movement
patterns and muscle dysfunction.

N o te O n Per io d iz a tio n

There are numerous periodization models employed by coaches, trainers,

athletes, and weekend warriors. Unfortunately, many of these are unnecessary,
as proper training technique and movement mechanics require very little, if any,
periodization due to the therapeutic nature of each movement. However, there
are subtle and general aspects of periodization I do incorporate.When it comes
to periodization I believe in an auto-regulatory, undulating periodization model.
Simply put, I focus on pushing my athletes and clients with ample intensity while

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at the same time trying to keep them relatively fresh and recovered throughout
the week. We do this by incorporating the eccentric isometric protocols into
various types of workouts including heavy strength (1-3 reps), hypertrophy-style
(3-5 reps), speed and power (2-4 reps), muscular endurance (5-8 reps),
stabilization, motor control, body part emphasis, etc. However, rather than
completely relying on a set schedule to determine what the specific workout will
be, we adjust the workout and customize it based on specific physical and
psychological factors the individual may be experiencing on any given day.

For instance, if I have an intense and heavy workout planned for a client but
their body feels slightly more fatigued and sore than normal, then we’ll modify
that workout and focus on other biomotor qualities such as stability, mobility,
motor control, etc. and wait until they feel more recovered to push the iron with
heavier loads and intensities. During such a workout we may incorporate
eccentric isometrics into bottoms-up movements, hanging band exercises, single
leg movements, unilateral variations, partner perturbation training, eyes closed
variations, and other forms of unstable eccentric isometrics.

In addition, if I happen to notice, or a client points out, a specific weakness or

physical symptom that needs immediate attention (i.e. small compensation
patterns that have recently become more obvious) then we may alter the
workout and focus on eliminating these issues. Similarly, if I have a recovery
workout planned for an athlete, but notice that he or she is feeling unusually
strong and recovered during that workout, we may push the weights and take
advantage of their heightened physiological state.

To reiterate, we use an auto regulatory, undulating periodization model by

employing a variety of stimuli, protocols, intensities, and programming strategies.
Although I prepare a general plan of attack for each session, I rely more on the
day-to-day physiological conditions of each athlete to dictate individual aspects
of that specific workout. This truly describes the art of coaching, that is, learning
to continuously customize the workouts according to each client’s needs,
physical conditions, and goals, rather than sticking to a pre-determined plan.

Trying to predict human physiological responses and precisely plan every

training scenario ahead of time for a several month block is futile, as there are
too many physiological and psychological factors to account for. Strength
coaches that spend inordinate amounts of time designing training programs,
expecting that their athletes will respond in a precise fashion, on a particular day
of the week, in a particular month, will never maximize the results or

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performance capabilities of their athletes. Unfortunately, many of these coaches

and trainers who think they can precisely predict and pinpoint the physiological
responses of their athletes are living in a fantasy world, with little grasp of how
human physiology and psychology works. When designing a program, the
trainers, coach, and or trainee, should create a general game plan and realize that
it will require small, moderate, and sometimes significant, deviations and
adjustments on a semi-continuous basis dependent on the athletes’ physiological
and psychological state for that day, none of which can ever be exactly predicted.

It’s essential to highlight the importance of technique and movement execution

in regards to programming and periodization. In reality, the better one’s
movement mechanics, muscle function, technique, and exercise execution are,
the less important the specific details of programming and periodization become,
as each repetition of every movement produces a therapeutic effect rather than a
contratherapeutic one. In contrast, the worse an individuals’ training technique,
movement mechanics, exercise form, and motor control are, the more important
programming and periodization become, as detailed strategies must be
meticulously implemented to deal with the negative ramifications produced by
each movement aberration and dysfunction.

Th e R ela tio n s h ip B etw een Tec h n iq u e

a n d Pr o g r a m m in g

In summary, the more efficient the motor programs and overall lifting technique
are, the less important exercise programming becomes. I’m not saying
programming isn’t important as it definitely has its place. However, in
comparison to using the correct movement patterns and ingraining the
appropriate neural blueprints, exercise programming and periodization places a
distant second. The more an individual masters their movement with eccentric
isometrics the more they will come to realize this, as their bodies are almost
always functioning at optimal levels, rather than in a cyclical or up-and-down
fashion.

One can take the world’s worst lifting routine and actually achieve incredible
results as long as the proper technique and form are followed on the basic
exercises. However, one could also take the world’s greatest training program
and, if technique is not proper, the results will be marginal at best.

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Many of today’s strength coaches, trainers, and self-proclaimed “performance

experts” place too great a focus on programming, periodization, tapering, and
deloading, having turned strength training into a numbers game that would
confuse even the most sophisticated mathematician. Instead, they would be
better off focusing their attention on how to move correctly by ingraining the
proper neural blueprints in their’ athletes’ nervous systems.

Before I studied eccentric isometrics I was obsessed with exercise programming,

believing it held the key to maximizing performance, physical appearance, and
fitness. However, the more I applied eccentric isometrics on myself and my
clients, and the more I studied the physiological responses of this training
method, the more I realized how relatively unimportant programming and
periodization truly were in comparison to optimizing movement patterns. Every
client and/or athlete I’ve worked with who masters their body mechanics
eventually comes to the same conclusion. That’s because their bodies are capable
of handling whatever stimulus is thrown at them at any time, as each movements
produces a multitude of beneficial physiological and psychological benefits. In
other words, periodizing therapeutic stimuli is unnecessary.

Ex er c is e V a r iety

Although it’s unnecessary to incorporate an inordinate amount of variations for

each movement pattern into one’s training routine, an individual should ideally
include at least several variations for a particular movement pattern. For
instance, they might incorporate four variations of the squat using the high bar
squat, low bar squat, front squat, and goblet squat, or other such variations. In
addition, periodically it can be beneficial to include a very unique variation of a
movement pattern, such as a hanging band variation of a squat, offset squat,
single leg squat, or kickstand squat etc. Having a moderate level of variety helps
to ensure the lifter is mastering the basic movement patterns rather than just
mastering one specific exercise since, as mentioned earlier, each unique variation
forces the lifter to re-trace the steps needed for performing that movement
pattern, rather than relying and functioning on autopilot mode.

I also recommend waiting at least one week before repeating the same exact
exercise or same exact protocol, as this is ideal both from a physiological and
psychological standpoint. In summary, if an individual wants to master an
exercise, they should simply practice that exercise over and over with littler
variety. In contrast, mastering a movement pattern requires a substantial dose of

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variety and requires performing and practicing a number of variations within a

movement pattern. However, it’s not entirely necessary to take this concept to an
extreme, as many individuals oftentimes do get carried away with endless
exercise variations simply for the sake of novelty. Sticking to the basics at least
50% of the time, then performing unique variations during other portions of
one’s training is ideal for movement mastery, strength gains, hypertrophy, and
performance.

The Ultimate Program Template

As repeatedly stressed, the overall program is less important than the actual
execution of the key lifts. The most important factor is to include multiple sets
of the “Big 7” performed in an eccentric isometric fashion. However, by
incorporating the various points discussed in the previous sections an
appropriate go-to program template that can literally provide continuous and
endless results is shown below. It also includes the addition of foot and ankle
exercises, core drills, and explosive movements, as these are oftentimes
weaknesses that need additional attention. However, for some individuals it may
not be necessary to include these in every workout.

C ir c u it 1

A1: Eccentric Isometric Squat Variation

B1: Foot and Ankle Stabilization Drill (any single leg stand balancing
exercise)

C1: Core Stabilization Exercise (any plank, Pallof press, loaded carry,
pullover, ab rollout, or bird dog variation)

C ir c u it 2

A2: Eccentric Isometric Horizontal Pulling Variation (any row)

B2: Eccentric Isometric Horizontal Pressing Variation (any chest press)

C2: Explosive Power Movement (any Olympic lift, plyometric, jump, or

med ball drill)

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C ir c u it 3

A3: Eccentric Isometric Vertical Pulling Variation (any lat pullup or lat
pulldown)

B3: Eccentric Isometric Vertical Pressing Variation (any overhead

press)

C ir c u it 4

A4: Eccentric Isometric Lunge/Stride Variation (any lunge, split squat,

or Bulgarian squat)

B4: Eccentric Isometric Hip Hinge Variation (any RDL, good morning,
or pull-through)

C ir c u it 5 (O ptio n a l)

10 minutes of any isolation movements, loaded carries, or additional

eccentric isometric work (biceps, triceps, pullovers, deltoids, calves,
adductors, abductors, chest flyes, farmers walks etc.)

Notes: Perform at least one lighter warm-up set for each exercise before performing working
sets. Focus on one circuit at a time by completing several sets of 3-6 reps of each movement in
that particular circuit (typically 2-4 total exercises). For exercises such as core or foot and ankle
exercises that involve timed sets rather than reps, each set should consist of anywhere from 20-
60 seconds of total time under tension.

Once all sets are completed for a particular circuit (in which case, that circuit is completed for
that workout), move onto the next circuit. Take approximately 30-90 seconds of rest between
exercises and approximately 1-3 minutes of rest before moving to the next circuit. The workout
should take approximately 50-75 minutes.

This template could be used for every workout of every week, provided different variations for
each movement pattern are employed and not repeated again until the following week.

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R efer en c es

1. Schmidt, R. and T. Lee, Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis.

2005.

2. Raastad, T., et al., Powerlifters Improved Strength and Muscular Adaptations to a

Greater Extent When Equal Total Training Volume Was Divided Into 6
Compared to 3 Training Sessions Per Week. Norwegian School of Sport
Sciences, 2012.

3. Thomas, M.H. and S.P. Burns, Increasing Lean Mass and Strength: A
Comparison of High Frequency Strength Training to Lower Frequency Strength
Training. Int J Exerc Sci, 2016. 9(2): p. 159-167.

4. Crewther, B.T., T. Heke, and J. Keogh, The effects of two equal-volume

training protocols upon strength, body composition and salivary hormones in male
rugby union players. Biol Sport, 2016. 33(2): p. 111-6.

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Chapter 8

Training
Templates
Eccentric Isometrics
in Action

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD

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CHAPTER 8

Training
Templates
Eccentric Isometrics in Action

T
he following section illustrates over 30 of my favorite
eccentric isometric workout templates that I use with
my athletes and clients as well as myself. It should be
noted that there are numerous other possible
combinations and protocols as this is not an all-
inclusive list. Furthermore the number of possibilities
in which these various templates could be combined to
create different workout routines is endless. Additionally some individuals will
find use for all 30+ templates while others may prefer sticking to several or even
just one of them and simply swapping out different exercises variations for
particular movement patterns.

In reality, even just 1 basic template that includes the 7 foundational movement
patterns would suffice for allowing most individuals to master their form and
body mechanics while providing endless programming options (see Chapter 6).
The various 30+ combinations simply provide a means for emphasizing
particular areas of interest or weaknesses. Remember there is no such thing as
right or wrong programming, only wrong or right mechanics.

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Eccentric Isometrics in Action

- 31 TRAINING TEMPLATES -
TEMPLATE TRAINING PROGRAM PAGE

Template 1 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 1 (Squat & Horizontal Push - Pull Emphasis) Page 238
Template 2 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 2 (Squat & Vertical Push - Pull Emphasis) Page 239
Template 3 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 3 (Lunge & Horizontal Push - Pull Emphasis) Page 240
Template 4 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 4 (Hip Hinge Emphasis) Page 241
Template 5 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 5 (Upper Body Emphasis) Page 242
Template 6 Basic Eccentric Isometric Routine 6 (Lower Body Emphasis) Page 243
Template 7 Core Emphasized Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 244
Template 8 Stabilization and Balance Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 245
Template 9 Speed and Power Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 246
Template 10 Endurance and Conditioning Based Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 247
Template 11 Advanced Eccentric Isometric Routine (Full Spectrum) Page 248
Template 12 Heavy Lower and Light-Explosive Upper Body Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 249
Template 13 Heavy Upper and Light-Explosive Lower Body Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 250
Template 14 Lower Body Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 251
Template 15 Upper Body Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 252
Template 16 Biceps and Triceps Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 253
Template 17 Chest Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 254
Template 18 Upper Back Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 255
Template 19 Shoulders and Traps Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 256
Template 20 Quad and Thigh Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 257
Template 21 Glute and Hamstring (Posterior Chain) Emphasis Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 258
Template 22 Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine A Page 259
Template 23 Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine B Page 260
Template 24 Consolidated Time Efficient Eccentric Isometric Routine C Page 261
Template 25 Beginner Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 262
Template 26 In Season Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 263
Template 27 Active Recovery Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 264
Template 28 Travel, On-Road, Minimal Equipment Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 265
Template 29 Advanced Contextual Interference Eccentric Isometric Routine A Page 266
Template 30 Advanced Contextual Interference Eccentric Isometric Routine B Page 267
Template 31 Rapid Eccentric Isometric Routine Page 268

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Template One
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 1 (SQUAT & HORIZONTAL PUSH & PULL EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat,
goblet squat, trap bar squat,
Exercise #1: Zercher, front squat, landmine,
45-90 Superset: #1, kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled,
Eccentric Isometric 4 2-6 etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #2, and #3
Squat stabilizers need additional activation
perform any plank variation 60-90
sec before squats.

Choose any rowing variation such

Exercise #2: as seated rows, bent over rows,
45-90 Superset: #1, inverted rows, incline rows, one
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 arm rows, T-bar rows, machine
sec #2, and #3
Horizontal Pull rows, kettlebell rows, trap bar rows,
etc.

Choose any chest press variation

such as flat, incline, decline, barbell,
Exercise #3: dumbbells, kettlebells, pushups,
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 2-6 dips, bottoms up variations,
sec #2, and #3 specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses,
etc.

Choose any hinge variation

Exercise #4: including RDL's with barbell,
60-90 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec and #5 RDL's, pull throughs, good
Hip Hinge
mornings, etc.

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat,

Exercise #5: or split squat variation performed in
60-90 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 a non-walking fashion using
sec and #5 barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
Lunge
specialty bars, etc.
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
Exercise #6: machine, or lat pulldown variation
75-90 Superset: #6
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-7 with any grip position with the
sec and #7 exception of an extremely wide
Vertical Pull
grip)
Choose any overhead press
Exercise #7: including barbell, dumbbell,
75-90 Superset: #6
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 kettlebells, bottoms up, trap bar,
sec and #7 landmine, high incline, kneeling,
Vertical Push
etc.)

10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Exercise #8: This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
Optional Eccentric triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are performed
Isometrics with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly (i.e. sled
pushes or battle ropes).

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Two
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 2 (SQUAT & VERTICAL PUSH & PULL EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
Exercise #1: landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #2, and #3 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Exercise #2: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

45-90 Superset: #1, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-6 any grip position with the exception of an
sec #2, and #3
Vertical Pull extremely wide grip)

Exercise #3: Choose any overhead press including

45-90 Superset: #1, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 trap bar, landmine, high incline, kneeling,
sec #2, and #3
Vertical Push etc.)

Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #4: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
60-90 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-5 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec and #5 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows, trap
Horizontal Pull
bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #5: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
60-90 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
sec and #5 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.

Exercise #6: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

75-90 Superset: #6 split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 walking fashion using barbells, dumbbells,
sec and #7
Lunge kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #7: Choose any hinge variation including

60-90 Superset: #6 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #7
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Exercise #8: This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
Optional Eccentric triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are performed
Isometrics with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly (i.e. sled
pushes or battle ropes).

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Three
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 3 (LUNGE & HORIZONTAL PUSH & PULL EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Exercise #1: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

60-90 Superset: #1, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 walking fashion using barbells, dumbbells,
sec #2, and #3
Lunge kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #2, and #3 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows, trap
Horizontal Pull
bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #3: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
sec #2, and #3 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.

Exercise #4: Choose any hinge variation including

60-90 Superset: #4 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, rap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #5
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
Exercise #5: landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front
90-120 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 4 2-6 curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec and #5 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Exercise #6: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #6 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 any grip position with the exception of an
sec and #7
Vertical Pull extremely wide grip)

Exercise #7: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #6 barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 trap bar, landmine, high incline, kneeling,
sec and #7
Vertical Push etc.)

Exercise #8: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
Optional Eccentric
triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are performed
Isometrics with eccentric isometrics. Additional core exercises such as planks and ab rollouts can also be used

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Four
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 4 (HIP HINGE EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust

Exercise #1: performed in an eccentric isometric
Superset: #1 fashion (don't touch the floor). This
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 5-8 45-60 sec includes single leg and double leg
and #2
Glute Bridge versions as well as barbell, band resisted,
ball versions, and more.

Choose any hinge variation including

RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Exercise #2: single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 60-90 sec mornings, etc. If low back feels tight
and #2 additional plank and anti-extension
Hip Hinge
exercises can be implemented 60 sec
prior to each hip hinge set.
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet
squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #3: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
Superset: #3,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-6 45-90 sec front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
#4, and #5 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.
Choose any rowing variation such as
Exercise #4: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
Superset: #3,
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 45-90 sec rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
#4, and #5 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #5: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Superset: #3, kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 45-90 sec variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
#4, and #5
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
presses, etc.

Exercise #6: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

Superset: #6, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 60-90 sec walking fashion using barbells,
#7, and #8
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #7: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

Superset: #6, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 75-90 sec any grip position with the exception of
#7, and #8
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #8: Choose any overhead press including

Superset: #6, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 75-90 sec trap bar, landmine, high incline, kneeling,
#7, and #8
Vertical Push etc.)

Exercise #9: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves, triceps, biceps,
Optional Eccentric
delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are performed with eccentric
Isometrics isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly (i.e. sled pushes or battle ropes).

Exercise #10:
Optional 10-20 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Five
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 5 (UPPER BODY EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #1: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec and # 2 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #1: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #1 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 2-6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec and # 2
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
presses, etc.

Exercise #3: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #3 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #4
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #4: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #3 barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec and #4
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #5: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
75-90 Superset: #5,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #6, and #7 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Exercise #6: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

75-90 Superset: #5, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 walking fashion using barbells,
sec #6, and #7
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #7: Choose any hinge variation including

75-90 Superset: #5, RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec #6, and #7
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Exercise #8: This includes isolation drills such triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound
Optional Eccentric movements. All variations are performed with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements.
Isometrics Finishers can be used sparingly. Additional Core exercises such as planks and ab rollouts can also
be used

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-12 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Six
BASIC ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE 6 (LOWER BODY EMPHASIS)

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #1: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
75-90 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 4 3-5 front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec and #2 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

If core is more of a weakness choose

Exercise #2: Plank any plank, single arm plank, single leg
or Anti Extension plank, weighted plank, Pallof press, ab
20-40 75-90 Superset: #1 rollout, quadruped, or anti-extension
Exercise or Single 3 exercise. If lower body stability and
sec sec and #2
Leg Balance foot and ankle control are more of a
Exercise weakness choose something like a single
leg stand variation (i.e. single leg swap )

Exercise #3: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

75-90 Superset: #3 split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 walking fashion using barbells,
sec and #4
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #4: Choose any hinge variation including

75-90 Superset: #3 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #4
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #5: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #5
Eccentric Isometric 2 5-6 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec and #6 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #6: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #5 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec and #6
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
presses, etc.

Exercise #7: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #7 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2 5-6 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #8
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #8: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #7 barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec and #8
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

Exercise #9: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Optional Eccentric This includes isolation drills such leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
Isometrics performed with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly.

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Template Seven
CORE EMPHASIZED ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any plank, single arm plank,

Exercise #1: Plank single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
20-40 30-60 Superset: #1 press, ab rollout, suitcase carry,
or Anti Extension 3 quadruped, or anti-extension exercise.
sec sec and #2
Exercise Ab rollouts performed in eccentric
isometric fashion are great option here.

Exercise #2: Choose any anterior loaded squat, such

Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #1 as, goblet squat, front squat, Zercher,
3 4-6 landmine front squat, front rack with
Anterior Loaded sec and #2
Squat kettlebells, front curled squat, etc.

Exercise #3: Choose any core dominant rowing

variation such as any single arm rowing
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #3
3 5-6 variations, single arm seated cable row,
Core Dominant sec and #4 single arm machine row, quadruped
Horizontal Pull rows, and renegade rows.

Choose any chest press variation that

Exercise #4: emphasizes core such as flat or incline
45-90 Superset: #3 variations with legs raised position,
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 weighted pushups, ring pushups, single
sec and #4
Horizontal Push arm chest press variations, half body off
chest presses, etc.

Exercise #5: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, that

is anterior loaded, such as, goblet, front
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #5
2 4-5 racked barbell, front racked kettlebell,
Anterior Loaded sec and #6 Zercher, landmine front loaded, or front
Lunge curled position, etc.

Choose any hinge variation that also

Exercise #6: emphasizes core such as single arm
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #5 RDL's or front loaded RDL's such as
2 4-6 goblet RDL's, or Zercher Good
Core Dominant sec and #6
Hip Hinge Mornings. Cable pull-throughs with
eyes closed are also a solid option.

Exercise #7: Choose any single arm lat pulldown

Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #7 variation or traditional lat pulldown
2-3 5-6 performed in a kneeling or half-kneeling
Core Dominant sec and #8
Vertical Pull fashion.

Choose any overhead press performed

Exercise #8: in a kneeling fashion, half kneeling
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #7 fashion, single arm variations, or Z-
2-3 4-5 press variations. Also any overhead
Core Dominant sec and #8
Vertical Push press while seated on stability ball is a
solid option to emphasize core.

Exercise #9: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Optional Eccentric This includes additional planks, single arm plank, single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof press, ab
Isometrics rollout, suitcase carry, quadruped, hanging leg raises, dead bugs, or anti-extension exercise.

Exercise #10:
Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Eight
STABILIZATION AND BALANCE ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any single leg balancing drill such

Exercise #1: as single leg stand eyes closed, single leg
20-40 30-60 Superset: #1 stand on unstable surface, single leg
Single Leg Balance 3 swap, single leg power holds, single leg
sec sec and #2
Exercise stands with partner taps, in-line toe touch
stride holds, single leg ledge stand, etc.
Choose any single leg squat such as,
Exercise #2: skater squats with dumbbells or barbells
45-90 Superset: #1 as well as kickstand squats. Also squats
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 performed on an unstable surface are
sec and #2
Stabilization Squat viable options for this day. Hanging band
barbell squats are also an excellent fit.
Choose any row that involves a
Exercise #3: significant balance and stabilization
component including single leg inverted
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #3
3 5-6 rows, single arm inverted rows, single
Stabilization sec and #4 leg bent over rows, quadruped bird dog
Horizontal Pull rows, quadruped plank rows, and
kickstand bent over rows.
Choose any chest press variation that
emphasizes stability and balance
Exercise #4: including bottoms up variations,
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #3 bottoms up trap bar variations, ring
3 4-6 pushups, ring dips, pushups on stability
Stabilization sec and #4
Horizontal Push ball, javelin barbell chest presses (single
arm barbell), foam roller chest presses,
and chest presses on stability ball.
Choose any lunge, or Bulgarian squat,
Exercise #5: that involves significant instability such
75-90 Superset: #5 as having the front foot on a soft mat or
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 pad, or having the back leg on an a foam
sec and #6
Stabilization Lunge roller, med ball, or stability ball, or
performing any lunge with eyes closed.
Exercise #6: Choose any hinge variation that
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #5 emphasizes stability such as single leg
2 4-6 RDL's, single leg good mornings, or
Stabilization Hip sec and #6
Hinge split stance hip hinge variations.

Exercise #7: Choose any single arm lat pulldown

variation or traditional lat pulldown
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #7
2-3 5-6 performed in a kneeling or half-kneeling
Single Arm Vertical sec and #8 fashion. Also single arm assisted pullups or
Pull single arm machine pulldowns are suitable.
Choose any overhead press performed in a
Exercise #8: kneeling fashion, half kneeling fashion,
single arm variations, or Z-press variations.
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #7
2-3 4-5 Also any bottoms up overhead press,
Stabilization sec and #8 reverse bottoms up, pizza press, javelin
Vertical Push press, or overhead press while seated on
stability ball are excellent options.

Exercise #9: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

This includes additional planks, single arm plank, single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof press, ab
Optional Eccentric
rollout, suitcase carry, quadruped, hanging leg raises, dead bugs, or anti-extension exercise. Also
Isometrics any single leg exercises or eyes closed movements are great options.
Exercise #10: Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Barefoot Walking running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template nine
SPEED AND POWER EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet
squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
Exercise #1: landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #1, curled, or other. Perform traditional
4 2-5 eccentric isometric for negative phase
Explosive Squat: sec #2, and #3
(40-50% 1RM) then perform concentric in explosive
fashion while still maintaining control.
Can also include jump on concentric
Choose any rowing variation such as
Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
Eccentric Isometric rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
45-90 Superset: #1, rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Explosive 3-4 4-5 trap bar rows, etc. Perform traditional
sec #2, and #3
Horizontal Pull eccentric isometric for negative phase
(50-60% 1RM) then perform concentric in explosive
fashion while still maintaining control.
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #3: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Eccentric Isometric kettlebells, pushups, specialty bar, rings,
45-90 Superset: #1, floor press, head off, t-bench, etc.
Explosive 3-4 2-4 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
sec #2, and #3
Horizontal Push for negative phase then perform
(40-60% 1RM) concentric in explosive fashion while
still maintaining control.
Choose any hinge variation including
RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Exercise #4: pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #4 Perform traditional EI for negative then
3 3-4 perform concentric in explosive fashion.
Hip Hinge (40-50% sec and #5
1RM) Can also select EI Olympic lift (perform
eccentric isometric RDL for negative
then clean or snatch on concentric)
Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
split squat variation performed in a non-
Exercise #5: walking fashion using barbells,
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #4 dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
3 3-5 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
Explosive Lunge sec and #5
(30-40% 1RM) for negative phase then perform
concentric in explosive fashion. Can
also include jump on concentric
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
Exercise #6: machine, or lat pulldown variation with
any grip position with the exception of an
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #6
3 4-6 extremely wide grip). Perform traditional
Explosive Vertical sec and #7 eccentric isometric for negative phase
Pull (40-60% 1RM) then perform concentric in explosive
fashion while still maintaining control.
Choose any overhead press such as
Exercise #7: barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric landmine, high incline, kneeling, etc.)
75-90 Superset: #6 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
Explosive Vertical 3 3-5 for negative then perform concentric in
sec and #7
Push (40-50% explosive fashion while still maintaining
1RM) control. EI Push Press is also an
excellent option (barbell or dumbbell)
Exercise #8: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses
Optional Eccentric This includes any eccentric isometric compound movement performed in an explosive fashion
Isometrics using max speed on concentric phase
Exercise #9: Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Barefoot Walking running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template Ten
ENDURANCE AND CONDITIONING BASED ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #1: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
30-45 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 5-8 front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #2, and #3 stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
30-45 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 7-9 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #2, and #3 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Exercise #3: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
30-45 Superset: #1, kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 5-8 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec #2, and #3
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
presses, etc.

Exercise #4: Choose any hinge variation including

30-45 Superset: #4 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 7-8 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #5
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

Exercise #5: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

30-60 Superset: #4 split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-8 walking fashion using barbells,
sec and #5
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #6: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

30-60 Superset: #6 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3 8-9 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #7
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #7: Choose any overhead press including

30-60 Superset: #6 barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-7 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec and #7
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

Exercise #8: This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
Optional Eccentric triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are performed
Isometrics with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly (i.e. sled
pushes or battle ropes).

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Activation Cardio
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Eleven
ADVANCED ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE (FULL SPECTRUM)
EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES
Choose any single leg balancing drill such
Exercise #1: as single leg stand eyes closed, single leg
20-40 30-60 Superset: #1, stand on unstable surface, single leg swap,
Single Leg Balance 2 single leg power holds, single leg stands
sec sec #2, and #3
Exercise with partner taps, in-line toe touch stride
holds, single leg ledge stand, etc.
Choose any clean, snatch, jump shrug,
Exercise #2: power shrug, explosive pushup, squat
Explosive 45-90 Superset: #1, jump, or lunge jump exercise but with
3 2-4 an eccentric isometric protocol on the
Eccentric Isometric sec #2, and #3
Exercise eccentric phase and explosive
component on the concentric phase
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat,
Exercise #3: trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
45-90 Superset: #1, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled,
Eccentric Isometric 3 2-5 etc. Also if core and spinal stabilizers need
sec #2, and #3
Squat additional activation perform any plank
variation 60-90 sec before squats.
Choose any plank, single arm plank,
Exercise #4: Plank single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
20-40 30-60 Superset: #4, press, ab rollout, suitcase carry,
or Anti Extension 2 quadruped, or anti-extension exercise.
sec sec #5, and #6
Exercise Ab rollouts performed in eccentric
isometric fashion are great option here.
Exercise #5: Choose any rowing variation such as seated
45-90 Superset: #4, rows, bent over rows, inverted rows, incline
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 rows, one arm rows, T-bar rows, machine
sec #5, and #6
Horizontal Pull rows, kettlebell rows, trap bar rows, etc.
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #6: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #4,
Eccentric Isometric 3 2-5 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
sec #5, and #6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.
Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust
Exercise #7: performed in an eccentric isometric fashion
45-60 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2 5-6 (don't touch the floor). This includes single
sec #8, and #9 leg and double leg versions as well as barbell,
Glute Bridge
band resisted, ball versions, and more.
Exercise #8: Choose any hinge variation including RDL's
60-90 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-5 with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec #8, and #9 RDL's, pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Hip Hinge
Exercise #9: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
60-90 Superset: #7, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 walking fashion using barbells,
sec #8, and #9
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
Exercise #10: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
75-90 Superset: #10 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #11
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)
Exercise #11: Choose any overhead press such as barbell,
75-90 Superset: #10
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-5 dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up, trap bar,
sec and #11 landmine, high incline, kneeling, etc.)
Vertical Push
40-50 Choose any loaded carry such as farmers
Exercise #12: 75-90 Superset: #12 walk, suitcase carry, overhead carry,
1-2 yards or waiter walk, trap bar carry, front curled
Loaded Carry sec and #13
20-30” carry, etc. and perform 40-50 yards
Exercise #13: Choose any pullover exercise and perform
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #12 with barbell, kettlebells, dumbbells, cables,
1-2 5-7 bands, or specialty bar. Or choose any
Pullover or Straight sec and #13
Arm Pulldown straight arm lat pulldown exercise.

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Template Twelve
HEAVY LOWER & LIGHT-EXPLOSIVE UPPER BODY ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat,
Exercise #1: trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat, landmine,
75-90 Superset: #1, kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled, etc. Also if
Eccentric Isometric 4-5 2-5
sec #2, and #3 core and spinal stabilizers need additional
Squat Variation activation perform any plank variation 60-90
sec before squats.
If core is more of a weakness choose any
Exercise #2: Plank plank, single arm plank, single leg plank,
or Anti Extension weighted plank, Pallof press, ab rollout,
20-40 75-90 Superset: #1,
Exercise or Single 3 quadruped, or anti-extension exercise. If lower
sec sec #2, and #3 body stability and foot and ankle control are
Leg Balance
more of a weakness choose something like a
Exercise single leg stand variation (i.e. single leg swap )
Exercise #3: Choose either an eccentric isometric
75-90 Superset: #1,
Explosive Lower 3-4 4-5 combo RDL clean or snatch variation, or
sec #2, and #3 eccentric isometric jump squat.
Body Eccentric Iso.
Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust performed
Exercise #4: in an eccentric isometric fashion (don't touch
45-60 Superset: #4,
Optional Eccentric 2-3 5-8 the floor). This includes single leg and double
sec #5, and #6 leg versions as well as barbell, band resisted, ball
Iso. Glute Bridge
versions, and more.
Exercise #5: Choose any hinge variation including RDL's
60-90 Superset: #4,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec #5, and #6 RDL's, pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Hip Hinge
Exercise #6: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or split
75-90 Superset: #4, squat variation performed in a non-walking
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-5
sec #5, and #6 fashion using barbells, dumbbells,
Lunge kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
Choose any rowing variation such as seated
Exercise #7: rows, bent over rows, inverted rows, incline
Eccentric Isometric rows, one arm rows, T-bar rows, machine rows,
45-90 Superset: #7
Explosive 2-3 4-5 kettlebell rows, trap bar rows, etc. Perform
sec and #8 traditional eccentric isometric for negative phase
Horizontal Pull
then perform concentric in explosive fashion
(50-60% 1RM) while still maintaining control.
Choose any chest press variation such as flat,
Exercise #8: incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells, kettlebells,
Eccentric Isometric pushups, specialty bar, rings, floor press, head
45-90 Superset: #7
Explosive 2-3 2-4 off, t-bench, etc. Perform traditional eccentric
sec and #8 isometric for negative phase then perform
Horizontal Push
concentric in explosive fashion while still
(40-60% 1RM) maintaining control.
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup machine, or
Exercise #9: lat pulldown variation with any grip position
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #9 with the exception of an extremely wide grip).
2-3 4-6
Explosive Vertical sec and #10 Perform traditional eccentric isometric for
Pull (40-60% 1RM) negative phase then perform concentric in
explosive fashion while still maintaining control.
Choose any overhead press such as barbell,
Exercise #10: dumbbell, kettlebells, trap bar, landmine,
Eccentric Isometric high incline, kneeling, etc.) Perform
75-90 Superset: #9 traditional eccentric isometric for negative
Explosive Vertical 2-3 3-5
sec and #10 then perform concentric in explosive
Push (40-50% fashion while still maintaining control. EI
1RM) Push Press is also an excellent option
(barbell or dumbbell)
Exercise #11: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses
Optional Eccentric This includes isolation drills such leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves, performed with
Isometrics eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used sparingly.
Exercise #12: Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of running or
Barefoot Walking jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template Thirteen
HEAVY UPPER & LIGHT-EXPLOSIVE LOWER BODY ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE
REP
EXERCISE SETS REST SUPERSET NOTES
S
Exercise #1:
45-90 Superset: #1, Choose any med ball toss/slam, sledge
Explosive Upper 3 2-6 hammer, or explosive pushups
sec #2, and #3
Body Exercise
Choose any rowing variation such as
Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #2, and #3 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #3: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 2-6 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
sec #2, and #3 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.
Exercise #4: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
75-90 Superset: #4, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 any grip position with the exception of
sec #5, and #6
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #5: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #4, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec #5, and #6
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

Exercise #6: Choose any pullover exercise and

perform with barbell, kettlebells,
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #4,
2-3 5-7 dumbbells, cables, bands, or specialty
Pullover or Straight sec #5, and #6 bar. Or choose any straight arm lat
Arm Pulldown pulldown exercise.
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet
squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
Exercise #7: landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #7, curled, or other. Perform traditional
2-3 2-4 eccentric isometric for negative phase
Explosive Squat: sec #8, and #9
(40-50% 1RM) then perform concentric in explosive
fashion while still maintaining control.
Can also include jump on concentric
Choose any hinge variation including
RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Exercise #8: pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #7, Perform traditional EI for negative then
2-3 3-4 perform concentric in explosive fashion.
Hip Hinge (40-50% sec #8, and #9
1RM) Can also select EI Olympic lift (perform
eccentric isometric RDL for negative
then clean or snatch on concentric)
Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
split squat variation performed in a non-
Exercise #9: walking fashion using barbells,
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #7, dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
2 3-4 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
Explosive Lunge sec #8, and #9
(30-40% 1RM) for negative phase then perform
concentric in explosive fashion. Can
also include jump on concentric
Exercise #10: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses
This includes isolation drills such triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All
Optional Eccentric
variations are performed with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used
Isometrics sparingly. Additional Core exercises such as planks and ab rollouts can also be used
Exercise #11: Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Barefoot Walking running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template Fourteen
LOWER BODY ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any single leg balancing drill such

Exercise #1: Superset: #1, as single leg stand eyes closed, single leg
20-40 30-60 stand on unstable surface, single leg
Single Leg Balance 3 #2, #3, and swap, single leg power holds, single leg
sec sec
Exercise #4 stands with partner taps, in-line toe touch
stride holds, single leg ledge stand, etc.
Choose any plank, single arm plank,
Exercise #2: Plank Superset: #1, single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
20-40 30-60 press, ab rollout, suitcase carry,
or Anti Extension 3 #2, #3, and quadruped, or anti-extension exercise.
sec sec
Exercise #4 Ab rollouts performed in eccentric
isometric fashion are great option here.
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat,
Exercise #3: Superset: #1, trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
75-90 landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled,
Eccentric Isometric 4-5 2-5 #2, #3, and etc. Also if core and spinal stabilizers need
sec
Squat Variation #4 additional activation perform any plank
variation 60-90 sec before squats.
Exercise #4: Choose either an eccentric isometric
Superset: #1,
Explosive Lower 75-90 combo RDL clean or snatch variation,
3-4 4-5 #2, #3, and eccentric isometric jump squat, or
Body Eccentric sec
#4 eccentric isometric box jump.
Isometric
Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust
Exercise #5: performed in an eccentric isometric
45-60 Superset: #5 fashion (don't touch the floor). This
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 5-8 includes single leg and double leg
sec and #6
Glute Bridge versions as well as barbell, band resisted,
ball versions, and more.
Exercise #6: Choose any hinge variation including
60-90 Superset: #5 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #6
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.
Exercise #7: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
75-90 Superset: #7 split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-5 walking fashion using barbells,
sec and #8
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
Choose any calve raise variation and hold
Exercise #8: the eccentric isometric stretched position
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 Superset: #7 for at least several seconds each
3 8-10 repetition. Any machine, seated, leg press
Calve Raise sec and #8
Variation variation, single leg free standing on step,
or smith machine variation will work.
Exercise #9: Pull on handles to keep hips down. Dorsiflex
Superset: #9,
Optional Max Effort 1-2 10+ 60 sec ankles throughout (toes pulled back),
10, and 11 and don't hyperextend knees at the top.
Leg Extensions
Exercise #10: Pull to 90 degrees, pause, and squeeze
Superset: #9,
Optional - Max 1-2 8+ 60 sec hamstrings. Don't fully lock knees in
10, and 11 bottom position.
Effort Leg Curls
Exercise # 11: Perform with 90 degree joint angles.
Superset: #9,
Optional - Max 1-2 10+ 60 sec Brace core and keep neutral spine. Feet
10, and 11 straight and knees pushed out.
Effort Leg Press
Exercise #12: 100
45-60 Focus on form first and speed second.
Optional 100 yard or 3-5 yards None Use arm drive to help accelerate body.
sec
20” max effort sprints or 20”
Exercise #13: Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Barefoot Walking running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template Fifteen
UPPER BODY ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Exercise #1:
45-90 Superset: #1, Choose any med ball toss/slam, sledge
Explosive Upper 3 2-6 hammer, or explosive pushups
sec #2, and #3
Body Exercise
Choose any rowing variation such as
Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #2, and #3 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #3: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #1, kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 2-6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec #2, and #3
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
presses, etc.

Exercise #4: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #4, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-7 any grip position with the exception of
sec #5, and #6
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #5: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #4, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec #5, and #6
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

Exercise #6: Choose any pullover exercise and

perform with barbell, kettlebells,
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #4,
2 5-7 dumbbells, cables, bands, or specialty
Pullover or Straight sec #5, and #6 bar. Or choose any straight arm lat
Arm Pulldown pulldown exercise.

Exercise #7: Choose any lateral raise variation for the

5-7 side deltoids and perform from a single
Standing Lateral Superset: #7
2 per 45 sec leg position. Raise dumbbells to sides
Raises with Single and #8 and slightly towards the front. Don't lift
leg
Leg Stand above sternum/upper ab height.
Choose any bent over lateral raise variation
with dumbbells, kettlebells, plates, or pinch
Exercise #8: Bent Superset: #7
2 10-15 45 sec grip variations from any form of hip hinge
Over Lateral Raises and #8 position and perform bent over lateral
raises for the rear deltoids
Exercise #9: Perform any skull crusher variation
Superset: #9
Eccentric Isometric 2 6-12 45 sec using a barbell, dumbbells, or kettlebells,
and #10 using an eccentric isometric protocol
Skull Crusher
Perform any standing bicep curl
Exercise #10: variation with dumbbells, barbell, or
Eccentric Isometric Superset: #9 kettlebells, and hold the eccentric
2 5-8 45 sec isometric position several inches before
Standing Biceps and #10
Curls locking the elbows in the bottom
position on each rep.
Exercise #11: Max Choose any pushup variation and
Effort Eccentric Iso 1 Max NA NA perform as many eccentric isometric
Pushup Variation reps with perfect form as possible

Exercise #12: 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses

This includes isolation drills such triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements.
Optional Eccentric
All variations are performed with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used
Isometric Exercises sparingly. Additional Core exercises such as planks and ab rollouts can also be used

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Template Sixteen
BICEPS AND TRICEPS EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Using either a barbell, dumbbell, or

Exercise #1: kettlebells, hold the weight in a top
Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 curled position, squat down, hold
3 6-8 #2, #3, and
Squat and Bicep sec the EI squat, then perform bicep
#4
Curls curls while holding the squat
position

Exercise #2:
Superset: #1, Perform any tricep cable
Eccentric Isometric 45-60
3 6-10 #2, #3, and pressdown variation using a brief
Tricep Cable sec
#4 eccentric isometric protocol
Pressdown

Perform any eccentric isometric

Exercise #3: Superset: #1,
45-60 row variation such as seated cable
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-8 #2, #3, and
sec row or bent over barbell row using
Underhand Row #4
an underhand grip

Exercise #4: Choose any eccentric isometric

Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 barbell pressing exercise and
3 5-6 #2, #3, and
Close Horizontal sec perform with a closer grip to
#4
Chest Press emphasize triceps

Using either a barbell, dumbbell, or

4-6 kettlebells, hold the weight in a top
Exercise #5: Superset: #5,
curls 60-75 curled position, lunge down, hold
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 #6, #7, and
per sec the EI lunge, then perform bicep
Lunge and Curl #8
leg curls while holding the lunge/split
squat position

Perform any skull crusher variation

Exercise #6: Superset: #5,
60-75 using a barbell, dumbbells, or
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 6-12 #6, #7, and
sec kettlebells, using an eccentric
Skull Crusher #8
isometric protocol
Exercise #7:
Superset: #5, Choose any chin-up (underhand
Eccentric Isometric 60-75
2-3 4-6 #6, #7, and grip) and perform with eccentric
Underhand Grip sec
#8 isometrics
Chin-Ups

Exercise #8: Choose any overhead barbell

Eccentric Isometric Superset: #5, pressing variation (standing,
60-75
Close Grip 2-3 4-5 #6, #7, and kneeling, seated, half kneeling etc.)
sec
Overhead Vertical #8 and perform with an eccentric
Press isometric protocol.

Exercise #9:
Optional 10 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses
minutes of Choose any traditional arm exercises and perform 5-10 minutes worth of additional isolation
additional bicep movements
and tricep work

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Template Seventeen
CHEST EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Exercise #1: Choose any explosive pushup variation such
Explosive 45-90 Superset: #1, as hand clap, plyo box pushup, single leg
3 2-6
Eccentric Isometric sec #2, and #3 hand clap pushups, bench pushup launches,
Pushups or med ball chest passes

Exercise #2: Choose any rowing variation such as seated

45-90 Superset: #1, rows, bent over rows, inverted rows, incline
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-5
sec #2, and #3 rows, one arm rows, T-bar rows, machine
Horizontal Pull rows, kettlebell rows, trap bar rows, etc.

Exercise #3: Choose any flat chest press variation such

Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #1, as barbell, dumbbells, kettlebells, pushups,
4 2-6 dips, bottoms up variations, specialty bar,
Horizontal Push on sec #2, and #3 rings, floor press, head off, t-bench, leg
Flat Bench or Floor raise presses, etc.
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup machine,
Exercise #4: or lat pulldown variation with any grip
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #4 position with the exception of an extremely
2-3 4-6 wide grip). Perform traditional eccentric
Explosive Vertical sec and #5 isometric for negative phase then perform
Pull (40-60% 1RM) concentric in explosive fashion while still
maintaining control.
Choose any overhead press such as barbell,
Exercise #5: dumbbell, kettlebells, landmine, high incline,
Eccentric Isometric kneeling, etc.) Perform traditional eccentric
75-90 Superset: #4
Explosive Vertical 2-3 3-5 isometric for negative then perform concentric
sec and #5 in explosive fashion while still maintaining
Push (40-50%
control. High incline or landmine are good
1RM) options since they involve more upper chest
Exercise #6: Choose any incline chest press variation
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #6 such as barbell, dumbbells, kettlebells,
3 5-6 pushups, bottoms up variations, specialty
Horizontal Push on sec and #7 bar, rings, single arm, head off, t-bench, leg
Incline Bench raise presses, etc.
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat,
Exercise #7: trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat, landmine,
Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #6 kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled, or other.
2-3 2-4 Perform traditional eccentric isometric for
Explosive Squat: sec and #7 negative phase then perform concentric in
(40-50% 1RM) explosive fashion while still maintaining
control. Can also include jump on concentric
Choose any hinge variation including
RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Exercise #8: pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #8, Perform traditional EI for negative then
2-3 3-4
Hip Hinge (40-50% sec #9, and 10 perform concentric in explosive fashion.
1RM) Can also select EI Olympic lift (perform
eccentric isometric RDL for negative then
clean or snatch on concentric)
Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or split
Exercise #9: squat variation performed in a non-walking
Eccentric Isometric 60-90 Superset: #8, fashion using barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
2 3-4 specialty bars, etc. Perform traditional
Explosive Lunge sec #9, and 10 eccentric isometric for negative phase then
(30-40% 1RM) perform concentric in explosive fashion. Can
also include jump on concentric
Exercise #10: 10+ Choose any eccentric isometric chest flye.
Superset: #8, This includes dumbbells, machines,
Eccentric Isometric 2 or 45 sec
#9, and 10 kettlebells, or cables, as well as chains and or
Chest Fly Variation Failure bands. Can also choose single or double arm.
Exercise #11: Activation Cardio
Optional 8-10’ of Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of running or
Barefoot Walking jogging can also be interspersed throughout.

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Template Eighteen
UPPER BACK EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE
EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES
Exercise #1: Choose any ab rollout variation such as ab
45-60 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 6-8 wheel, barbell, Swiss ball, trap bar,
sec and #2 kneeling, planking, band resisted, or other.
Ab Rollout
Choose any deadlift variation and perform
eccentric isometric such as squat stance,
Exercise #2: trap bar, longitudinal trap bar, single arm
45-60 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 variation, or Reeves trap bar. Perform the
sec and #2 eccentric isometric with a squat position
Deadlift Variation
(while still keeping hips set back). This
counts as the squat pattern of the day
Exercise #3: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
75-90 Superset: #3 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-5 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #4
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)
Choose any overhead press such as
Exercise #4: barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric landmine, high incline, kneeling, etc.)
75-90 Superset: #3 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
Explosive Vertical 2-3 3-5 for negative then perform concentric in
sec and #4
Push (40-50% explosive fashion while still maintaining
1RM) control. EI Push Press is also an
excellent option (barbell or dumbbell)
Exercise #5: Choose any bent over hinging rowing
Eccentric Isometric variation such as bent over row with
60-90 Superset: #5
Horizontal Pull w/ 3-4 4-6 dumbbells, trap bar, kettlebells, barbell,
sec and #6 single arm, or double arm, etc. This also
Any Bent Over
Hinging Row counts as the hip hinge exercise of the day
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #6: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Eccentric Isometric kettlebells, pushups, specialty bar, rings,
45-90 Superset: #5 floor press, head off, t-bench, etc.
Explosive 2-3 2-4 Perform traditional eccentric isometric
sec and #6
Horizontal Push for negative phase then perform
(40-60% 1RM) concentric in explosive fashion while
still maintaining control.
Choose any lunge/split squat variation
that involves gripping weights in hands
Exercise #7: such as dumbbell lunges, kettlebell
Eccentric Isometric 60-75 Superset: #7, lunges (held at side), hack barbell lunge,
2 2-4 or suitcase lunge and perform using
Gripping sec #8 and #9
Lunge/Split Squat eccentric isometric protocol. These
variations target the upper back and
traps while working the lunge pattern
Exercise # 8: Choose any pullover variation including
60-75 Superset: #7, dumbbells, barbell, kettlebells, cable, band,
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 trap bar, or other and perform eccentric
sec #8 and #9
Pullover isometrics while keeping core very tight
30-40 Choose any loaded carry variation such
Exercise #9: Yards 60-75 Superset: #7, as farmers walk, suitcase carries,
2 overhead carries, front racked carries,
Loaded Carry or 30 sec #8 and #9
sec yolk carries, trap bar carries or other
Exercise #10: Choose any lat pulldown variation and
Eccentric Isometric 1 8-10 45 sec NA perform one max effort eccentric
Lat Pulldown isometric set to failure

Exercise #11: Choose any cable row, standing, seated,

single arm, double arm, and or any grip
Eccentric Isometric 1 8-10 45 sec NA attachment and perform one max effort
Cable Row eccentric isometric set to failure

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Template Nineteen
SHOULDERS AND TRAPS EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Exercise #1: Choose any renegade row variation
including legs elevated, forearm on
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 Superset: #1,
2-3 5 bench, rotational, bird dog, bear crawl
Renegade Row sec #2, and #3 position, or bear dog, and perform
Variation eccentric isometric renegade rows
Choose any loading modality for the
overhead squat including standard plate
Exercise #2: loading, chains, hanging band, offset
45-60 Superset: #1, loading, etc. and perform eccentric
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-6 isometric overhead squats. If you're
sec #2, and #3
Overhead Squats unable to perform overhead squats
perform any eccentric isometric heavy
goblet squat with eyes closed
Exercise #3: Choose any snatch including barbell,
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #1, dumbbells, kettlebells, plates, single arm,
3 2-4 etc. and perform eccentric isometric
RDL's Into Snatch sec #2, and #3
Variation RDL's into snatches.
Exercise #4: Choose any overhead press such as
Eccentric Isometric barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, trap bar,
75-90 Superset: #4 landmine, high incline, kneeling, etc.) For
Overhead Press or 3-4 2-5 Push Press, perform traditional eccentric
sec and #5
Eccentric Isometric isometric for negative then concentric in
Push Press explosive fashion using leg drive.
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
Exercise #5: machine, or lat pulldown variation with
any grip position with the exception of an
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #4
3 4-6 extremely wide grip). Perform traditional
Explosive Vertical sec and #5 eccentric isometric for negative phase
Pull (40-60% 1RM) then perform concentric in explosive
fashion while still maintaining control.
Exercise #6: Choose any chest press variation at 45
Eccentric Isometric degree incline using, barbell, dumbbells,
kettlebells, or specialty bar. Perform
Explosive 45-90 Superset: #6
2 5-6 traditional eccentric isometric for
Horizontal Incline sec and #7 negative phase then perform concentric
Push (40-60% in explosive fashion while still
1RM) maintaining control.
Exercise #7: Choose any lunge/split squat variation,
5-8
Eccentric Iso Lunge hold the eccentric isometric position and
raises 60-75 Superset: #6
or Bulgarian Squat 2 perform lateral raises for deltoids using
per sec and #7 kettlebells, dumbbells, plates, or chains,
Hold with Lateral
side or any other loading modality
Raise Variations
Choose any shrug variation with
Exercise #8: 10-12 60-75 Superset: #8 dumbbells, barbells, trap bar, or
2 kettlebells, and perform shrugs from a
Single Leg Shrugs reps sec and #9
single leg position.
Exercise #9: Choose any bottoms up overhead
pressing variation using kettlebells, plates,
Eccentric Isometric Superset: #8
2 5-7 45 sec or dumbbells, and perform either from
Bottoms Up and #9 standing, kneeling, or half kneeling
Overhead Press position with eccentric isometric protocol
Choose any bent over lateral raise variation
Exercise #10: with dumbbells, kettlebells, plates, or pinch
Superset #10
Bent Over Lateral 2 10-15 45 sec grip variations from any form of hip hinge
and #11 position and perform bent over lateral
Raises
raises for the rear deltoids
Exercise #11: Choose any front raise variation with
Superset #10 dumbbells, kettlebells, plates, or pinch
Front Delt Raise 1-2 10-12 grip variations and perform a front raise
and #11
Variations for front deltoids

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Template Twenty
QUAD AND THIGH EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any leg extension variation

Exercise #1: Leg 15-30 Superset: #1 including double leg, single leg,
2-3 10-12
Extensions sec and #2 eccentric accentuated BANA 2:1
routine or other
Choose any high bar squat, safety
Exercise #2:
bar squat, front squat, goblet squat,
Eccentric Isometric 75-90 Superset: #1
3-4 4-6 landmine, kettlebell, front curled,
Quad Dominant sec and #2
or heels elevated on plates squats
Squat Variation
etc.
Choose any renegade row variation
Exercise #3: including legs elevated, forearm on
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 Superset: #3 bench, rotational, bird dog, bear
2 5
Renegade Row sec and #4 crawl position, or bear dog, and
Variation perform eccentric isometric
renegade rows
Choose any chest press variation
Exercise #4:
such as flat, incline, barbell,
Eccentric Isometric
60-90 Superset: #3 dumbbells, kettlebells,, specialty
Horizontal Push 2 4-6
sec and #4 bar, floor press, head off, or other
With Hollow Body
and perform eccentric isometric
Leg Raise
chest presses.
Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat,
or split squat variation performed
Exercise #5: in a non-walking fashion using
75-90 Superset: #5
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
sec and #6
Lunge specialty bars, etc. To emphasize
quads, take a slightly shorter stride
length.
Choose any hinge variation
Exercise #6: including RDL's with barbell,
60-90 Superset: #5
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec and #6
Hip Hinge RDL's, pull throughs, good
mornings, etc.
Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
Exercise #7: machine, or lat pulldown variation
75-90 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 with any grip position with the
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Pull exception of an extremely wide
grip)
Choose any overhead press
Exercise #8: including barbell, dumbbell,
75-90 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 kettlebells, bottoms up, trap bar,
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Push landmine, high incline, kneeling,
etc.)
Exercise #9: Leg
75-90 Superset: #7, Choose any leg press or squat and
Press or Squat 2 10-20
sec #8, and #9 perform brief eccentric isometrics
Machine

Exercise: #10 Choose any squat variation and

Eccentric Isometric perform constant tension reps
1 10-20 NA NA
Constant Tension (bottom half only) and perform to
Squat failure.

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Template Twenty-One
GLUTE & HAMSTRING (POSTERIOR CHAIN) EMPHASIS ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust

Exercise #1: performed in an eccentric isometric
45-60 Superset: #1 fashion (don't touch the floor). This
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 5-8 includes single leg and double leg
sec and #2
Glute Bridge versions as well as barbell, band resisted,
ball versions, and more.
Choose any hip dominant squat such as
Exercise #2: low bar squats, Zercher, squat stance
Eccentric Isometric deadlifts (EI), trap bar deadlift squat (ei),
75-90 Superset: #1 or toes elevated on plate squat.
Hip Dominant 4-5 2-5 dumbbell, front curled, etc. Also if core
sec and #2
Squat or Deadlift and spinal stabilizers need additional
Variation activation perform any plank variation
60-90 sec before squats.
Exercise #3: Choose any single leg hip hinge variation
3-5 using dumbbells, barbell, kettlebells,
Eccentric Isometric 45-60 Superset: #3
2 per plates, or specialty bars and perform
Single Leg Bent sec and #4 bent over rows from that single leg RDL
side
Over Row position.
Exercise #4: Choose any chest press that involves
Eccentric Isometric holding the hips in a bridge position
Horizontal Push 60-90 Superset: #3 such as t-bench, single leg t-bench,
2 4-6 stability ball, or glute bridge and
From Glute Bridge sec and #4
or Hip Thrust perform eccentric isometric chest
Position presses.

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

split squat variation performed in a non-
Exercise #5: walking fashion using barbells,
75-90 Superset: #5
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
sec and #6 To emphasize glutes and posterior chain
Lunge
more take a slightly longer stride
position

Exercise #6: Choose any hinge variation including

60-90 Superset: #5 RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec and #6
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.

Exercise #7: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #7, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 any grip position with the exception of
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #8: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #7, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)

Choose any leg curl variation including

Exercise #9: Leg 75-90 Superset: #7,
1-2 10-20 machine, slide-board, Swiss ball, foam
Curls sec #8, and #9 roller, or other.
Exercise: #10
Bodyweight or
Choose any lighter glute bridge variation
Band Resisted
1 50 NA NA and perform 50 reps or lateral band
Glute Bridges or marches for 30-45 sec in each direction
Lateral Band
Marches

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Template Twenty-Two
CONSOLIDATED TIME EFFICIENT ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE A

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat,

goblet squat, trap bar squat,
Zercher, front squat, landmine,
Exercise #1: Superset: #1,
45-90 kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 #2, #3, and
sec etc. Also if core and spinal
Squat #4
stabilizers need additional
activation perform any plank
variation 60-90 sec before squats.

Choose any rowing variation such

as seated rows, bent over rows,
Exercise #2: Superset: #1,
45-90 inverted rows, incline rows, one
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 #2, #3, and
sec arm rows, T-bar rows, machine
Horizontal Pull #4
rows, kettlebell rows, trap bar rows,
etc.

Choose any chest press variation

such as flat, incline, decline, barbell,
Exercise #3: Superset: #1, dumbbells, kettlebells, pushups,
45-90
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 #2, #3, and dips, bottoms up variations,
sec
Horizontal Push #4 specialty bar, rings, floor press,
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses,
etc.

Choose any plank, single arm

plank, single leg plank, weighted
Exercise #4: Plank Superset: #1, plank, Pallof press, ab rollout,
20-40 30-60
or Anti Extension 2 #2, #3, and suitcase carry, quadruped, or anti-
sec sec
Exercise #4 extension exercise. Ab rollouts
performed in eccentric isometric
fashion are great option here.

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Template Twenty-Three
CONSOLIDATED TIME EFFICIENT ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE B

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat,

Exercise #1: or split squat variation performed
75-90 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-5 in a non-walking fashion using
sec and #2
Lunge barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
specialty bars, etc.

Choose any hinge variation

Exercise #2: including RDL's with barbell,
75-90 Superset: #1
Eccentric Isometric 3 3-5 dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec and #2
Hip Hinge RDL's, pull throughs, good
mornings, etc.

Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

Exercise #3: machine, or lat pulldown variation
75-90 Superset: #3
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-6 with any grip position with the
sec and #4
Vertical Pull exception of an extremely wide
grip)

Choose any overhead press

Exercise #4: including barbell, dumbbell,
75-90 Superset: #3
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 3-6 kettlebells, bottoms up, trap bar,
sec and #4
Vertical Push landmine, high incline, kneeling,
etc.)

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Template Twenty-Four
CONSOLIDATED TIME EFFICIENT ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE C

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat,

Exercise #6:
Superset: #1, or split squat variation performed
Single Leg 75-90
2-3 4-5 #2, #3, and in a non-walking fashion using
Eccentric Isometric sec
#4 barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
Squat
specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #7:
Choose any eccentric isometric
Single Arm Superset: #1,
75-90 chest press with dumbbells or
Eccentric Isometric 3 4-6 #2, #3, and
sec kettlebells, and perform in a single
Horizontal Chest #4
arm fashion
press

Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

Exercise #3: Superset: #1, machine, or lat pulldown variation
75-90
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-6 #2, #3, and with any grip position with the
sec
Vertical Pull #4 exception of an extremely wide
grip)

Choose any explosive movement

such as jumps, olympic lifts,
Exercise #4: Superset: #1,
75-90 medicine ball tosses, sledge
Explosive 3-4 2-5 #2, #3, and
sec hammer or other and perform
Movement #4
eccentric isometrics where
applicable

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Template Twenty-Five
BEGINNER ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Exercise #1: Choose any dumbbell or kettlebell

Eccentric Isometric 45-90 Superset: #1, squat variation and perform either
3 4-5
Dumbbell or sec #2, and #3 a hanging dumbbell squat between
Kettlebell Squat the legs or a goblet squat.

Exercise #2:
Eccentric Isometric
45-90 Superset: #1, Choose any rowing basic dumbbell
Dumbbell, 3-4 6-8
sec #2, and #3 row, kettlebell row, or cable row
Kettlebell, or Cable
Horizontal Pull

Exercise #3:
Eccentric Isometric Choose any chest press variation
45-90 Superset: #1,
Dumbbell or 3-4 2-6 such as flat, incline, or decline and
sec #2, and #3
Kettlebell use dumbbells or kettlebells,
Horizontal Push

Exercise #4:
Eccentric Isometric
60-90 Superset: #4 Choose any hip hinge variation or
Dumbbell or 2-3 3-5
sec and #5 RDL with dumbbells or kettlebells
Kettlebell Hip
Hinge

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat,

Exercise #5: or split squat variation performed
60-90 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-4 in a non-walking fashion using
sec and #5
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, or
bodyweight

Choose any lat pulldown variation

Exercise #6:
75-90 Superset: #6, with any grip position with the
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 5-7
sec #7, and #8 exception of an extremely wide
Vertical Pull
grip)

Exercise #7:
Eccentric Isometric Choose any overhead press
75-90 Superset: #6,
Dumbbell or 2-3 3-6 including with dumbbells or
sec #7, and #8
Kettlebell Vertical kettlebells
Push

Focus on bracing abs and core

Exercise #8: Basic 75-90 Superset: #6, throughout without letting the hips
2-3 30 sec
Plank Variation sec #7, and #8 drop and keeping a neutral spine
and perfect posture throughout

Exercise #8:
Activation Cardio
Optional 10-20
Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic
Minutes of
bursts of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Twenty-Six
IN SEASON ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any single leg balancing drill such
Exercise #1: as single leg stand eyes closed, single leg
20-40 30-60 Superset: #1, stand on unstable surface, single leg swap,
Single Leg Balance 1-2 single leg power holds, single leg stands
sec sec #2, and #3
Exercise with partner taps, in-line toe touch stride
holds, single leg ledge stand, etc.
Choose any clean, snatch, jump shrug,
Exercise #2: power shrug, explosive pushup, squat
Explosive 45-90 Superset: #1, jump, or lunge jump exercise but with
2 2-4 an eccentric isometric protocol on the
Eccentric Isometric sec #2, and #3
Exercise eccentric phase and explosive
component on the concentric phase
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat,
Exercise #3: trap bar squat, Zercher, front squat,
45-90 Superset: #1, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled,
Eccentric Isometric 2 2-5 etc. Also if core and spinal stabilizers need
sec #2, and #3
Squat additional activation perform any plank
variation 60-90 sec before squats.
Choose any plank, single arm plank,
Exercise #4: Plank single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
20-40 30-60 Superset: #4, press, ab rollout, suitcase carry,
or Anti Extension 2 quadruped, or anti-extension exercise.
sec sec #5, and #6
Exercise Ab rollouts performed in eccentric
isometric fashion are great option here.
Choose any rowing variation such as
Exercise #5: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 Superset: #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #5, and #6 rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
trap bar rows, etc.
Choose any chest press variation such as
Exercise #6: flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
45-90 Superset: #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2 2-5 kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
sec #5, and #6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor press,
Horizontal Push
head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.
Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust
Exercise #7: performed in an eccentric isometric
45-60 Superset: #7, fashion (don't touch the floor). This
Eccentric Isometric 1-2 5-6 includes single leg and double leg
sec #8, and #9
Glute Bridge versions as well as barbell, band resisted,
ball versions, and more.
Exercise #8: Choose any hinge variation including RDL's
60-90 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
sec #8, and #9 RDL's, pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Hip Hinge
Exercise #9: Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
60-90 Superset: #7, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 1-2 4-5 walking fashion using barbells,
sec #8, and #9
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.

Exercise #10: Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

75-90 Superset: #10 machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 any grip position with the exception of
sec and #11
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)

Exercise #11: Choose any overhead press including

75-90 Superset: #10 barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec and #11
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)
40-50 Choose any loaded carry such as farmers
Exercise #12:
yards 75-90 walk, suitcase carry, overhead carry,
Optional Loaded 1 NA waiter walk, trap bar carry, front curled
or 20- sec
Carry carry, etc. and perform 40-50 yards
30 sec

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Template Twenty-Seven
ACTIVE RECOVERY ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any single leg balancing drill such
Exercise #1: as single leg stand eyes closed, single leg
20-40 30-60 Superset: #1, stand on unstable surface, single leg swap,
Single Leg Balance 2 single leg power holds, single leg stands
sec sec #2, and #3
Exercise with partner taps, in-line toe touch stride
holds, single leg ledge stand, etc.
Choose any squat, back squat, goblet
squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #2: Light squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
30-60 Superset: #1,
Eccentric Isometric 2 2-5 front curled, etc. Use very light loads
sec #2, and #3 such as empty bar, 20-30 pound
Squat
kettlebell, light dumbbells, or even
bodyweight or broomstick.
Choose any non-weighted plank, single
Exercise #3: Mild arm plank, single leg plank, Pallof press,
Intensity Plank or 20-30 30-60 Superset: #1, ab rollout, suitcase carry, quadruped, or
2 anti-extension exercise. Ab rollouts on
Anti Extension sec sec #2, and #3
Exercise knees performed in eccentric isometric
fashion are great option here.

Exercise #4: Light Choose any very light rowing variation such
30-60 Superset: #4, as seated rows, bent over rows, incline
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 rows, one arm rows, T-bar rows, machine
sec #5, and #6
Horizontal Pull rows, kettlebell rows, trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Exercise #5: Light kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
30-60 Superset: #4, variations, specialty bar, floor press,
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 head off, t-bench, leg raise presses, etc.
sec #5, and #6
Horizontal Push Use very light loads such as empty bar,
20-30 pound kettlebell, light dumbbells,
or bodyweight pushups.
Choose any hinge variation including
RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Exercise #6: Light single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
30-60 Superset: #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 mornings, etc. Use very light loads such as
sec #5, and #6 empty bar, 20-30 pound kettlebell, light
Hip Hinge
dumbbells, or even bodyweight or
broomstick.

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

split squat variation performed in a non-
Exercise #7: Light walking fashion using barbells,
30-60 Superset: #7,
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-5 dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
sec #8, and #9 Use very light loads such as empty bar,
Lunge
20-30 pound kettlebell, light dumbbells,
or even bodyweight or broomstick.

Exercise #8: Light Choose lat pulldown variation with any

30-60 Superset: #7, grip position with the exception of an
Eccentric Isometric 2 4-6 extremely wide grip). Use very light
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Pull loads such as 30-40% of typical weight

Choose any overhead press including

Exercise #9: Light barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up,
30-60 Superset: #7, trap bar, landmine, high incline, kneeling,
Eccentric Isometric 2 3-5 etc.). Use very light loads such as empty bar,
sec #8, and #9
Vertical Push 20-30 pound kettlebell, light dumbbells, or
even bodyweight or broomstick.

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Template Twenty-Eight
TRAVEL, ON-ROAD, MINIMAL EQUIPMENT ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any single leg balancing drill

such as single leg stand eyes closed,
Exercise #1: single leg stand on unstable surface,
20-40 45-60 Superset: #1,
Single Leg Balance 3 single leg swap, single leg power holds,
sec sec #2, and #3 single leg stands with partner taps, in-
Exercise
line toe touch stride holds, single leg
ledge stand, etc.

Exercise #2: Choose any squat that requires little to no

45-60 Superset: #1, equipment including eccentric isometric
Eccentric Isometric 3 5-8 bodyweight squat jumps, single leg squats,
sec #2, and #3
Squat band resisted squats or other

Exercise #3: Plank Choose any plank, single arm plank,

20-40 45-60 Superset: #1, single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
or Anti Extension 3 press, ab rollout, suitcase carry,
sec sec #2, and #3
Exercise quadruped, or anti-extension exercise.

Exercise #4: Band Choose any rowing variation that can be

Resisted Eccentric 45-60 Superset: #4 performed with a resistance band such
3 6-10 as standing, double arm, single arm,
Isometric sec and #5
Horizontal Pull kneeling, half kneeling, etc.

Choose any chest press variation that

Exercise #5: involves minimal equipment such as
45-60 Superset: #4
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-10 pushups, explosive hand clap pushups,
sec and #5 feet elevated pushups, band resisted
Horizontal Push
chest presses, or other.

Choose any glute bridge or hip thrust

Exercise #6: performed in an eccentric isometric
45-60 Superset: #6,
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-10 fashion (don't touch the floor). This
sec #7, and #8 includes single leg and double leg
Glute Bridge
versions.
Choose any hinge variation including
Exercise #7: RDL's with bands or bodyweight
45-60 Superset: #6,
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-10 including single leg or double leg
sec #7, and #8 variations. Also single leg RDL's with
Hip Hinge
explosive jumps.
Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or split
Exercise #8: squat variation performed in a non-walking
45-60 Superset: #6,
Eccentric Isometric 2 6-8 fashion that involves minimal or no
sec #7, and #8 equipment including resistance bands or
Lunge
bodyweight variations as well as eyes closed
Choose any pulldown that involves
Exercise #9: anchoring bands to the top of a door
45-60 Superset: #9
Eccentric Isometric 3 6-10 post, or use pullups if there is access to
sec and #10 pullup bar. Also band resisted pullovers
Vertical Pull
would suffice here.

Exercise #10: Choose any overhead press variation

45-60 Superset: #9 with bands including standing, kneeling,
Eccentric Isometric 3 5-8 seated, half kneeling, double arm, single
sec and #10
Vertical Push arm, etc.
Exercise #11:
Optional 10’ of
additional isolation Choose band curls, shoulder raises, tricep pressdowns, calve exercises, etc.
drills with bands or
minimal equipment

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Template Twenty-Nine
ADVANCED CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE A

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

Superset: #1, squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #1: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
45-90 #2, #3, #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 2-6 front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #5, #6, #7, stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
and #8 perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Superset: #1, Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #2: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
45-90 #2, #3, #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-7 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #5, #6, #7, rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows, trap
Horizontal Pull
and #8 bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Superset: #1, flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Exercise #3:
45-90 #2, #3, #4, kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 2-6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec #5, #6, #7,
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
and #8
presses, etc.

Superset: #1, Choose any hinge variation including

Exercise #4:
60-90 #2, #3, #4, RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec #5, #6, #7,
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.
and #8
Superset: #1, Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or
Exercise #5:
60-90 #2, #3, #4, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 walking fashion using barbells,
sec #5, #6, #7,
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
and #8
Superset: #1, Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup
Exercise #6:
75-90 #2, #3, #4, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-7 any grip position with the exception of
sec #5, #6, #7,
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)
and #8
Superset: #1, Choose any overhead press including
Exercise #7:
75-90 #2, #3, #4, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-6 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec #5, #6, #7,
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)
and #8

Choose any plank, single arm plank,

Exercise #8: single leg plank, weighted plank, Pallof
Superset: #1, press, ab rollout, quadruped, or anti-
Optional Plank or
20-40 75-90 #2, #3, #4, extension exercise. If lower body
Anti Extension 2-3 stability and foot and ankle control are
sec sec #5, #6, #7,
Exercise or Single more of a weakness choose something
and #8
Leg Balance Drill like a single leg stand variation (i.e. single
leg swap )

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Thirty
ADVANCED CONTEXTUAL INTERFERENCE ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE B

EXERCISE SETS REPS REST SUPERSET NOTES

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet

Superset: #1, squat, trap bar squat, Zercher, front
Exercise #1: squat, landmine, kettlebell, dumbbell,
45-90 #2, #3, #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-6 front curled, etc. Also if core and spinal
sec #5, #6, #7, stabilizers need additional activation
Squat
and #8 perform any plank variation 60-90 sec
before squats.

Superset: #1, Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup

Exercise #2:
45-90 #2, #3, #4, machine, or lat pulldown variation with
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 any grip position with the exception of
sec #5, #6, #7,
Vertical Pull an extremely wide grip)
and #8

Superset: #1, Choose any overhead press including

Exercise #3:
45-90 #2, #3, #4, barbell, dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-6 up, trap bar, landmine, high incline,
sec #5, #6, #7,
Vertical Push kneeling, etc.)
and #8

Superset: #1, Choose any rowing variation such as

Exercise #4: seated rows, bent over rows, inverted
60-90 #2, #3, #4,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-5 rows, incline rows, one arm rows, T-bar
sec #5, #6, #7, rows, machine rows, kettlebell rows,
Horizontal Pull
and #8 trap bar rows, etc.

Choose any chest press variation such as

Superset: #1, flat, incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells,
Exercise #5:
60-90 #2, #3, #4, kettlebells, pushups, dips, bottoms up
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 variations, specialty bar, rings, floor
sec #5, #6, #7,
Horizontal Push press, head off, t-bench, leg raise
and #8
presses, etc.

Superset: #1, Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or

Exercise #6:
75-90 #2, #3, #4, split squat variation performed in a non-
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 4-6 walking fashion using barbells,
sec #5, #6, #7,
Lunge dumbbells, kettlebells, specialty bars, etc.
and #8

Superset: #1, Choose any hinge variation including

Exercise #7:
60-90 #2, #3, #4, RDL's with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 2-3 3-5 single leg RDL's, pull throughs, good
sec #5, #6, #7,
Hip Hinge mornings, etc.
and #8

Choose any clean, snatch, jump shrug,

Exercise #8: Superset: #1, power shrug, explosive pushup, squat
Optional Explosive 45-90 #2, #3, #4, jump, or lunge jump exercise but with
2-3 2-4 an eccentric isometric protocol on the
Eccentric Isometric sec #5, #6, #7,
Exercise and #8 eccentric phase and explosive
component on the concentric phase

Exercise #9:
Optional 10-20 Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts of
Minutes of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Template Thirty-One
RAPID ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC ROUTINE

Choose any squat, back squat, goblet squat, trap

bar squat, Zercher, front squat, landmine,
Exercise #1: Rapid 45- Superset: kettlebell, dumbbell, front curled, etc. Also if
Eccentric Isometric 4 4-5 90 #1, #2, core and spinal stabilizers need additional
Squat Protocol sec and #3 activation perform any plank variation 60-90
sec before squats. Perform 1st set as standard
EI then last 3 sets as rapid EI's.

Choose any rowing variation such as seated

Exercise #2: Rapid 45- Superset: rows, bent over rows, inverted rows, incline
Eccentric Isometric 4 4-6 90 #1, #2, rows, one arm rows, T-bar rows, machine rows,
Horizontal Pull sec and #3 kettlebell rows, trap bar rows, etc. Perform 1st
set as standard EI then last 3 sets as rapid EI's.

Choose any chest press variation such as flat,

Exercise #3: Rapid 45- Superset: incline, decline, barbell, dumbbells, kettlebells,
pushups, dips, bottoms up variations, specialty
Eccentric Isometric 4 4-5 90 #1, #2, bar, rings, floor press, head off, t-bench, leg
Horizontal Push sec and #3 raise presses, etc. Perform 1st set as standard EI
then last 3 sets as rapid EI's.

Choose any hinge variation including RDL's

Exercise #4: Rapid 60- Superset: with barbell, dumbbells, trap bar, single leg
Eccentric Isometric Hip 3-4 3-5 90 #4 and RDL's, pull throughs, good mornings, etc.
Hinge sec #5 Perform 1st set as standard EI then last 2-3 sets
as rapid EI's.

Choose any lunge, Bulgarian squat, or split

Exercise #5: Rapid 60- Superset: squat variation performed in a non-walking
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-6 90 #4 and fashion using barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells,
Lunge sec #5 specialty bars, etc. Perform 1st set as standard
EI then last 2-3 sets as rapid EI's.

Choose any pullup, chin-up, pullup machine, or

Exercise #6: Rapid 75- Superset: lat pulldown variation with any grip position
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-5 90 #6 and with the exception of an extremely wide grip).
Vertical Pull sec #7 Perform 1st set as standard EI then last 2-3 sets
as rapid EI's.

Choose any overhead press including barbell,

Exercise #7: Rapid 75- Superset: dumbbell, kettlebells, bottoms up, trap bar,
Eccentric Isometric 3-4 4-5 90 #6 and landmine, high incline, kneeling, etc.). Perform
Vertical Push sec #7 1st set as standard EI then last 2-3 sets as rapid
EI's.

Exercise #8: Optional

10 Minutes of 10 Minutes of Additional Eccentric Isometric Exercises to Target Weaknesses
Additional Eccentric This includes isolation drills such as leg extensions, leg curls, leg press, glute bridges, calves,
triceps, biceps, delt raises, flyes or additional compound movements. All variations are
Isometric Exercises or performed with eccentric isometrics even isolation movements. Finishers can be used
Rapid EI's to Target sparingly (i.e. sled pushes or battle ropes).
Weaknesses

Exercise #9: Optional

Walk barefoot or in minimalist shoes at brisk pace outdoors or on treadmill. Periodic bursts
10-20 Minutes of of running or jogging can also be interspersed throughout.
Barefoot Walking

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Movement Redefined
MOVEMENT REDEFINED | DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

Chapter 9

Pain
Science
Muscle Function
& Eccentric Isometrics

HELPING YOU LIVE WELL & TRAIN HARD

Movement Redefined 366
 - CHAPTER 9 -
MOVEMENT REDEFINED | DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

CHAPTER 9
Pain Science
Muscle Function ,
& Eccentric Isometrics

he field of neuroscience has taught us that the mechanisms

T
underlying the sensation of pain are highly complex.
Unfortunately, these findings have given way to a troubling trend
in the fitness industry, which is to overcomplicate the treatment
of musculoskeletal derived pain. In other words, the treatment of
this type of pain, once considered a simple topic, has now been
re-defined by so called “pain experts” and “pain gurus” with such lofty,
convoluted, and esoteric logic it’s almost impossible for even a Rhodes scholar
to comprehend.

On the one hand, yes, the processes leading to the perception of pain, and the
factors that modulate pain, including psychological factors such as fear, stress
and anxiety, are so complex we may never fully understand them. Yet for anyone
who’s ever experienced pain, perception is reality. We can talk in circles, and
debate and argue over which physiological, psychological or environmental
factors are ultimately responsible for pain, and the systems involved, but in the
end, fancy charts and lofty explanations aside, the concept of pain consistently
comes down to one key element: the “Ouch Factor”!!! In other words,
something hurts – which often means something is inflamed.

In fact, inflammation and pain are highly correlated as discussed extensively in

previous chapters. More specifically, the sensation of pain, including chronic
pain is often associated with joint and or muscular inflammation, injury,
osteoarthritis, myositis, muscle spasticity, joint stress and other common forms
of discomfort, all of which are linked to heightened markers of inflammation.
Ironically, many pain scientists often ignore these physiological elements,
pointing instead to the psychological or psychosomatic factors. Additionally,

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they often suggest that therein lies the answer to pain and that many individuals
simply have a distorted understanding of pain which drives much of their
discomfort, hence the need for pain neuroscience education therapy (PNE).
However, quantifiable indicators of inflammation, including blood tests and
other biochemical markers, suggest a very strong physiological component that
likely plays a key role in most forms of pain, including chronic and/or acute
forms.

Pa in a n d In fla m m a tio n R es ea r c h

While it is impossible to narrow pain down to one single component, or even

prove that a particular factor is ultimately responsible for causing pain, studies of
pain and inflammation suggest that much of the pain individuals experience is
likely linked to their musculoskeletal system. Additionally, these studies support
the notion that pain is oftentimes a byproduct of one’s movement mechanics
and muscle dysfunction, rather than a figment of one’s imagination that elicits a
distorted perception of pain.

Having covered this topic of body mechanics and its impact on pain and
inflammation in in Chapter 2, lets now examine what many in the industry
consider to be the flipside of this research, namely pain science.

A s ym pto m a tic S pin a l D eg en er a tiv e

D is ea s e

A common area of research that “pain scientists” rely on to support the

argument that pain is predominantly a matter of perception is found in the
literature on asymptomatic spinal degenerative disease. For instance, numerous
studies have shown that in many individuals who present without significant pain
or injury to their spine there is, actually, significant evidence of spinal
degeneration based on MRI, CT, and other imaging findings [1]. While
asymptomatic spinal degeneration has been reported in nearly all age groups, the
prevalence appears to increase with age, suggesting that spinal degeneration may
simply be part of the normal aging process.

Unfortunately, many pain scientists and professionals in the health and fitness
industry have largely misinterpreted these results to suggest, therefore, that the
basis for much of the pain individuals experience is cognitive and affective in
nature rather than physiological. Unfortunately, this could not be further from

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the truth. In fact, a look at the degenerative changes detected via imaging in
asymptomatic individuals may help shed some light on the topic of pain science
and support the fact that the perception of pain is not simply affective in nature
but rather a byproduct of muscle dysfunction. That being said, there are 5
possible explanations for why spinal degenerative changes can be found on
imaging of asymptomatic individuals:

1. Tes t R elia b ility Is s u es

Perhaps the most plausible explanation is related to the method of analysis.

Most, if not all, studies of spinal degeneration in asymptomatic individuals were
performed with one key intent – namely to determine whether traditional forms
of imaging, such as MRI and CT, are accurate and effective methods for
evaluating patients with back pain. However, as shown by many studies [1, 2],
MRI and CT findings cannot reliably, effectively, or accurately be used to
determine the cause of back pain, as there does not appear to be a strong
correlation between degenerative changes on imaging and the presence or degree
of low back pain.

In essence, it appears current and traditional forms of imaging in asymptomatic

individuals frequently show what could be referred to as ‘false positives’, not in
the strict sense of the word, but in the sense that degenerative spine findings
would typically be considered reflective of spinal pathology. In other words,
MRI and CT findings of spinal degeneration in apparently healthy individuals
may be interpreted as signs of injury or trauma where there is none. These
results suggest that these methods alone, cannot, and should not, be used for
diagnostic purposes in asymptomatic populations but must be interpreted in the
context of the patient’s condition.

Additionally, it appears that patient self-reported levels of pain and disability, or

lack thereof, are significantly more reliable than MRI and CT as evidence of
actual injury, particularly in asymptomatic individuals. In other words, in the
absence of pain or obvious trauma, regardless of MRI or CT findings, it is
unlikely the patient has suffered a significant injury and therefore, does not need
to be clinically treated. Furthermore, it is also unlikely the incidental finding of
spinal degeneration by MRI or CT in an asymptomatic patient reflects the fact
that the patient was somehow injured yet feels no pain. What is more likely is
they were not injured in the first place and the degree of degeneration is not as
extreme as the imaging tests may suggest.

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However, it does appear that MRI and CT may be an accurate means of

confirming injury, trauma, and degeneration in patients that report feeling pain
and discomfort, or present symptoms following an injury. Simply put, MRI and
CT should not be used to asses injury but rather to confirm injury in patients
who present with low back pain or report an injury.

2. S ev er ity o f D eg en er a tiv e C h a n g es

A second plausible explanation may be related to the severity of injury. In other

words, the fact that MRI and CT can more accurately confirm rather than
evaluate an injury may be explained by another key factor that many pain
scientists tend to ignore, namely, that imaging findings in most, if not all, studies
are not stratified or reported by the degree of severity but rather “occurrence vs.
non-occurrence”. In fact, the authors of the meta analysis described above
postulate that it is possible that asymptomatic individuals have less severe
degenerative changes than those with symptoms. Simply put, it’s likely that the
discrepancy observed between imaging findings and the presence or absence of
symptoms is often due to the fact that the magnitude or severity of structural
injury/trauma is not reported. If the severity of injury were reported it’s likely
we may see a significant difference in terms of imaging findings when comparing
asymptomatic vs. symptomatic patients, with symptomatic patients most likely
showing more severe degeneration.

This is consistent with the fact that while signs of spinal degeneration have been
detected by MRI and CT in asymptomatic individuals, the prevalence of
degenerative spine findings in this population is not as high as that observed in
symptomatic individuals. In fact, one meta analysis showed that spinal
degeneration and spinal injuries are more prevalent in individuals who report back
pain compared with asymptomatic individuals. This further supports the notion
that the pain associated with these findings is likely a result of actual injury and
structural trauma and not simply a matter of perception or mental state [2].

3. Tim es c a le o f D eg en er a tiv e C h a n g es .

Another factor that may contribute to some of the findings observed in

asymptomatic populations is related to the timescale of development of spinal
degeneration. As previously discussed, some individuals who show signs of
significant spinal degeneration don’t necessarily report feeling pain at the time of

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their MRI or CT evaluation. However, a recent review describes a unique trend

across multiple studies showing that in asymptomatic individuals, the
development of various forms of spinal stenosis over a 10-year period was
associated with future development of neck pain [3]. Simply put, the fact that a
person shows signs of spinal degeneration, or even injury, yet is asymptomatic
does not mean they won’t experience future issues. In other words, spinal
degeneration in asymptomatic individuals could represent red flags and warning
signs of future issues that, if left untreated, could eventually become problematic.
Significantly, preliminary investigations and anecdotal data suggest that spinal
stenosis may be strongly related to posture, further reinforcing the notion that
treating postural aberrations via proper exercise selection, execution and
neuromuscular re-education techniques such as eccentric isometrics may play a
key role in preventing pain associated with spinal stenosis.

4 . Pa in D es en s itiza tio n

Yet another plausible explanation as to why evidence of spinal degenerative

changes can be found in asymptomatic patients may relate to pain
desensitization. As previously mentioned, pain desensitization is not ideal yet it
is, in fact, a common problem amongst aging individuals who, as a result, fail to
heed the proper warning signs and symptoms of a potential threat of injury.
Thus, individuals who experience pain desensitization may be more prone to
extreme injuries and catastrophic trauma. Perhaps not surprisingly, the
prevalence of spinal degenerative changes in asymptomatic individuals appears to
increase significantly with age suggesting that pain desensitization may be a key
factor contributing to these findings. Although pain desensitization occurs more
frequently and strongly in aging populations, such an undesirable physiological
phenomenon can easily occur in individuals of any age if their bodies are forced
to adapt to enough inflammation, trauma, and injury.

5. In d iv id u a l v a r ia b ility a n d th e r o le
m u s c u lo s k eleta l a n d n eu ro m u s c u la r
fa c to r s

As previously shown, many forms of spinal degeneration do not cause pain. However,
many forms of spinal pain are associated with and linked to spinal degeneration. It’s
likely that the severity of the injuries, as well as the magnitude of injury/degeneration
needed to eventually manifest as pain differs from person to person.

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Factors that may contribute to this individual variability and likely play a key role
in determining how much a given level of degeneration causes pain include
musculoskeletal and neuromuscular factors, such as the level of muscular
strength, mobility, stability, and function around the injured areas (e.g. resting
length of the muscles around the spine). That is, spinal degeneration in the
presence of weak core muscles, poor low back strength, muscle dysfunction, as
well as suboptimal length of associated muscle fibers (i.e. spastic or hypertonic
muscles) may be associated with pain more often.

In contrast, spinal degeneration present in individuals with relatively greater

levels of core strength and optimal muscle function may be less frequently
associated with pain. Simply put, the muscles that surround the injured or
degenerating regions may play a more pivotal role than the injury itself when it
comes to experiencing pain. With this in mind, optimal muscle function and
body mechanics becomes even more paramount in the discussion of pain
management. It also further highlights how and why the consistent application
of eccentric isometric training protocols is so invaluable for all populations.

Finally, just as asymptomatic individuals may show signs of spinal degeneration

on imaging, some individuals who manifest pain may not show signs of injury or
structural damage upon MRI and CT evaluation. This is likely due to the fact
that not all pain is structural, spinal, or joint related but can often be of a
muscular nature such as spastic muscles. In fact, muscular injury and muscular
inflammation can cause and contribute to pain just as much as spinal injuries and
joint trauma. However, consistent and repeated muscular injuries may eventually
result in structural trauma and injury to the associated regions particularly if
unaddressed.

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Misinterpretation
of Neuroscience
Pain Education
There’s no doubt that an individual’s perception and experience of pain can have
a significant impact on their quality of life as, among other things, it can either
promote or prevent physical activity. In fact, this is perhaps the single most
critical finding reported by the field of pain science and, more specifically, the
field of NPE or neuroscience pain education, which aims to educate individuals
on pain-related biology as a means of changing their understanding of pain. In
essence, it has helped individuals understand the importance of remaining
physically active, rather than avoid physical activity, by reducing their pain-
related and activity-related fear, allowing them to participate in physical activities
even if they’re experiencing pain. This is in contrast to the decades- and
centuries-old recommendation by well respected physicians to rest, immobilize,
and minimize (if not altogether eliminate) physical activity when battling bodily
pain, discomfort, fatigue, and injury, one of the most ineffective and quite
frankly counterproductive treatments ever suggested by the medical field and
physicians.

Many individuals who struggle with pain, injuries, inflammation, fatigue, and
other medical issues fear physical activity and believe being physically active will
only worsen their conditions. Advocating inactivity and body immobilization
reinforces their fear of physical activity, and it is this lack of activity that
oftentimes worsens their condition. Fortunately, over the last decade the field of
neuroscience pain education (NPE), as well as other areas of research, have
shown that maintaining physical activity, and simply moving the body via light to
moderate activities (i.e. walking, shopping, gardening, cleaning, hiking, light
cardio etc.) is one of the healthiest and most beneficial treatments for this
population, not to mention most human beings.

Unfortunately, many trainers, strength coaches, fitness experts, and "pain gurus'
have misunderstood NPE, and completely misinterpreted and distorted these
findings. As a result they have erroneously applied what are common
misconceptions of NPE to the fields of biomechanics and neuromuscular
physiology as they relate to strength training, athletics, high intensity physical
activity, high impact movements, weightlifting, and high level sports

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performance. This has done unprecedented, and in many ways irreparable,

damage to the field of kinesiology, as it's perpetuated the fallacious notion that
body mechanics, technique, form, and joint positioning during high force and
high impact activities are essentially irrelevant or relatively unimportant since
each person can and should move the way he or she desires with no
ramifications and consequences.

Essentially, many of these "pain experts" have entirely misconstrued the results
of NPE studies and suggested that there's no such thing as wrong or right ways
to move, or good or bad mechanics, as each person will have their own unique
method of movement. Furthermore, the thought in the pain science community
is that, if pain does exist, these individuals simply need to be educated about pain
through neuroscience pain education therapy (NPE) via learning modules,
discussions, and educational sessions, so as to change their perception of
pain. In addition to the studies discussed earlier that highlight the relationship
between pain and body mechanics, there are several additional flaws in this
misconstrued NPE ideology highlighted most notably by pain science research
itself.

Th e Tr u th A b o u t N eu r o s c ien c e Pa in
Ed u c a tio n

Over the last decade, the topic of pain neuroscience education (PNE),
neurophysiological pain education (NPE) therapy, and its impact on pain, have
been extensively studied. Although the results vary, the general consensus based
on studies, literature reviews, and meta analyses is that NPE, as a standalone
therapy, is only mildly effective at best.

For instance, a recent study demonstrated that PNE did not reduce the levels of
pain in individuals with chronic spinal pain [4]. However, secondary outcomes
such as perceived threat of movement (catastrophizing) and fear of movement
causing pain (kinesiophobia) were reduced. Simply put, PNE did positively shift
the study subjects’ mindset in regards to staying physically active, although the
level of pain and disability from the treatment remained unchanged. However, it
could be argued that increasing activity levels in and of itself, by going from a
relatively sedentary state, as is common for many patients with chronic pain, to a
physically active state, may constitute an important ingredient when it comes to
helping reduce pain and improve overall health.

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Some studies have reported mild improvements in the levels of pain.

Unfortunately, the degree of improvement as well as the long-term effects
appear to be quite small. In fact, in a recent study PNE appeared to slightly
reduce the levels of pain in individuals with chronic neck pain [5]. However, the
effects did not reach statistical significance, thus minimizing the usefulness of
PNE in practical settings.

Another recent study demonstrated that PNE treatment had no significant effect
on perceived disability due to pain (Pain Disability Index) yet, as has been
reported by others, a positive effect on kinesiophobia and several subscales
regarding perception of pain, including the negative consequences of movement,
were observed. However, the effect sizes were again relatively small, leading the
authors to conclude that clinical utilization of PNE may be limited. The authors
further suggested that PNE should not be used as the sole treatment modality
for pain but should be combined with other treatment strategies.

Even more noteworthy are two very recent literature reviews and meta-analyses.
The study results described in one of the reviews indicate there is low to
moderate evidence that the addition of PNE to usual physiotherapy intervention
in patients with low back pain improves disability in the short-term [6].
However, this meta-analysis failed to show evidence of any long-term
improvement on pain or disability. Therefore, once again, the usefulness of PNE
as an effective treatment is limited.

Perhaps the most promising findings in support of NPE therapy were reported
in a recent review by Tegner et al. [7]. In this case studies found moderate
evidence that NPE has a small to moderate effect on pain, and low evidence of a
small to moderate effect on disability immediately after the intervention.
Additionally, NPE was shown to have a small to moderate effect on pain and
disability at 3 months follow-up.

So what can we conclude from all these studies? At best, it appears NPE may
have a relatively small, positive impact on the level of pain in the short-term, but
less of an impact in the long term. However, there does appear to be greater
evidence in support of the notion that NPE may help reduce fear of movement
in individuals with pain, yet the actual impact on disability appears to be minimal
at best.

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Th e R ea l R ea s o n N PE W o r k s

With that being said, let’s examine the most likely explanation as to why NPE
may provide a slight degree of pain relief. In essence, NPE appears to help
individuals who are inactive and sedentary minimize their fear of pain and
understand the importance of staying physically active. Simply put, adding in
light physical activity and resuming a moderately active life style is a surefire
method to improve almost any and all forms of physical disability and maladies,
not just pain related issues.

However, few, if any of the studies on NPE/PNE mention anything about

engaging in high force, high impact, and high intensity physical activity such as
sports, weightlifting, jumping, sprinting, strength training etc. nor do they
suggest that biomechanics are irrelevant. They simply highlight the importance
of staying physically active (i.e. walking, cleaning, hiking, moving, shopping,
etc.).

However, even in terms of staying physically active, these studies are quite
inconclusive, showing that NPE techniques are only mildly effective at best, and
mainly effective in the short term. In reality, the true long-term solution is to
improve body mechanics, technique, muscle activation, body alignment, and
movement efficiency. Educating individuals on the importance of movement
and the need to stay active is simply the first step in the right direction, but by no
means represents the end goal, or the final step in reaching the desired
resolution.

O b v io u s C o n c lu s io n s A b o u t Pa in
S c ien c e, B o d y M ec h a n ic s , a n d N PE

Given that most studies show that the effectiveness of NPE appears to be
moderate at best, the question becomes how, in fact, did the existing pain
science trend in the fitness industry become so popular? To best answer this
question requires a brief history of the industry.

Er r o r Lea d s to M o r e Er r o r

The popularization of the misguided modern day “pain science” theory currently
perpetuated in the fitness industry, which suggests that most pain is a matter of
perception and there is, in fact, no such thing as wrong or right ways to move,

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can be traced back to 2 primary factors, namely 1) the failure of the functional
fitness trend and 2) attempts to justify this failure by incompetent and/or
uneducated trainers.

To fully grasp the significance of these issues it’s important to first take a step
back and define what I refer to as the 3 major trends in the fitness industry: 1)
the bigger, stronger, faster trend, 2) the functional fitness trend, and 3) the pain
science trend.

The bigger, stronger, faster trend spanned an approximately 20-year time period,
from the early 80’s to the early 2000’s, essentially representing the first major
trend in the field of exercise science. This trend relied primarily on a
combination of old school strength methods, bodybuilding, powerlifting, and
Olympic lifting techniques. While athletes did, in fact, become bigger, faster,
and stronger than they had in prior decades, there also seemed to be a relatively
high incidence of injuries including lifting related injuries.

This paved the way for the functional fitness trend as it allowed professionals in
the industry to provide a potential solution by suggesting that these injuries and
aches and pains were not par for the course when it came to training, but simply
a matter of improper application of training principles, including the failure to
address various forms of muscle dysfunction and movement aberrations. The
functional fitness trend, which began with a powerful surge in the mid 2000’s,
utilized a variety of training methods ranging from muscle assessment, corrective
exercises, stabilization drills, mobility exercises, soft tissue work, motor control
techniques, biomechanical manipulations, and more.

Unfortunately, the functional fitness trend represents one of the most heart
breaking stories in the fitness industry. On the one hand its inception brought
excitement to the field, as it appeared to provide a potential rationale and
explanation, as well as a solution, to the pain, various injuries, and inflammation
brought on by the bigger stronger faster trend. However, despite some slight
improvements in terms of injury prevention, the functional fitness trend began
to gradually decline around 2014 as the results never lived up to expectations and
the predicted outcomes never materialized.

Like many trends in the fitness industry, the functional fitness trend’s
disappointing results were not so much a matter of flawed concept but a matter
of faulty implementation of scientific principles as they applied to the practical
setting. That is, the idea that individuals need to improve their body mechanics,
eliminate dysfunction, master their technique, and enhance muscle function in

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order to minimize injuries and maximize health, fitness, and performance was, in
fact, the necessary mindset, particularly given the issues produced by the bigger,
faster, stronger trend.

Unfortunately, the fitness industry failed to precisely define what proper

movement and body mechanics entailed, therefore, the ability to “improve body
mechanics”, eliminate dysfunction, and minimize injuries could be taken only so
far. As a result, many trainers, practitioners, kinesiologists, coaches, and
therapists alike began to gradually jump off the functional fitness band wagon in
favor of a more tantalizing theory, promoted by the pain science fad, which
suggested that the reason they could not eliminate many of the injuries and
associated pain had less to do with body mechanics and more to do with
people’s mental perception of pain. For many in this field, such a theory was
both convenient and appealing, as it represented a legitimate way to rationalize
many of the failed attempts of the functional fitness trend, as well as their own
failed attempts at eliminating pain and injuries in their, and their clients’ bodies.

As the pain science fad continued to evolve many trainers and practitioners,
particularly those that rely heavily on the modern day “pain science” argument,
compounded this misguided philosophy by taking it to the extreme, suggesting
that "there is no such thing as proper or improper technique, "good or bad
mechanics", or "proper or improper posture". Although the fitness industry as a
whole is partly to blame for such a fallacious doctrine, this simply became a way
for uneducated trainers and incompetent practitioners to justify their inability to
help clients eliminate pain and dysfunction, not to mention their inability to
properly coach movements.

A competent trainer will take the time to learn his or her craft, meticulously
implement their knowledge then, inevitably, come to the realization that while
there may be subtle individual differences, there is in, fact, an optimal and proper
method of performing most movements that happens to be quite similar from
person to person. When applied properly, these protocols, such as the eccentric
isometric methods highlighted in this text, help eliminate most of the pain felt by
their athletes and clients, as well as themselves. Unfortunately, the ideology
espoused by the “pain science” fad has attempted to nullify this approach and in
many ways has done irreparable damage to the fitness industry.

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D a n g er o u s A d v ic e Lea d s To D ir e
C o n s eq u en c es

The worst advice we can give an athlete or individual engaging in physically

demanding, high-force activities such as strength training, sprinting, running,
jumping, etc. is that body mechanics and technique aren't that important. The
notion that we need to empower/encourage people to workout and train
without fear of biomechanical-related injuries, rather than instruct them on how
improve their body mechanics, is analogous to telling someone who chooses to
snort cocaine that we support their decision to self-medicate, and we want to
empower them to make their own choices, rather than warn them about the long
term consequences of their illicit drug use.

As professionals in this field it's our job and responsibility to educate people on
proper mechanics, not encourage them to make unsafe decisions by telling them
to train through pain, without worrying about the negative repercussions. For
example, an athlete who repeatedly injures their ACL due to constant valgus
knee and valgus ankle collapse needs to be educated and trained to eliminate
such movement aberrations. The worst thing we can do is encourage them to
keep working through these forms of dysfunction by suggesting that the pain is
predominantly in their mind.

Another classic example is that of individuals with poor postural and pressing
mechanics who perform bench press movements while experiencing continual
shoulder issues, pain, and inflammation. Advising them to continue working
through their discomfort by suggesting it's all in their mind and is simply a pain
mechanism they need to learn to tune out, represents a philosophy that’s setting
these individuals up for disaster and recurring injuries, with each injury
oftentimes becoming worse and worse. In reality, what would provide the
necessary solution for their pain and inflammation is addressing shoulder
mechanics, posture, technique, and muscle activation.

Empowering people to work through injuries and significant pain by suggesting

it's all in their mind will actually promote the recurrence of pain and injury, the
end result being they become even more afraid to workout until eventually they
cease to engage in that form of physical activity altogether. Unfortunately, the
very thing the "pain experts" are attempting to avoid (fear of movement) is the
very thing they end up promoting with their flawed and misconstrued
philosophies. Educating individuals on how to move correctly is essentially what
“frees them up”, as they'll notice how movements which once caused pain,

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injury, and inflammation, can actually be performed without negative

consequences, provided they keep their body mechanics in check. This is how
we successfully empower individuals to reach their health, fitness, and
performance goals.

S c a les o f M o v em en t In ten s ity

The idea that there's no such thing as a right or wrong technique needs to be
examined on a scale of movement. Although highly debatable, one could make
an argument that there is no such things as "right or wrong" posture or "good or
bad" mechanics when it comes to low force and low intensity activity as well as
resting states. This isn't to suggest that body mechanics are irrelevant during
such activities, only that they are not as critical. However, the greater the
magnitude of the forces involved, the more urgent it is to reconsider and revise
this ideology as there are, in fact, optimal body mechanics both for producing
and absorbing high level forces and impact. Based on various principles of
neurophysiology, biomechanics, osteokinematics, and muscle physiology,
optimal body mechanics during high force scenarios can be narrowed down to
such precise parameters that optimal human movement should and will, in fact,
look quite similar from human to human when performed correctly.

For instance, the topic of joint centration, as simple and as elementary as it

seems, simply highlights the notion that when tension and forces are equally and
properly distributed across the entire joint, as well as across the various joints,
muscles, and connective tissue that are involved, the risk of injury and
inflammation is markedly reduced. Such an outcome can only be achieved
through optimal biomechanics and proper muscle activation, as it's ultimately the
muscles that determine whether or not the joints and connective tissue are in
their proper position to amply absorb, distribute, and disperse these forces.
When activation and recruitment are amiss, more tension is placed across a
particular area of a joint, or excessively on one specific joint rather than across all
the involved joints, structures, or regions of the body. In other words, the
consequences of faulty movement is much more severe under high force
scenarios as compared to low force activities.

Unfortunately, many athletes have neither maximized their genetic potential in

terms of performance, nor minimized their risk for injury, as most of them simply
don't move with proper mechanics. However, this in no way implies that it’s
unnecessary to train for optimal body mechanics. We may never achieve perfect

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mechanics, but at least by training for it we can come as close to it, and maximize
our God-given genetic potential as much as is humanly possible. Additionally, just
because some athletes can perform well using faulty mechanics in no way suggests
that these movement aberrations are optimal. It may take weeks, months, years
and sometimes decades, but faulty mechanics and muscle dysfunction will
eventually produce physiological consequences and adverse health effects.

S o lets r ec a p th e m a in ta k ea w a y
po in ts a b o u t N eu r o s c ien c e Pa in
Ed u c a tio n .

1. NPE alone is, at best, only mildly effective for reducing pain or associated
symptoms of pain. Furthermore, any benefit appears to be short-term
with little if any carryover in the long-term alleviation of the pain.

2. The mild and limited findings from NPE studies highlight the
importance of staying physically active via low intensity activities (i.e.
walking, gardening, hiking, shopping cleaning, etc.)

3. Studies of NPE were never intended to minimize the importance of

body mechanics and its impact on injury and pain. In fact, studies
clearly show that poor body mechanics are strongly associated with
increased pain, injury, and inflammation.

4. Trainers, as well as many segments of the fitness industry, have

misconstrued these in an attempt to rationalize and justify their own
failures at applying "proper body mechanics" and technique to their own
training and that of their athletes.

Th e O b v io u s S o lu tio n

Although it may be obvious at this point, the solution for treating a majority of
injuries, pain, and inflammation is quite simple: teach people to move properly
by eliminating their muscle dysfunction and enhancing their body mechanics.
This requires first and foremost that we analyze, define, and specify exactly what
is meant by proper movement all of which has been addressed extensively in
previous chapters. That being said, I believe there’s one final element to
highlight that many readers may find interesting as it provides additional support
for the aforementioned solution based on my own 15+ years of experience in
the industry.

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M y O w n A n ec d o ta l Ex p er ien c e

I realize highlighting my own personal experience and anecdotal rationale is only

mildly persuasive at best, as it simply represents numerous examples of n=1.
And while I’m a strong believer in scientific investigation, I’m also a strong
advocate for analyzing experiential evidence and personal examples, particularly
when the number of repeated occurrences is high and they are further bolstered
by the scientific literature.

Although I’ve been training clients and athletes for over 15 years, the last 8 years
have been quite unique as I’ve created a niche in my training business by helping
individuals resolve pain, injuries, and inflammation that they were unable to
resolve using other methods and therapeutic modalities. These individuals range
from pro athletes, bodybuilders, high school athletes, fitness enthusiasts, and
every day business men and women seeking a remedy for their pain. It’s also
worth noting that my services are oftentimes a last resort and final attempt to
find relief for their pain. That’s because my services are not covered by
insurance companies since they only cover costs provide by licensed physical
therapists, not muscle physiologists. Therefore, I often work with clients who’ve
tried a wide range of therapies and medical treatments for months, if not years,
with little if any relief.

Throughout the past 8+ years I’ve literally seen this scenario repeat itself in an
almost daily fashion. That is, teach the person how to move properly and the
pain not only greatly dissipates, in many cases it ceases altogether, regardless of
the severity, history, frequency, and/or form of injury. In other words, it almost
always comes down to whether or not the muscles are performing their job
correctly. When movement mechanics and activation patterns are proper, the
muscles are able to absorb incoming forces and impact rather than having a
majority of those forces go to the joints and connective tissue. When mechanics
are amiss, and the individual is not in a position where the muscles can absorb
the incoming forces, then trauma, inflammation, and ultimately pain signals
inevitably occur.

Yes, this is a very simple and archaic way of explaining movement and pain, both
of which are obviously much more complex than this, but from a practical
standpoint, this is exactly what happens.

For example, if the various muscles surrounding the hip joint are not performing
their roles correctly (i.e. absorbing force and producing biomechanically sound

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movement), stress will inevitably be placed on the hip joint and surrounding
connective tissue. Over time this leads to capsular issues, soft tissue
abnormalities, osteoarthritis, and overall joint degeneration. While a physician
may label this as “overuse” or genetically predisposed structural deficiencies,
“improper use” is more accurate.

The body’s joints and connective tissue are incredibly resilient as long as
appropriate muscles are performing their roles correctly and absorbing impact.
Proper muscle function not only prevents joint and tissue trauma, it can help
individuals with even the most severe of injuries including tears, osteoarthritis
and joint degeneration, to avoid surgery and eliminate most if not all associated
pain and other symptoms, although structurally the injuries may still exist.

For example, an individual with a significant rotator cuff injury could avoid
surgery and medical treatment almost indefinitely, regardless of whether or not
the injury structurally healed on its own, if, in fact, that individual’s
neuromuscular system could be properly re-programmed to recruit surrounding
muscles to essentially absorb incoming forces and torque, thereby alleviating
most if not all tension from the injured site. In essence, this individual could
continue to play their sport, move efficiently, and maintain high functionality of
the upper extremities with little if any discomfort. Although there are extreme
and rare cases where surgery and medical treatment are the only viable options,
most injuries can be overcome by re-educating the nervous system and instilling
optimal muscle function.

If this has not been your experience as a coach, trainer, or practitioner in this
field, then you likely need to re-evaluate your coaching skills and gain a better
grasp of proper movement mechanics. Having worked hands on with athletes
and clients for over 15 years, I can tell you undoubtedly this is how movement
and pain works, plain and simple, as I see it occur daily in my own clientele.

The fact is few, if any, forms of pain start off purely as a mental perception,
although the mental component can oftentimes compound the physical. For
example, many individuals who suffer from chronic low back pain exhibit
extreme guarding and are consciously aware of the feeling of pain in their low
back, though oftentimes they perceive the pain to be worse than it is. However,
their perception of pain did not arise spontaneously out of thin air. At some
point in time they began to feel significant physical discomfort in their back that
was real, not a randomly fabricated figment of their imagination. In fact, it is
likely that in nearly every single one of these cases the pain was triggered by a

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physiological event such as faulty postural mechanics, poor spinal alignment,

dysfunctional movement, lack of mobility, aberrations in body mechanics,
impaired core activation, or general back weakness. So yes, the physical
preceded the mental component, however, the mind oftentimes compounds the
physical. Furthermore the mind will never be fully free from pain without the
body adapting first.

We can attempt to convince these individuals until we’re blue in the face that
they can free their mind and use their body and spine like a “normal person”.
And yes, perhaps this will reduce the pain or the perception of pain slightly as
the mind is a powerful tool. But until we teach them to move properly by re-
educating their CNS with appropriate activation patterns, in most cases those
signals of discomfort, pain and potential danger, will not allow them to move in
an uninhibited and/or pain free manner. Teach them step by step how to
properly position their spine, fire their core, stabilize their spine, hinge at their
hips, activate their feet, adjust their extremities, and control their body
mechanics with eccentric isometric protocols, and over time these signals not
only lessen, the sensation of pain is altogether eliminated. That’s because the
movements being performed are no longer perceived as a threat to the body. In
other words, by eliminating dysfunctional movement patterns and correcting
their body mechanics these positions and movements become therapeutic rather
than contra therapeutic.

No doubt there are a myriad factors that impact “pain”, but the one that we have
the most control over, and the one I believe from experience has the most
significant impact on the mechanisms underlying pain, is body mechanics and
muscle function. Teaching someone how to move properly may not eliminate
all of the pain and inflammation in the body but it will eliminate a large part of it,
or at least eliminate the part that is, in fact, reversible. Attempting to eliminate
pain by simply training the mind is, in effect, treating only the symptoms, as the
pain was not just magically conjured up by individuals to have something
interesting to dwell on throughout their busy and tumultuous days. No, the pain
actually stems from inflammation, and that inflammation is a direct result of
dysfunctional movement and aberrant activation patterns. In fact, getting an
individual to tune out the pain when there is a strong degree of inflammation
present amounts to simply masking the discomfort while continuing to induce
further damage on those particular regions and is the worst thing one can do.

So no, attempting to induce some psycho-analytic trance or pre-hypnotic self

efficacy therapy to convince individuals the pain is all in their mind is not the

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answer. What I’m talking about is actually eliminating the root cause of the pain
and getting to the heart of the problem once and for all by addressing the very
thing that caused that “pain “ to register in the person’s mind to begin with – i.e.
faulty mechanics and muscle dysfunction. And yes, it’s that simple, but it does
require that the coach understand and teach what proper mechanics entails as
well as what constitutes dysfunctional mechanics and aberrant movement. If the
coach is unable to do this then yes, they’re probably better off going down the
“psycho hypnotic “and “mental trance” route.

With that said, I want to highlight one final example I’ve observed countless
times in my clients and athletes as a last effort to drive this concept home.

As previously mentioned, I often work with individuals who come to me as a last

resort after years of therapy and other forms of traditional treatment that did
little if anything to resolve their pain and injuries. Not surprisingly, many of
these folks are quite skeptical as they’ve been mentally and psychologically
conditioned to expect minimal relief. Simply put, they expect to feel pain during
our sessions due to their prior history. For instance, if an individual has knee,
hip, or low back pain they’ve struggled with for years, particularly on movements
such as squats, hinges, and lunges, they expect to feel pain and discomfort in the
associated areas whenever performing these movements.

In fact, when I first have them attempt the movement, most individuals visibly
grimace and wince in fear as they begin the movement, expecting the pain to
kick in any second. However, as long as I take the necessary time beforehand
(typically 2-5 minutes per drill) to properly teach and coach them on the proper
lower body mechanics for basic movements such as squats (using eccentric
isometric protocols), not only are they able to perform the movement without
pain and discomfort, their overall levels of pain and inflammation begin to
dissipate, and oftentimes fully subside after 2-8 weeks of consistent training. It’s
actually quite entertaining to watch their facial expressions and the extreme and
visible sense of shock, surprise, awe, and excitement they feel when they’re
“miraculously” able to perform a previously debilitating movement in a pain free
manner. This is often followed by a verbal expression such as “wow, that’s
crazy, I didn’t feel any pain”.

Now, in some instances the individual feels exceptionally less pain and
discomfort but not always full relief during the movement. In fact I’ve noticed
time and again that the level of pain and inflammation produced by a movement
is directly related to the degree to which one deviates from proper mechanics.

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However, once the individual is provided with a few additional cues and coached
to make any adjustments they feel are necessary to eliminate the pain (i.e. self-
correction via sensory feedback using eccentric isometrics), the discomfort
almost always dissipates. Ironically, the position and biomechanics that resolve
the pain end up being nearly identical from person to person, not just in the case
of a handful of exercises but for every movement pattern.

Initially this observation baffled me, as I expected unique differences in

movement mechanics based on individual anthropometrics. However, after
further studying the neurophysiology, biomechanics, and structural physiology of
human movement, it became less surprising and, in fact, quite obvious that such
an occurrence was not only likely but inevitable, as proper movement and proper
body mechanics are nearly identical from human to human. It’s these very
mechanics that provide all the necessary therapy, treatment, and healing an
individual needs to maximize their fitness, health, and performance, while
simultaneously minimizing pain, inflammation, and injuries.

At this point you’re probably asking what exactly constitutes proper movement
mechanics?? Well that, my friends, is a topic for another discussion. In the
mean time you’ll likely find my article on eccentric isometrics an appropriate
starting point.

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Key Points,
Random Thoughts,
and Personal Rants
Not all musculoskeletal issues produce immediate pain. However most
forms of pain can be traced back to musculoskeletal related dysfunction
and faulty mechanics.

By teaching someone to move properly we can eliminate much of the pain

and inflammation they experience.

The degree to which we exhibit proper muscle function and body

mechanics significantly determines the degree of inflammation and pain
we experience in our bodies.

Not all pain is due to faulty muscle activation and body mechanics but
much of it is, and that which is not is in most cases, unfortunately, out of
our control.

I’ve worked with hundreds of individuals with pain and inflammation,

both chronic and acute, whom doctors did not know how to deal with
nor had been able to help. Teaching them to move correctly eliminated
the pain and inflammation 99% of the time. Unfortunately, the other 1%
is oftentimes untreatable.

Our body perceives poor movement as a substantial threat that, if

continued, will inevitably produce injuries. Therefore, what the sensation
of pain or threat of danger is essentially telling us is to stop moving in this
manner and adjust our body mechanics. This is one of the most important
survival mechanisms for human beings.

What I’m referring to here is not the pain that is associated with diseases that will
take researchers an entire lifetime to figure out. I’m referring to the daily pain,
both chronic and acute, that everyone has to deal with on a consistent basis such
as back pain, knee pain, shoulder pain, hip pain, neck pain etc. It’s here that
body mechanics play a critical role. And yes, while biomechanics isn’t the only
factor, it’s the most critical one, and the one we have the most control over.

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Many “pain scientists” get caught up in semantics and the jargon

associated with pain mechanisms and lose sight of the practical
applications and long-term solutions.

When it comes to pain keep it simple: treat the cause, and watch the
“ouch factor” disappear.

No one is denying that “pain experts” do in fact take into consideration

body mechanics. The problem is they underestimate its impact, while
overestimating the effects of other less relevant factors.

If you’re not able to eliminate a majority of pain and inflammation via

proper movement re-education and elimination of muscular dysfunction,
then you’re ability to properly coach body mechanics and movement
patterns needs to be re-evaluated.

Yes, there are many factors that affect pain and inflammation such as diet,
sleep patterns, preexisting trauma or injuries, environmental factors,
pollution, beliefs, mindsets, emotions, and of course movement
mechanics. In the end, movement mechanics is what you can impact the
most, followed very closely by diet and lifestyle factors.

Trainers, coaches, or therapists who overcomplicate the root cause of

pain do so because they can find no other explanation for the pain and are
likely unaware of the fact that their methods are what may, in fact, have
contributed to the pain and inflammation in their clients in the first place.

To understand the value of proper movement you have to first experience

it. Trainers, coaches, or therapists that downplay the importance of using
correct biomechanics have most likely never applied proper mechanics to
their own training or to that of the clients. Oftentimes, they themselves
display numerous forms of dysfunction and movement aberrations in
even the most foundational of movement patterns. As a result they don’t
fully comprehend the power of proper movement, have no understanding
of how damaging faulty movement can be, nor understand how
therapeutic proper movement is for the body. They are, therefore,
inclined to blame their pain and that of their clients on some
unexplainable esoteric reasoning, instead of realizing that most of the pain
is related to their muscle dysfunction.

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Poor mechanics is like smoking. It can take anywhere from months to

decades before the consequences are felt. Eventually it does affect your
health and quality of life. It’s just a matter of time.

To say that our sitting, standing, and walking posture don’t matter is an
illogical approach to body mechanics. The more we engage in high-level
force activities, the more important posture becomes. How we sit
impacts how we stand, and how we stand impacts our gait, which
ultimately seeps into our training mechanics, including high force
activities. This can make us more or less prone to injury depending on
how functional or dysfunctional our movement and posture is.

After working with clients on a consistent basis for months and

sometimes years, I can tell, within the first several minutes of training,
when they've been sitting or standing with slouched posture as it shows
up immediately. When this occurs we typically allocate several minutes to
reeducate their nervous systems on proper alignment before we proceed
to more intense activities.

Pain is not the only negative ramification of poor movement mechanics.

Faulty mechanics can throw off our proprioception, breathing patterns,
balance, digestion, immune function, autonomic nervous system function,
circulation, hormones, biochemistry, and more. For instance, poor
posture causes breathing issues due to a lack of oxygen intake and oxygen
utilization. This causes sympathetic overdrive and dysfunctions in the
autonomic nervous system, which can contribute to digestive issues and
increased acidity. Ironically, these are all linked to increased inflammation,
which has also been shown to accelerate aging, as well as many diseases,
not to mention cause anxiety and other psychological disorders. So yes,
posture definitely matters.

Even if faulty posture doesn’t immediately cause pain, it short-circuits

neural signaling through the spine pathway. This causes reflexive and
neuromuscular hiccups, involuntary twitches, spastic movements, lack of
neuromuscular coordination, faulty recruitment patterns, balance and
stability issues, proprioceptive dysfunction, increased risk of falling,
mobility restrictions, and other muscular issues. Ultimately, these can lead
to various injuries not to mention decreased quality of life.

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Proper posture might not guarantee an injury-free training experience, but

it will sure turn the odds in your favor.

While most pain comes from faulty body mechanics, there are some
forms of pain we can't fully explain or completely eliminate. For instance,
over the years, I've probably done irreparable damage to my spine by
experimenting on myself as a human guinea pig, and as a result of using
poor mechanics during my early years of training. Every once in a while
I’ll experience very mild pain (i.e. 1-2 on a scale of 1-10) regardless of how
careful I am with my body mechanics. However, had I not perfected my
mechanics and mastered my form, that pain would probably be at a 6 or
above, and on many days would likely be incapacitating. Such a scenario,
which used to occur on a very frequent basis in my body, no longer
occurs. That’s because I’ve learned to minimize the levels of pain and
inflammation despite trace elements of injuries and irreparable structural
damage that are beyond my ability to fully understand or eliminate. So
yes, there may be a small percentage of pain we’ll never understand or
eliminate, but we can still optimize our levels of pain and minimize it by
mastering our mechanics. For many individuals this will result in the
complete elimination of pain while for others it may only be 80%
eliminated. However, that is far better than had we not mastered our
mechanics or simply ignored it.

Strength training has both the power to heal the body or incapacitate
it. The difference lies in the technique, form, and execution of the
movements.

The more we clean up our body mechanics the more everyone's form
starts to look the same

The idea that there's no such thing as "right or wrong form" is simply a way
for incompetent and/or uneducated trainers to rationalize their inability to
properly coach foundational movement patterns, as well as their failure to
eliminate pain and dysfunction in their own body and that of their clients.

The time scale looks different for each individual as everyone has a
different threshold at which point things begin to break down. For some
individuals faulty mechanics can produce immediate negative
ramifications in as little as days, whereas for others it can take months,

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years, and in rare cases decades. But eventually, everyone hits a breaking
point. The consequences are oftentimes most extreme in individuals who
take longer to manifest problems, as the issues tend to pile up before they
suddenly break. In contrast, individuals who are more sensitive not only
experience negative ramifications sooner, oftentimes they are less
extreme, thanks to the fact that their bodies send early warning signs
before they suffer more extreme consequences.

Many of the injuries and associated pain we see in the weight room as a
result of intense training involve hardcore fitness enthusiasts and strength
training fanatics who oftentimes have to be convinced to dial back their
training. In other words, their pain has nothing to do with fear of
movement (until it gets to the point that it occurs repeatedly). These
aren’t the mental weaklings that “pain experts” suggest they are. On the
contrary, they are mentally some of the toughest individuals who have
gone through extraordinary levels of pain, and trained through levels of
body discomfort and injury that would incapacitate most folks. When
these folks experience pain it’s not in their head. Suggesting the pain is in
their head and they simply need to push through it is the worst thing we
could do to these individuals as it sets them up for continued injury not to
mention eventual “fear of movement”.

I currently (and probably always will) have multiple injuries that will never
be structurally eliminated. The difference in terms of whether or not they
produce pain or movement limitations almost always comes down to my
mechanics. Had you assessed me 10 years ago I would have been
categorized as a “symptomatic” injured person, with injuries that caused
tremendous pain. I still have the same injuries (as many of them never
healed structurally), but I’m now an “asymptomatic” injured person
(provided I move correctly). Once again, it all comes down to proper
body mechanics, technique, and muscle activation patterns. A majority of
my clients fall under same category. Furthermore, the only time the pain
ever comes back is if they gravitate back to old compensation patterns
and prior bad movement habits.

Being afraid to be physically active is never healthy. However, being

afraid to perform intense forms of training because you know there is a
high chance of injury is actually your body's way of telling you that your
muscle function is amiss.

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Mild levels of pain that occur infrequently and last less than 48 hours are
oftentimes benign and not related to anything other than the natural,
cyclical nature of inflammation. However, moderate to large levels of
pain, or recurring pain is almost always related to some form of muscle
dysfunction and misuse.

Everyone operates on their own scale or range of muscle function. Some

blessed and genetically-resilient individuals can operate within very low
ranges of muscle function, e.g. 4-5 on a scale of 1-10, while others must
be very particular about their form and mechanics and must function at
an 8 or better in order to not feel pain. Simply, everyone manifests pain
differently and at varying levels of dysfunction. However, improving their
dysfunction almost always greatly reduces, if not fully, eliminates the pain.

A common misconception is that you need excessive stretch combined

with high loads to build up tendon and connective tissue strength. This is
completely false and in no way substantiated by any form of research. In
reality, you don't need extreme range of motion (ROM) or exaggerated
stretch to strengthen the tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue, as
proper ROM will produce a similar and, in fact, superior effect by
allowing the movement to be more effectively overloaded. Additionally,
this will occur without the negative ramifications associated with excessive
stretching and exaggerated ROM.

If we saw an individual perform a basic movement such as pushups with

blatantly obvious form aberrations such as excessive
lumbar extension, sagging hips, forward head tilt, rounded shoulders,
extreme elbow flare, and poor motor control, we would obviously
conclude they need to improve their body mechanics, muscle function,
and technique. In contrast, the modern-day fitness industry “pain
science” approach would suggest that we not alter this person’s technique
or form because it represents the method the individual naturally
gravitates to, and since there's no such thing as right or wrong form, or
good or bad posture mechanics, this person should simply be empowered
to keep up with their training regimen, and encouraged to forge ahead and
stick to the status quo. Ironically, many “pain experts” would agree that
such form aberrations should be remedied, thereby nullifying the very
theories they vehemently support.

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We want to increase pain sensitivity while decreasing our pain threshold.

Unfortunately, most forms of training produce the opposite effect and
most “pain science experts” advocate for this by recommending we live in
a state of decreased pain sensitivity with an increased pain threshold.

Hip replacements in middle aged women have risen significantly over the
last decade. Ironically, the two forms of exercise that have gained the
most popularity with this group during that time are yoga and
Pilates. Coincidence? I think not. Given the extreme contortionistic
positions, excessive range of motion, exaggerated stretching, faulty
biomechanics, and dysfunctional movements commonly employed by
these methods, it's likely they have contributed significantly to the early
onset of hip osteoarthritis as well as damage to other joints. Sure, there
are some obvious benefits to these training methods just as there are with
any training protocol. However, there are other options that provide
similar, if not better, benefits without the same side effects.

When it comes to adapting to faulty biomechanics, temporary adaptation

can be quite misleading. For instance, with proper training, dancers,
gymnasts, and ballet dancers can adapt to their training so that they can
perform their art with less risk of acute injury. Unfortunately, they’re
sacrificing long-term joint health for short-term adaptations and
temporary success, as noted by the high prevalence of joint issues and
musculoskeletal pain dancers eventually struggle with. Yes, our tissues
adapt to whatever stimulus we expose them too. However, with
biomechanically faulty positions our tissues break down faster than they
adapt. For instance, with biomechanically faulty positions such as those
advocated in dance, gymnastics, and ballet, tissues adapt to a degree but
the level of inflammation, injury, structural trauma, and degeneration to
the joints, muscles, and connective tissues, appears to occur at a faster rate
than tissue adaptation response. This is noted by the frequent and
repeated trend of injuries and pain that most if not all dancers, gymnasts,
figure skaters, and ballet artists inevitably encounter during and after their
careers. Simply put, their bodies don’t fully adapt - they revolt and rebel.
The same is true of any form of training and/or exercise that employs
faulty body mechanics.

If you experience pain and inflammation from movement or exercise, the

worst thing you can do is to blunt that response and dull the pain

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sensation without addressing the root cause. In fact, if not for the
psychological and mental hardships associated with pain, it would actually
be more beneficial to temporarily increase the sensation of pain and
discomfort associated with faulty movement, as this would give greater
sensory feedback about that movement, thereby aiding the
neurophysiological process involved in mastering body mechanics and
eliminating dysfunction. If you’re moving improperly, the best thing that
can happen is for the body to produce pain signals notifying you your
mechanics are amiss. Then it’s your job to take that sensory feedback and
continue to fine-tune and modify the movement until there isn’t
pain. This is movement mastery in a nutshell.

High levels of pain and inflammation that result from improper

movement are always a blessing in disguise, as it gives us more feedback
than any coach or trainer can give regarding the quality of our
movement. In essence, pain is your friend. To try and remove or mask
these symptoms by stretching, foam rolling, icing, massaging,
incorporating frequent chiropractic adjustments, prolonged warm-ups, dry
needling, or the latest and greatest soft tissue modality is simply putting a
band aid on a larger, continuous, and never-ending self-induced
wound. Instead of masking the symptoms, determine what’s causing the
issue and get to the root of the problem. In this case the root cause is
faulty movement patterns and muscular dysfunction, the wound is the
resulting inflammation and pain, the band-aid is the aforementioned
therapeutic modalities, and the cure-all is proper movement mechanics.

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R efer en c es

1. Brinjikji, W., et al., Systematic literature review of imaging features of spinal

degeneration in asymptomatic populations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol, 2015.
36(4): p. 811-6.

2. Brinjikji, W., et al., MRI Findings of Disc Degeneration are More Prevalent in
Adults with Low Back Pain than in Asymptomatic Controls: A Systematic Review
and Meta-Analysis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol, 2015. 36(12): p. 2394-9.

3. Hill, L., et al., Do findings identified on magnetic resonance imaging predict future
neck pain? A systematic review. Spine J, 2018. 18(5): p. 880-891.

4. Malfliet, A., et al., Patients With Chronic Spinal Pain Benefit From Pain
Neuroscience Education Regardless the Self-Reported Signs of Central Sensitization:
Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Multicenter Trial. PM R, 2018.

5. Andias, R., M. Neto, and A.G. Silva, The effects of pain neuroscience education
and exercise on pain, muscle endurance, catastrophizing and anxiety in adolescents
with chronic idiopathic neck pain: a school-based pilot, randomized and controlled
study. Physiother Theory Pract, 2018. 34(9): p. 682-691.

6. Wood, L. and P. Hendrick, A systematic review and meta-analysis of pain

neuroscience education for chronic low back pain: short- and long-term outcomes of
pain and disability. Eur J Pain, 2018.

7. Tegner, H., et al., Neurophysiological Pain Education for Patients With Chronic
Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clin J Pain, 2018.
34(8): p. 778-786.

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Chapter 10

Q&A
Questions and Answers

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CHAPTER 10
Question
& Answer
he remaining chapter highlights common questions that will help

T
solidify the previous discussions in Movement Redefined.
Through years of training, Dr. Seedman has identified the top
questions across eccentric isometrics, movement mechanics,
inflammation, pain science, and biomechanics. Most readers will
find that the following chapter is an excellent review section that
should be leveraged whenever greater clarification is needed.

Question 1 : strength Training

versus Inflammation
Dr. Seedman, you mention repeatedly in this text that traditional strength training routines
promote inflammation, diseases, and muscular dysfunction. However a large number of
research studies show that strength training and traditional exercise routines contribute to
overall health and wellness. Can you explain this discrepancy?

Answer

It all comes down to the comparison of protocols. No study has actually

compared proper strength training to improper strength training. However, based
on the studies reported in the scientific literature, and that I discuss in this text,
it’s quite reasonable to suggest that in comparison to proper training, traditional
training routines, which inevitably reinforce a host of faulty body mechanics, can
actually promote inflammation, oxidative stress, disease, and aging.

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A simple analogy that should help drive this point home can be illustrated using
the traditional American diet, which as we know is quite unhealthy. If we were to
take extremely malnourished individuals and suddenly place them on the
traditional American diet for several months, we would likely see many of their
physiological health indices improve greatly, at least in the short term. Based on
these results we might infer that the traditional American diet improves markers
of health and wellness.

However, we know that the traditional American diet, when compared to other
healthy dietary guidelines, is actually quite unhealthy and is associated with
increased risk of obesity, diabetes, chronic inflammation and cardiovascular
disease to name a few. Therefore, conclusions about the traditional American
diet can only truly be drawn by comparing it to other dietary protocols.

The same is true of exercise, particularly traditional strength training routines.

Yes, in comparison to no exercise and sedentary lifestyle habits, traditional
strength training and exercise routines will produce a variety of positive health
benefits. However, when compared to proper training routines, that incorporate
proper body mechanics and optimal movement protocols, such as those outlined
in this text, traditional strength training routines can actually be quite
counterproductive not to mention physiologically damaging.

With that said, I would never suggest that people not exercise, or terminate their
training routine. What I am suggesting is that if an individual is going to exercise
and train, particularly with resistance movements, it needs to be done correctly,
as improper training produces a mixed bag of results, with a combination of
beneficial outcomes as well as negative physiological consequences.

Question 2 : Loaded Carries

Dr. Seedman, I noticed that loaded carries did not make it into your list of foundational
movement patterns. Do you recommend incorporating loaded carries into your routine?

Answer

Loaded carries such as farmers walks, overhead carries, suitcase carries and other
variations are all excellent full body stabilization movements. In fact, they can
help reinforce proper structural rigidity and full body tension and make it easier
to master the “Big 7”. It should be noted that loaded carries are not included as

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one of the basic movement patterns, as it’s simply a task and not an actual
movement pattern. That is not to say that loaded carries are not great drills, only
that mastering loaded carries will improve strength yet do very little for
mastering body mechanics, as they simply reinforce the current level of muscle
function and dysfunction a given person holds.

For instance, if the person has a tendency to externally rotate one hip, this will
inevitably occur during loaded carries. The only way to address this movement
aberration is by isolating various movement patterns including squat, hinge and
lunge and perfecting them with perfectly executed eccentric isometric variations.
In other words loaded carries can and should be routinely placed into one’s
training routine, but they should in no way take the place of, or substitute for,
any of the eccentric isometric “Big 7”

Question 3 : Warm-up Protocols

Dr. Seedman, what is your preferred warm-up protocol?

Answer

The best warm-up and mobility drills consist of performing eccentric isometrics
of the basic movement patterns with lighter loads (e.g. empty bar or bodyweight
squats, eyes-closed lunges, or single leg bodyweight RDLs). However, the more
dialed in the individual becomes with their training and movement patterns, the
more unnecessary lengthy warm-ups become. On a related note, one should be
able to perform 80-90% of their 1RM for any lift, at any time, even under semi-
cold conditions. Yes, that is what I meant. Having the ability to quickly summon
the nervous system and perform a relatively heavy deadlift, squat, or press
without significant preparation is not only a great way to expose areas of
inflammation or weakness, it represents a level of movement competency that
any well-trained athlete should be capable of. I’m not saying this is something
that should be performed routinely, only that an individual should get to the
level of movement mastery that they can comfortably do this without any issues.

Having said that, a proper warm-up should consist of a handful of lighter sets of
the basic movement patterns the lifter will be performing, which should take 3-10
minutes maximum. If half of the training time is devoted to warming up the
joints and blunting the pain and inflammation associated with dysfunctional
movement, chances are the individual’s lifting technique needs a serious overhaul.

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Question 4 : Concentric Phases

Dr. Seedman, you repeatedly discuss in this text the concept of mastering your movement
patterns, however, most of this seems to apply to the eccentric phase of exercise. What about
mastering the concentric phase?

Answer

Mastering the concentric phase of any movement pattern is a vital part of

optimizing movement mechanics and muscle function. However, for most
movements, particularly the “Big 7”, optimizing eccentric mechanics and
eccentric positioning is the most important factor when it comes to dialing in
concentric positioning and concentric mechanics.

One way to think about it is to think of the expression “Ready, Aim, Fire”.

For most movements, the eccentric phase represents the “Ready” and “Aim”,
while the concentric phase represents the “Fire” phase.

Simply put, proper eccentric positioning helps to ensure correct concentric

movement. Performing the eccentric muscle lengthening phase with appropriate
mechanics establishes the ideal groove, ultimately promoting refined mechanics
on the subsequent concentric phase. With efficient eccentric isometrics, focusing
on concentric positioning is almost unnecessary, as the muscles have been
properly activated on the lengthening phase and will stay that way throughout
the rest of the movement/shortening phase.

The hips/glutes represent a prime illustration of this. During a hip hinge

position such as an RDL, the glutes and hamstrings should lengthen through a
natural full range of motion. Once an individual is capable of eccentrically
activating their glute muscles by allowing them to fully and optimally lengthen
during hip flexion (by co-contracting the hip flexors and extensors), powerful
glute contraction will almost automatically occur during hip extension.
Attempting to contract the glutes forcefully, without this prior optimal eccentric
hip hinge position, will significantly compromise, if not largely impair, the degree
of power, torque, and motor control, during the concentric phase.

This physiological phenomenon, whereby the eccentric phase establishes proper

concentric patterns, can be attributed to several neuromuscular mechanisms
including reciprocal inhibition, agonist-antagonist co-contraction, and muscle
spindle-induced alpha-gamma coactivation (activation of intrafusal and extrafusal

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fibers). Studies have shown that motor control is maximized when co-
contraction of opposing muscles groups occurs during the eccentric phase. In
turn, this optimizes proprioceptive feedback, as the agonist muscles are
maximally stretched while remaining tight and contracted, allowing the highest
levels of both reciprocal inhibition and power output on the concentric phase.
Because each of the previously mentioned physiological components optimizes
motor control and precision of movement, the individual is able to perform the
most accurate concentric muscle contraction with maximal precision and intent,
not to mention power output and torque.

This is similar to shooting a slingshot or bow and arrow. In this instance, an

individual who is shooting a slingshot or a bow is not overly fixated on guiding
the release. Instead they focus primarily on cocking the weapon back with
pinpoint aim, direction, and accuracy, as this is what truly determines the exact
outcome of where the projectile lands. If the lengthening/aiming phase is not
dialed in, and the weapon and projectile are not perfectly positioned or aimed,
the release and targeting components will be significantly compromised. The
same is true of muscles. Focus on locking in the eccentric phase of movement
with pinpoint accuracy by learning to master eccentric mechanics. The
concentric phase that follows will inevitably be performed with optimal accuracy,
motor control, and precision not to mention power output and torque.

Question 5 : Optimal Stopping

Point in Exercise Patterns
Dr. Seedman, oftentimes I have difficulty honing in on the exact optimal stopping point for
certain movements. When in doubt should I move to more or less than a 90-degree joint angle?

Answer

Although reaching a joint angle of approximately 90 degrees on most

movements is ideal, individuals will inevitably struggle to find the precise
stopping point, particularly when first working through eccentric isometrics. The
general rule is: when in doubt, stop short of a 90-degree joint angle position or
optimal stopping point. Here’s why: As noted in chapter 3, a study of squat
depth performed at the University of Arizona [1] showed that both partial squats
(slightly less than a 90 degree joint angle) and parallel squats (slightly greater than
a 90 degree joint angle) significantly improved vertical jump performance, while
the deep squat protocol (significantly deeper than a 90 degree joint angle) had no
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effect on sprint or jump performance. In other words, deep or ATG squats

appeared to have no measurable impact on performance related attributes other
than improving the ability of the individual to perform ATG squats. In contrast,
the squat groups that adopted joint angles closer to 90 degrees produced
superior results with significant improvements in performance markers.

Interestingly, the partial squat group, which terminated their end range of
motion slightly above 90 degree joint angles, produced better results than the
group that performed parallel squats that were slightly below 90 degree joint
angles. It appears that terminating the end range of motion before breaching the
90 degree joint angle position, even if the ROM is abbreviated, is superior to
going slightly too deep and breaching the body’s natural movement barrier. In
other words, a collapsed position is still a collapsed position, regardless of
whether it’s one inch or one foot. Another way to think about it is that it’s
always better to terminate the motion a bit short of the optimal depth, or 90
degree joint angle position, than going too deep, as a shorter range of motion
won’t produce the same exceptional results that a 90 degree joint angle will.

However, it also won’t produce the large array of negative consequences

associated with moving significantly beyond 90 degree joint angles (i.e.
inflammation and muscle spindle desensitization). That’s because proper
movement involves motions where the individual moves from 0 degrees of
flexion to 90 degrees of flexion and vice versa. Anything in between the range of
0 and 90 represents proper mechanics through which an individual must travel
to reach their desired biomechanical destination of 90-degree joint angles.
Although shortchanging the movement by for example stopping at joint angle of
75 degrees may only produce 80% of the benefits of moving all the way to 90
degree joint angles, moving past 90 degree joint angles represents faulty
mechanics that are outside the boundaries of optimal movement and are
associated with negative repercussions.

The aforementioned squat study would most likely have noticed superior results
had they actually created an additional category of 90-degree joint angle squat
depth. Simply put, the investigation involved squats that were either less than 90
degree joint angles (partial squats) or greater than 90 degree joint angles (deeper
squats). Based on the scientific evidence presented in this text, had a fourth
category of exactly 90 degree joint angles been investigated and compared to the
other 3 groups, the authors would most likely have found it to be superior in terms
of improving performance, provided the investigation was properly carried out.

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It should also be noted that from a practical application standpoint, this

represents the same phenomena I’ve witnessed when training my own athletes.
For instance, I often work with athletes who before seeking my services were
squatting with ATG technique, oftentimes with form that would be considered
very solid even amongst ATG enthusiasts. When I asses them we notice a
direction correlation: those who performed ATG squats display significant flaws
in jumping technique, running form, and overall movement mechanics, having
disrupted the natural biomechanics and length-tension relationship of their
muscles. Once we re-train them to squat to approximately 90 degree joint angles
with proper mechanics not only do they stop complaining of pulled muscles and
the continuous tweaks they experienced during the time period spent performing
ATG squats, their vertical jump height, sprint speed, and overall form on these
various activities markedly improves within weeks.

Question 6 : Does Eccentric

Replace Concentric Phases
Dr. Seedman if the eccentric portion of the movement is so effective why not just eliminate the
concentric phase of the exercise and only perform the eccentric phases of the movements?

Answer

Although the eccentric phase of the movement is arguably more important in

terms of improving muscle function and body mechanics, as well as strength and
performance, the concentric phase has its own unique benefits.

The concentric phase teaches the lifter how to produce and display
power, which is critical for performance and overall muscle function.

The concentric phase provides additional feedback regarding the

effectiveness of the eccentric isometric hold, as a properly executed EI
should produce a powerful concentric phase.

The concentric movement produces elongation of the antagonists via pre-

stretch (e.g. an explosive press helps elongate the upper back muscles).
This sets the stage for those muscles (e.g. upper back) to best contract on
the eccentric phase of the subsequent movement, thereby optimizing co-
contraction and, ultimately, the overall quality of that subsequent eccentric
isometric (e.g. co-contraction of the chest and upper back).
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Although the concentric movement by itself does relatively little to

improve functional strength and hypertrophy, especially when compared
to an isolated eccentric movement, studies show that the eccentric phase
of movement may be even more potent when combined with a
preceding concentric contraction.

From a practical perspective the concentric phase acts as an effective

means of returning to a starting position from which to efficiently
perform a series of eccentric emphasized movements, such as eccentric
isometrics. Without it, it would be difficult to practically perform a series
of eccentric motions in a time-efficient manner, particularly in the
absence of a spotter.

Question 7 : Eccentric Isometrics

and glute Development
Dr. Seedman, can eccentric isometrics improve glute development, or is it necessary to include
exercises such as glute bridges and hip thrusts?

Answer

Most individuals are under the false assumption that performing glute bridges
and hip thrusters is essential for building a more developed backside. This is
incorrect as the effect these have on posterior chain development is actually
quite minimal when compared to the results of performing proper squats, hinges
and lunges, particularly with eccentric isometric variations.

Although various studies show that EMG readings in the glutes are highest
during glute isolation exercises, EMG is not the end-all be-all when it comes
determining what exercises are best in terms of inducing hypertrophy in the
glutes, or any muscle for that matter. It only portrays a very small portion of a
much larger and more complex picture. That’s because EMG tells us very little
about muscle damage, micro-trauma, protein synthesis, satellite signaling, neural
adaptations, biomechanics, structural overload, movement patterns, systemic
responses, motor programming, and hormonal effects of training, all of which
are critically important for maximizing functional hypertrophy and muscle
growth.

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To fully reap the benefits of these hypertrophy-inducing mechanisms requires

the emphasis of eccentric overload. Unfortunately, most anteroposterior loaded
movements such as glutes bridges and hip thrusters involve relatively little
eccentric stress. And while these movements are excellent for inducing
sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic stress, they leave quite a bit on the table
in terms of maximizing the other more important mechanisms of muscle
hypertrophy such as muscle damage and intramuscular tension.

Now, there is quite a bit of mechanical tension during glute bridges and hip
thrusters, however, mechanical tension is relatively inconsequential in the
absence of other growth-inducing elements such as eccentric muscle damage and
micro-trauma. If this were not the case then simply holding prolonged isometric
contractions with minimal resistance would produce phenomenal results. We
know this is far from accurate.

I’m not saying one shouldn’t perform glute bridges and hip thrusters, nor am I
saying they’re totally useless. In fact, I have many of my figure and bodybuilder
clients, as well as professional athletes, incorporate them periodically in their
routines particularly with eccentric isometric protocols. However, the degree of
muscular development and performance benefits these provide represents only a
small additional improvement above and beyond what the lifter will experience
by performing squats, hinges, and lunges in an eccentric isometric fashion.

And while many individuals swear by glute bridges and hip thrusters as the only
exercises that build their backside, while simultaneously downplaying the
benefits of squats, deadlifts, and lunges, there’s much more to the story. The true
reason behind these unusual results is that their squat, hinge, and lunge form is
incorrect.

Simply put, if glutes bridges, hip thrusters, and other posterior chain isolation
movements produce greater results than heavy lower body compound
movements when it comes to building one’s backside, that simply means that the
lifter’s form during squats, hinges and lunges is incorrect, as these movements
should, and will, provide ample backside stimulation when properly performed.

And yes, that means that a majority of lifters and coaches perform squats, hinges,
and lunges incorrectly, with form aberrations and dysfunctional mechanics that
make it impossible to tax the posterior chain. So what’s the solution?

Learn to perform squats, hinges, and lunges with proper technique by

incorporating the eccentric isometric protocols outlined in this text. And no that
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doesn’t mean performing ass-to grass squats like most coaches blindly suggest. It
means the individual needs to incorporate a natural range of motion by setting
the hips back on each movement and maintaining full body tension instead of
collapsing at the bottom. In addition they should focus on achieving body
positions that involve approximately 90-degree joint angles, parallel joint
segments, and perpendicular positions. Furthermore, they should focus on
maintaining proper spinal alignment, performing controlled eccentric motions
(preferably eccentric isometrics) and dialing in their foot and ankle mechanics.
Each of these plays a pivotal role in hip and glute activation. If even one of the
pieces of the puzzle is missing it will be impossible to optimally develop your
backside.

Technique is also an important factor to consider when interpreting EMG

measurements. As previously mentioned, EMG is not the end-all be-all when it
comes to measuring the effectiveness of a particular movement. However, it is
one of many possible factors to consider and should not be entirely dismissed.
Having said that, few if any studies are ever conducted with proper coaching,
cueing, and execution of compound exercises. When the squat, hinge, and lunge
pattern are performed with aberrant mechanics, EMG readings are highly
inaccurate, particularly in the posterior chain, as activation of the glutes and
hamstrings is largely dependent on form and mechanics.

Unfortunately, proper mechanics are rarely emphasized during these studies, the
result of which is a distortion of the readings, leading to the erroneous
conclusion that, compared to other glute isolation movements, movements such
as squats, hinges, and lunges are ineffective in terms of activating the glutes. So
yes, bridges and hip thrusters will almost always show significantly higher EMG
readings in the posterior chain compared to improperly executed squats, hinges,
and lunges. However, when squats, hinges, and lunges are correctly executed, the
findings are quite different.

It should also be pointed out that while improving the ability to shorten the
glutes can help slightly with postural deficits (although not nearly to the same
extent as performing proper squats, hinges, and lunges), glute bridges and hip
thrusters provide very little benefit in terms of improving overall hip function,
body alignment, and movement mechanics. That’s because there is very little
eccentric emphasis involved (unless eccentric isometrics are used), suggesting
that proprioceptive feedback from muscle spindles and other somatosensory
mechanisms is relatively low in comparison to squats, hinges, and lunges that
involve substantial eccentric emphasis such as eccentric isometrics. Simply put, if
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an individual hopes to improve performance, body mechanics, muscle function,

and athletic capabilities, their time would be better spent focused on performing
more basic foundational movements such as squats, hinges, and lunges with
proper technique, and incorporating eccentric isometric protocols, rather than
performing an inordinate number of glute bridges and hip thrusters.

On a final note, it’s not uncommon to see a lifter who can perform glute bridges
with inordinately large amounts of weight while their squats, deadlifts, and lunges
are quite weak, and they have little to show in terms of posterior chain
development. In contrast, take an athlete or lifter who’s strong and proficient at
the basic compound movements and, with little to no practice, they will be able
to load up hundreds of pounds on hip thrusters and glute bridges. That’s
because properly executed squats, hinges, and deadlifts optimally strengthen the
glutes and the entire lower body, enabling the individual to perform any manner
of intense posterior chain activities with relatively few issues. On the flip side
the ability to handle massive loads on bridges and hip thrusters says absolutely
nothing about one’s functional ability to perform foundational lower body
movements. In summary, squats, hinges, and lunges, when properly performed
with ideal 90 degree joint angle mechanics, as ingrained by eccentric isometrics,
provide the most solid foundation on which to build the posterior chain, while
glute bridges and hip thrusters represent tools that provide additional finishing
touches.

Question 8 : Training Books and

Role MOdels
Dr. Seedman what books, texts, training materials, or mentor role models had the biggest
impact on you and your training journey?

Answer

Most people don’t know this, but when I first began my iron game journey I was
actually somewhat of a high intensity training enthusiast. The high intensity
training method was popularized by the legendary Arthur Jones, who many still
consider to be one of the most brilliant innovators in the field of exercise
science. In addition to developing the original Nautilus variable resistance
machines in the 60’s and 70’s, Jones was an ardent advocate of something he
referred to as ‘high intensity strength training’.

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This involved a significant reduction in the training volume and training

frequency that many bodybuilders espoused at the time, and taking all the sets to
failure and beyond. Jones also had many devout followers over the years
including the legendary, yet controversial, Mike Mentzer. To this day Mentzer is
known as having one of the most complete and fully developed physiques ever
to grace the bodybuilding stage, with levels of muscularity and density that rival
many of our overly-juiced modern day competitors.

Mentzer attributed much, if not all, of his success to his unusual training method
which took Arthur Jones’ theories multiple steps further by reducing training
volume and frequency to inordinately low levels. For instance, Mentzer was
known for having many of his advanced bodybuilders train only once ever 4-7
days, with only 1 max effort set to failure on a handful of exercises. Additionally,
Mentzer was known for asserting his belief that the traditional volume approach
that many bodybuilders were, and still are, using contributed to more failed
physiques and training stagnation than any other known training method.

To say that Mentzer thought outside the box and went against the bodybuilding
establishment is a massive understatement. In fact, reading his writings and
books helped shape my own career in this field, not so much because I held
strongly to his training beliefs and methods, but because it taught me to think
outside the box and question everything, including what were considered to be
popular beliefs.

I eventually came to agree with Mentzer that most everything commonly

advocated by the traditional mainstream bodybuilding world was a lie and
completely false. Although I did not entirely agree with his high intensity training
method as the solution to the problem, the one thing it did do for me was show
me that I needed to investigate deeper and do my own research, as most
everything that had been previously, and was currently, advocated by the
industry was false and broken. It was this, the realization that many of the
training methods we use to this day, including those recommended by expert
trainers and coaches, are highly flawed, that ultimately led me to study and
develop my eccentric isometric protocols as a doctoral student.

Several other key points I directly, or indirectly, took away from Mentzer’s books
include the following:

Think for yourself and question everything, even that which is

considered the norm.

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If the majority is doing it, then almost undoubtedly it is wrong.

Think outside the box, not only when it comes to strength training, but
also in life.

Traditional volume training and bodybuilding methods still commonly

used today contribute to more failed physiques and training stagnation
than any other known training method.

Just because everyone is doing it doesn’t make it right.

More is not better, quality and intensity are what’s key.

Don’t try to follow in anyone’s footsteps when it comes to training or

life. Everyone must find their own path and go through their own
personal journey.

Don’t have a mentor. Even in my early days as an exercise enthusiast, I

never had a mentor, or anyone I looked up to as someone I needed to
learn from. Instead, I studied and examined many different viewpoints by
many different individuals in the industry, and weeded out the useful
from the useless or false. This forced me to think for myself and develop
my own training philosophies, rather than allow myself to become overly
shaped by any one person. Additionally, I was forced to rely on God and
seek Him for guidance, which is, without a doubt, the most pivotal step,
and only way, to gain true insight or understanding in any field. While
having a mentor early in one’s iron game journey can be useful,
becoming overly dedicated and fixated on any one particular training
approach can blind one from exploring other methods and options.

Question 9 : Posture
Optimization
Dr. Seedman, when it comes to optimizing posture, what cues should we focus on while we’re
sitting, as well as when we are in a more relaxed state?

Answer

In reality, it is somewhat unnecessary to focus excessively on posture when one

is sitting or attempting to relax. Once an individual masters their training with
eccentric isometrics, the natural change to the CNS, as well as the muscles, will
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bleed into all other components of their life, including their posture when sitting,
standing, and even laying down. When first embarking on one’s training journey
it’s definitely acceptable, and in many ways advisable, to be semi-aware of one’s
posture. However, it’s unnecessary to be overly rigid when sitting or in a relaxed
state, as the muscles are meant to be in more of a resting state. There will be a
natural amount of spinal rounding and moderate spinal flexion, although this
should not be overly extreme. Trying to eliminate this can actually create tight
and spastic muscles.

Simply put, when one is relaxing they must learn to allow their body to fully rest,
relax, and essentially enter “chill mode”, while also maintaining some slight
semblance of optimal body alignment. Eccentric isometrics are one of the most
effective training tools and methods available to help achieve this natural
relaxation state, by reducing sympathetic overdrive, and by ensuring muscles
function within their optimal length-tension relationship, thereby eliminating
excessive tension caused by tight and spastic muscles.

Question 10 : Joint Locks in

Eccentric Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, should individuals lock their joints when performing eccentric isometric
movements?

Answer

In general, an individual should fully straighten the joints and limbs on a majority
of resistance training movements including eccentric isometrics. Although some
would consider this “locking the joints” it is simply completing a full or natural
range of motion. What follows is the scientific rationale behind why I advocate
this relatively straight joint position. There are multiple factors to consider when
discussing the idea of straightening/locking the joints during resistance training.
First, there is a bit of a misconception when it comes to full range of motion and
straightening a joint vs. hyperextending a joint. Hyperextending a joint is never
ideal and is, in fact, dangerous to the joint and the surrounding connective tissue,
not to mention the fact that it takes tension off the working muscles. However,
if one were to watch my athletes and clients, or myself, perform eccentric
isometric movements they would see that our joints are fully straightening
without actually hyperextending. That’s the key.

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In other words, the goal on a majority of movements, including eccentric

isometrics, is to achieve a full range of motion and straighten the limbs without
hyperextending the joints. This provides a natural lengthening of the involved
musculature. Something else to consider is that it’s nearly impossible to
hyperextend or over-lock a joint if optimal spinal alignment and posture are
maintained, as the body simply won’t allow this to occur biomechanically,
structurally, or neuromuscularly. For example, in order to hyperextend the
elbows one has to round the shoulders by allowing the scapula to protract,
elevate, and laterally rotate away from the spine, which obviously is faulty
posture. In contrast, packing the scapula and locking the spine into appropriate
position makes it impossible for these aforementioned technique aberrations,
including joint hyperextension, to occur.

The reasons why I typically suggest straightening the limbs and joints are several.
On pulling movements and back exercises such as rows eccentric isometrics is
utilized in the stretched position to create eccentric co-contraction-induced
concentric reciprocal inhibition. In other words, the more the antagonist muscles
(chest, anterior deltoids, and triceps) are firing on the movement during the
bottom of the eccentric contraction, the greater the level of co-contraction of
reciprocal muscle groups or agonists (back, biceps, and rear deltoids). This sets
the stage for the greatest amount of reciprocal inhibition to occur on the
concentric phase, as the antagonist muscles fully release and allow the agonists
(back and biceps) to contract with maximal force.

As described earlier, think of this as a sling shot effect whereby the opposing
muscles or antagonists (chest, shoulders, and triceps) pull on or against the prime
movers (back and biceps) to create as much tension as possible during the eccentric
phase, priming them like coiled springs for the actual lifting/concentric phase. This
generates the greatest amount of force on the concentric phase and allows the
individual to maximize the total load. As a result, this produces the highest levels of
mechanical tension and muscular damage (two of the primary mechanisms of muscle
hypertrophy), ultimately eliciting the greatest muscle growth and strength gains.

The same is true for pressing movements including upper body presses. For
example, during the dumbbell press, when the load is heavy, ideally we want to
recruit as many motor units and muscle fibers as possible. The best way to do
this is by using compensatory acceleration (lifting the weight as explosively and
powerfully as possible) and fully extending. Stopping the movement before the
joints straighten and the full range of motion is powerfully completed, essentially
“puts the brakes on” so to speak, and intentionally slows the movement down.
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In other words, the degree of compensatory acceleration is minimized by

consciously employing decelerating forces. Again, this limits the nervous system
in terms of being able to recruit the highest threshold fast twitch motor units
which have the greatest potential for strength and size gains.

Completing a full range of motion on the concentric phase and straightening the
joints (such as during chest pressing movements), places the antagonists (back
and biceps) on pre-stretch immediately before the eccentric motion. In turn, this
creates a situation whereby the antagonists can be maximally recruited on the
negative/eccentric phase to produce strong levels of eccentric co-contraction
which, again, optimizes the sling shot effect for the subsequent concentric phase
of the movement. Simply put, the pre-stretch helps to prepare and maximally
engage the back and biceps for the subsequent eccentric portion of the
movement, when the back muscles are pulling the weight into position via high
levels of co-contraction (the sling shot effect), rather than relying on gravity. In
turn, at the bottom of the movement, or in the eccentric isometric position, all
muscles, including the agonist and antagonists are maximally firing. Once the
antagonists (back and biceps) release, the agonists (chest, shoulders, and triceps)
are free to produce maximal levels of force and activation, maximizing the
training stimulus to these muscles.

If one is looking to maximize metabolic stress and cellular swelling (the third
mechanism of muscle hypertrophy) they may not necessarily want to fully
straighten the joint and focus instead on constant tension, particularly on pressing
exercises. In fact, I occasionally have my athletes and clients do this to provide a
unique training stimulus particularly cellular swelling, occlusion, metabolite
(lactate) accumulation, and muscular pump. However, when using the constant
tension method, one typically has to sacrifice the other two potentially more
important hypertrophy-inducing mechanisms, namely mechanical tension and
muscular damage. Therefore, it’s not something that should be used in excess.
However mixing it in as a unique training stimulus can be highly effective. To
summarize, completing a full range of motion by straightening the limbs/joints
is not dangerous or harsh on the joints but is, in fact, beneficial in terms of
maximizing, force, power, strength, and hypertrophy. Just make sure posture and
spinal alignment are locked in as there’s little to no chance of excessively locking
or hyperextending the joints under these conditions.

Key Point: Straightening the joint at the top of the press pre-stretches the back and
biceps preparing them for a more aggressive and forceful eccentric phase, whereby
the back muscles pull the weight into position instead of relying on gravity to do so.

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Question 11 : Psychological vs
Physiological Pain
Dr. Seedman, if I experience musculoskeletal pain when performing movement, how do I know
it’s not just simply psychological and something my body is responding too from past injuries,
expectations, or experiences?

Answer

Most forms of pain involve both a physical and mental component. However,
most if not all forms of pain begin with physical and biomechanical issues. In
other words, we don’t simply wake up one day and decide we’re going to feel
pain in a particular area. There’s typically a root cause and underlying reason,
which almost always involves physical issues and musculoskeletal inflammation.
Unfortunately, once the physical problems being to manifest themselves the
mental component can quickly add to the physical syndromes oftentimes causing
the issue to spiral out of control.

Based on a pain scale of 1-10 when performing movement (1 being very mild
and 10 being excruciating), a pain level of 1-3 can often be largely mental or
psychosomatic, with much of it being traced back to prior experience,
expectations, and the anticipation of pain the individual essentially needs to learn
to tune out and disregard. Typically anything above a 3 is often a by-product of
faulty mechanics, which is not to say the psychological component isn’t a
contributing factor as well.

Question 12 : Athletes and

Extreme Body Positions
Dr. Seedman, what if you’re a gymnast, dancer, rock climber any other type of athlete who
oftentimes ends up in precarious positions that require extreme mobility? Should you
incorporate larger ranges of motion on various movements to prepare your body for these extreme
positions?

Answer

I always tell my athletes, including those that engage in MMA fighting, martial
arts, rock climbing, dancing, and other unique sports and/or arts that inevitably
include precarious joint positions, to save those odd positions for the actual
sport and to perform only therapeutic and more natural, biomechanically sound

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movements during training. This actually helps keep the body (muscles, joints,
and connective tissue) much stronger, healthier, and functional, as well as ready
and able to handle any unusual position or maneuver one can throw at it when
needed. Performing too many odd positions such as pistol squats, ATG squats,
or deep Cossack squats during training breaks the body down and makes it more
vulnerable and prone to injury, not to mention it provides less of a strength and
muscle hypertrophy stimulus.

Also, the exaggerated range of motion required by these movements (i.e. ATG
squat, pistol squat, and Cossack squat), creates inflammation in the joints and
connective tissue. Over time this happens to be the very thing that actually limits
mobility, flexibility, and range of motion. As a result, it is more difficult to
perform odd maneuvers when they are actually needed as part of the sport or
competition. In other words, the body is more likely to inhibit these movements
in response to the inflammation and extensive breaching of the protective
barriers produced by the excessive training positions.

Similarly, I’ve noticed a common trend in my athletes where, once we eliminate

deep ATG squats and pistol squats from their training, when needed, such as
during testing, they're actually capable of assuming these deep positions (e.g. ATG
squat) more easily than when they were actually training with ATG and pistol
squats. Most likely the reasons for this are the same as those stated above. It's as if
their mobility and range of motion are freed up by eliminating all contra-therapeutic
positions during training and properly performing only therapeutic movements,
such as eccentric isometrics with approximately 90-degree joint angles.

Question 13 : Eccentric Isometric

and Muscle Mass
Dr. Seedman, will eccentric isometric training protocols provide enough of a stimulus to improve
strength and muscle mass?

Answer

Yes, that’s because they rely on all major mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy.

First, there is muscle damage or micro-trauma. The muscle damage that results
from eccentric stress forces the muscles to rebuild stronger, provided the stress
is not excessive (which during properly performed eccentric isometrics it is not).

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The second factor is mechanical tension (i.e. tension within the muscle, also
referred to as intramuscular tension). Eccentric training, particularly eccentric
isometrics, creates enormous levels of intramuscular and mechanical tension,
thereby recruiting more fibers and motor units and placing more overall
structural stress on the muscles. This produces satellite signaling within the
muscles, which in turn triggers new growth.

Eccentric training, even with relatively moderate loads, has also been shown to
increase protein synthesis by activating the all-important m-Tor pathway. Studies
have shown this to be one the key factors that plays a role in the building of
additional muscle mass and improved body composition.

The final hypertrophy component eccentric isometrics target is constant tension,

due to the slower eccentrics, which creates more metabolic stress and metabolite
accumulation such as lactate or hydrogen ions (the burn). This has also been
shown to promote increases in muscle mass and optimize the level of hormones
responsible for improving body composition.

On similar note, eccentric isometrics help maximize neuromuscular efficiency

and, ultimately, motor unit recruitment. In other words, they teach the lifter how
to activate the largest and highest number of muscle fibers in a highly efficient
manner. This is critical not only in terms of maximizing strength and preventing
injury, but also for long-term improvements in functional hypertrophy, as the
individual is capable of safely handling heavier and heavier loads over time. In
summary, eccentric isometrics are one of the most effective training tools for
building functional strength and size.

Question 14 : Eccentric
Isometrics for Injury Prevention
Dr. Seedman, how exactly do eccentric isometrics help prevent injury?

Answer

Eccentric isometric training is arguably the most functional type of training an

individual can participate in as it promotes improved body mechanics by
enhancing proprioception (i.e. sense of body position) and kinesthetic awareness
(i.e. sense of body movement). Maximizing body mechanics optimizes injury
prevention. Most forms of training lack this.

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There are four other mechanisms by which eccentric isometrics contributes to

injury prevention.

First, eccentric isometrics strengthen tendons and connective tissue, not

to mention the fact that they’re perhaps the single most effective
method for strengthening the structural elements of the muscles.

Second, most injuries occur during an abrupt eccentric contraction, such

as pulling a hamstring when running. Teaching the body how to
produce proper eccentric contractions, which translates to teaching it
how to lengthen muscles during physical activity, is pivotal when it
comes to preventing injury.

Third, training methods that emphasize the eccentric components have

been shown to increase collagen synthesis in connective tissue, which
plays a key role in preventing injury. Also, with eccentric training, the
muscles remodel to better handle intense stress and more effectively
absorb force and high impact.

Lastly, force absorption is another means by which individuals often

suffer injuries as they lack the ability to properly absorb high impact and
incoming forces. As a result, significant strain and tension is transferred
to the joints and connective tissue. Eccentric isometrics re-train the
muscles to act as the shock absorbers they were designed to be.

Question 15 :Physiological Rewiring

via Neuromuscular Re-education
Dr. Seedman, please explain in a nutshell what you mean by producing physiological rewiring
via neuromuscular re-education, and how muscle function and eccentric isometrics play into this?

Answer

The state, health, and overall functionality of an individual’s muscles determine

how healthy and how functional a person truly is, which also has a strong direct
impact on performance. If their muscles are functioning properly a person will
be much healthier, relatively speaking, than if their muscles were not functioning
properly. In other words, muscle function is the key, as every component of the
body is affected by the muscles, in either a negative or positive manner. Most, if
not all disease and ailments can actually be traced back to the muscles and the

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neuromuscular system, as this represents the long-hidden pieces of the puzzle

that link inflammation to all known physical ailments. Simply put, muscles are
the largest endocrine organ of the body and have the ability to modulate the level
of inflammation in our bodies. Because inflammation is linked to almost all
known physical maladies, and our muscles play such a large role in the regulation
of inflammation, they ultimately dictate our overall health and physiological
function.

In addition, most physical performance issues can be related to neuromuscular

errors or neural hiccups which basically reflect improper muscle function. Simply
put, the way a person’s muscles function has a direct effect on the state of the
skeletal muscles’ health which, in turn, has a direct impact on the rest of the
body, from the mind to the autonomic nervous system, to overall strength and
performance. Quite simply, if one trains or uses their muscles and their body the
way they were created to be used, via neuromuscular re-education, everything
functions optimally, maximizing performance, strength, health, vigor, hormones
sleep, mood, etc. (physiological rewiring).

In fact, health and performance issues cannot be separated, as a healthy body

always functions in a superior fashion compared to an unhealthy body. The only
way to achieve this type of health is to have optimal muscle health or optimal
muscle functionality. The way a person uses their muscles when they train is
indicative of how they will use their muscles in daily living. For example, if a
person bench presses with elevated and protracted shoulders, this general
movement pattern will only be further ingrained each time they train unless they
do something to correct it. That faulty movement pattern for that specific type
of movement, horizontal pressing, will become their default strategy for upper
body mechanics not only on bench press, but on other similar movements,
including natural posture and standing mechanics. Simply put, this technique will
transfer into normal daily functions such as pushing a door open, as well as
performance movements including walking, running, throwing, jumping, hitting,
etc. In addition, the inflammation and joint issues that result from training itself
will negatively affect these specific movements.

Elevated and protracted shoulders not only lead to rotator cuff injuries and other
shoulder injuries, but also headaches, sinus issues, neck pain, low back pain,
impingements in the upper body, and improper hip activation/alignment, all of
which leads to hypertonicity (i.e. non-clinical levels of muscular spasticity) in
multiple muscle groups. The result is increased levels of oxidative stress and
chronic inflammation, both of which are linked to almost all known physical
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maladies. Furthermore, hypertonicity also compromises oxygenation, blood flow,

and circulation. This can also lead to hypertension, which is further linked to
oxidative stress and inflammation. If one faulty movement pattern in a select few
muscles can have this many repercussions, imagine the effects of harboring poor
muscle tone in most if not all of the muscles in the body. Unfortunately, this
describes a large majority of the human population.

Question 16 : Progression
protocols and Periodization
Dr. Seedman, what is your take on various progression protocols, periodization schemes,
deloading periods, training cycles, and specialization phases commonly advocated in strength and
conditioning settings?

Answer

In my early years as a trainer I used to be very focused on progressions and

periodization, and using different complex training cycles. However, with
experience and research I began to realize that those factors didn't provide
much, if any, value other than to simply confuse the trainee and turn the training
program into an advanced numbers game. What truly matters is 1) technique,
mechanics, and form and 2) proper exercise pairing, sequences, and exercise
selection using the foundational patterns of human movement.

When these factors are in place, progressions and periodization methods are
unnecessary, as each set performed by the trainee produces a therapeutic
response that not only improves muscle function but also helps promote
increased strength and size. If the aforementioned factors are not in place then
even the most strategically planned and well-thought out progression schemes
provide little, if any, significant benefit due to the lack of training stimulus
present during the actual workouts. In fact, I've seen individuals use some of the
most complex progression schemes one could imagine only to find themselves
going backwards in terms of their results. In contrast, very simple progression
schemes, without fancy periodization methods, will provide continual
improvements in almost naturally, as the lifter will continue to become stronger
and gain muscle mass on a consistent basis, provided proper exercise execution
and selection are present, making it quite conducive for naturally progressing
loads over time.

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In other words, don't get overly concerned with progression schemes. Simply
focus on proper exercise execution and programming within workouts with
ample, but not excessive, amounts of unique exercise variations mixed in with
the basics, and progress will naturally and automatically occur. For instance,
weights that once were heavy will become light, thereby providing the lifter,
instinctively, with the perfect cue to increase the load and or reps. In contrast,
even if a routine suggests a planned progression, increasing the load without
having actually become stronger or gained significant muscle tissue will only lead
to faulty mechanics and inefficient technique, as the lifter will attempt to cheat
their way through the movement in order to reach the desired numbers,
ultimately producing a weak training stimulus. As a result, the lifter plateaus.
Simply put, progress should occur naturally, without having to force the issue, if
the training methods are sound.

This should be done by tracking progress (some form of training journal) and
naturally implementing progressive overload with proper training methods
namely eccentric isometric protocols. Progression along with improvements in
load, intensity, and performance will inevitably follow. In summary by
emphasizing proper form and body mechanics, strength and hypertrophy almost
always improve as if prioritized, but not visa versa.

Question 17 : Optimal Squat

Depth vs ATG Mechanics
Dr. Seedman, a coach helped me improve my squat form and I not only squat deeper than I
used when using ATG mechanics but I also have less pain. How do you explain this?

Answer

This describes a very common situation whereby an individual has learned to

become more efficient at moving incorrectly, or more efficient at using their
muscles incorrectly. Simply put, their muscles function better than they used to,
and the form is better than it used to be, but it is still wrong or incorrect to
varying degrees. It’s also worth noting there are varying levels of improper
mechanics even within a flawed movement pattern.

For example, an ATG squat represents a flawed movement pattern.

Furthermore, most individuals who squat with ATG form tend to demonstrate
significant external rotation of their feet, ankle pronation, spinal flexion, cervical
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hyperextension, and low levels of muscle tension, all of which reflect improper
mechanics. Rather than correcting these issues, many coaches actually make a
living out of teaching individuals how to perform more efficient and safer
versions of flawed movement patterns. I used to be one of these coaches myself.
In this case such a coach would teach a person how to eliminate the
aforementioned issues as much as possible, while still holding true to the ATG
squat.

For instance, they may teach the lifter to push their knees out, keep their spine
neutral as much as possible, keep as tight as possible, avoid significant ankle
collapse, and maybe provide a few other additional cues to help them. And yes,
all of these would make the ATG squat feel more natural and more comfortable,
perhaps even allowing additional depth to occur. As a result their ATG squat,
which used to be incredibly poor and downright dangerous, is now markedly
improved, having been converted to a safer version of a dysfunctional
movement pattern. Another way to look at it is on a scale of 1-10, with 1 being
awful and 10 being perfect. The individual’s ATG squat which initially was a 1 or
2, may have improved to a 5, and eliminated some of the pain and inflammation.
Compared to a proper 90 degree joint angle squat, however, which would be a 9
or 10, the ATG squat is still quite destructive and damaging.

Question 18 : Eccentric isometrics

with Bodyweight Exercises
Dr. Seedman, oftentimes I don’t have access to weights or equipment and can only perform
bodyweight movements. Is it possible to still master my body mechanics using eccentric isometric
with bodyweight exercises?

Answer

Bodyweight exercises can provide a substantial training stimulus and allow most
individuals to greatly improve their body mechanics. However, I believe the use
of periodic free weights, such as barbells and dumbbells, is necessary to fully
master movement patterns, as various exercises such as loaded squats, overhead
presses, hinges, and other weighted movements are typically necessary to hone in
on all of the “Big 7” movements. If I had to estimate, one could most likely
achieve 75-80% of optimal muscle function by performing exercises with just
bodyweight, but most likely also forgo a significant degree of strength and
muscularity if unable to fully overload all of their muscles.
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It’s also worth noting that bodyweight movements are just as susceptible to
movement aberrations and biomechanical flaws as loaded movements. In fact,
many bodyweight exercises can be just as difficult to master in terms of proper
technique as basic free weight exercises. Therefore, just as much effort needs to
be focused on mastering movement with bodyweight drills as it does with free
weight exercises. Simply put, performing bodyweight drills does not necessarily
translate into optimal movement patterns. In reality, bodyweight training with
dysfunctional mechanics can produce exponentially more harm than heavy
strength training with proper mechanics. Whatever training tools or methods
one incorporates into their workouts, proper mechanics must always be the main
focus, regardless of how natural or simple the movements are.

Question 19 : Progressive Overload

& Eccentric Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, how important is progressive overload when using eccentric isometric training
principles?

Answer

Ultimately the goal is to gradually use heavier loads, or more time under tension
for each movement pattern. However, perfect form and mechanics must be
maintained throughout. Unfortunately, many lifters are so obsessed with reaching
heavier loads and personal bests that form often suffers. It is not true progressive
overload if mechanics and form had to degrade to hoist the heavier loads.

Improvements in body mechanics and technique represent the most effective

form of progressive overload. In fact, progressive overload with improper form
will eventually cause performance and strength decrements simply because the
body is not functioning properly and the muscles are not firing optimally. In
other words there is lack of ample muscle stimulation.

Using light to moderate loads with perfect technique will trigger just as much
strength and growth, not to mention a host of other positive side effects such as
improvements in digestion, sleep, hormones, breathing, mood, recovery. In
reality, proper muscle function is one of the single most potent stimuli for
producing consistent and steady gains in functional strength and size. Combined
with gradual progressive overload and sound nutrition, proper muscle function
will allow any individual to maximize their genetic potential.
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Question 20 : Eccentric Isometrics

and Strength Transferability
Dr. Seedman, do eccentric isometrics still have a strong degree of strength transferability to other
joint angles since most of the duration is isolated to the 90-degree joint angle position?

Answer

Much of the research shows that isometric training only transfers to movements
approximately 15 degrees above and below the point at which the isometric is
held. However, none of the studies involved eccentric isometrics in the stretched
position. All involved only overcoming isometrics or non-load bearing
isometrics. Eccentric isometrics provide strong improvements throughout the
entire range of motion, not just the range within which the isometric is held.
The 90 degree joint angle stretched position, for most movements, represents
the sweet spot when it comes to stimulating the greatest gains in strength and
size, not to mention muscle function and movement mechanics.

Question 21: Tightness & Stretching

Dr. Seedman, should I periodically stretch if I get tight?

Answer

No! If the lifter begins to feel tight, chances are their form or technique needs
improvement. Stretching (in the traditional sense) will only make this worse by
desensitizing the muscle spindles and making it more difficult to lock the movement
in, leading to additional pain and inflammation. If the individual becomes tight or stiff
from sitting too long or from some form of physical activity or sport that causes
some tightness and stiffness, the best thing they can do to eliminate this tension is to
perform light or bodyweight eccentric isometric variations of the “Big 7 movements.

Question 22 : Eccentric
Isometrics vs Crossfit
Dr. Seedman, is your training style similar to CrossFit?

Answer

Although the training protocols I recommend for eccentric isometrics involve

various full body strength circuits these are quite different from CrossFit circuits. In
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fact, the eccentric isometric protocol represents the polar opposite of CrossFit
training, as CrossFit focuses on quantity with very little emphasis on quality, whereas
eccentric isometric training focuses predominately on quality of movement.

Question 23 : Unstable Variations

of Eccentric Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, when I perform unstable variations of eccentric isometrics such as ring pushups, ring
dips, hanging band bench press, hanging band squats, perturbation lunges and other similar
variations even though they’re much more challenging for me, I end up finding my position and
produce much better mechanics than traditional stable variations of the same movements. In
addition, I don’t experience any joint pain during the unstable variations but on the more standard
and stable variations I do experience varying levels of pain and inflammation from time to time.
Can I simply perform all of my eccentric isometrics using more advanced unstable variations?

Answer

This is actually a common occurrence I’ve observed over the years. While it may
seem like the athlete is simply doing themselves a favor by sticking
predominantly to the more unstable and more advanced variations of the
movements, it’s essential that the lifter perfect their form on the most basic
variations of that movement pattern if they truly want to master their movement.
I’ll use the example of dips to illustrate why this is important.

Most athletes will insist that ring dips are far more difficult than traditional dips
on stable parallel bars. However, if an athlete or advanced lifter has perfected
their dip mechanics, ring dips and standard dips on parallel bars should be nearly
the same level of difficulty. The instability associated with ring dips is simply a
byproduct of faulty mechanics resulting in multiple energy leaks, decreased
tension, and ultimately very little stabilization throughout the body.

Ironically it’s quite common for athletes and advanced lifters to feel significant
pain on standard parallel bar dips (typically in the shoulders, forearms, elbows,
chest, sternum, and neck), while demonstrating few if any of these symptoms on
ring dips. Here’s the deal.

Because of the instability and volatility of the rings, the lifter is forced to activate
their body more efficiently, ultimately producing more refined and precise
mechanics. Out of necessity the lifter automatically and subconsciously creates a
more centrated shoulder joint, tightened core, and activated stabilizers.
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Parallel bar dips represent the opposite end of the spectrum. Because parallel
bars are stable and fixed, the lifter is able to successfully complete the movement
using faulty recruitment patterns with few immediate consequences in terms of
balance, control, and instability, although there will typically be associated
inflammation due to inefficient mechanics.

Simply put, unless there’s some outside variable forcing the lifter to dial in their
movement patterns, form and function tend to suffer. However, true movement
mastery is reached only when the lifter is capable of producing the same exact
mechanics on a stable device as they do on an unstable one. In addition,
compared to more stable variations, the more unstable movement should not be
significantly more challenging in terms of the total load that can be handled if, in
fact, that basic movement pattern has been mastered.

In other words, the total load used on something like a floor press, flat bench
press, hollow body leg raise chest press, hanging band chest press, eyes closed
bench press, foam roller bench press, and others similar movements should all
be within 80% of each other. If the load must be substantially reduced when
performing one of the more unstable or advanced variations it is simply an
indication of inefficient mechanics on that movement pattern.

Fortunately, this paradox can be used to our advantage to master the movement.
In order to grasp this concept it’s important to understand a neurophysiological
dichotomy I refer to as programmed positioning vs. reactive positioning. This
theory is applicable to all movement patterns (i.e. stable vs. unstable training) but
the dip can be used as a prime example to illustrate the key points.

As previously mentioned ring dips tend to improve technique temporarily,

particularly in lifters who have not yet mastered their form. At this stage the lifter
has relied on reactive positioning to force them into using the appropriate
mechanics as they lack the necessary motor program to replicate this technique
on their own accord. With reactive positioning the individual relies on an outside
variable, such as an unstable device or unique training instrument (i.e. olympic
rings), to dial in their movement. In essence, they are simply reacting to the
stimulus with little cognitive effort being applied to technique, as the training
instrument forces them to use the appropriate mechanics whether they realize it
or not.

To further cement this enhanced movement in the CNS the lifter can, and should,
apply the mechanics and kinesthetic sensation experienced on ring dips, and
replicate the same feeling, on parallel bars. This will take greater cognitive effort
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and mental concentration on the parallel bar dips as the lifter will be consciously
involved in the process of creating the appropriate motor program to be stored in
the CNS for future use. This is the theory of motor learning in a nutshell.

Eventually, the lifter should feel and look no different on rings than they do on
parallel bars as they will have created a strong and efficient motor program to
draw on in order to produce the same technique and position, no matter the
variation. Therein lies the difference between programmed positioning and
reactive positioning. With reactive positioning the lifter can only achieve optimal
mechanics when an outside variable such as instability (e.g. ring dips) forces
them into the ideal mechanics.

Programmed positioning, on the other hand, indicates the lifter has constructed
such a strong and efficient motor program for that given movement that even
under the most rudimentary circumstances (e.g. parallel bar dips), when proper
technique is not entirely necessary, they still exhibit the appropriate mechanics, even
though they could easily perform the movement with various technique aberrations.
In other words, they have eliminated the various degrees of freedom (an infinite
number of possible dysfunctional positions) that would allow faulty recruitment
patterns to occur, and have consistently narrowed down their choice of movement
to one option – the correct one. This represents the essence of movement mastery,
that is, no matter how simple, easy, or basic the variation is, the default strategy the
lifter relies on is consistently correct and identical. In essence, they’ve come to a
point where nothing but proper form feels natural, regardless of the variation.

In essence, reactive positioning forces proper positioning, or very close to it,

while the programmed version does not. However, for neural reprogramming
and neuromuscular re-education purposes one must be able to achieve proper
position even when they don’t have to. The only way to do so is by making use
of properly reinforced and grooved motor programs.

Although reactive positioning is a good tool to incorporate periodically, it won’t

necessarily help create as strong a motor program as programmed positioning
given the lesser degree of cognition involved with reactive movement. That’s
because when there are multiple degrees of freedom and numerous options to
choose from in terms of how one is going to carry out a particular movement
(such as in the case of the parallel bar dips), the individual must differentiate
between the various degrees of freedom and voluntarily narrow down his or her
choice.

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This represents the epitome of mental engagement and cognitive-based

movement present in programmed positioning. Reactive positioning does not
rely on these, as the optimal choice is essentially narrowed down for the lifter
automatically as a result of the advanced instability or difficulty of the drill. That
is not to say that reactive training is not good as it has tremendous value for
therapeutic purposes and activation, as well as temporarily demonstrating to the
athlete what the appropriate position and neuromuscular sensations should feel
like. However, they need to be able to quickly transfer this back to traditional
variations with the goal of mastering the most basic versions of movement
patterns preferably with eccentric isometrics.

Question 24 : Frequency of
Eccentric Isometrics
Dr. Seedman how frequently should individuals use eccentric isometrics?

Answer

Eccentric isometrics actually make up the bulk of my athletes’, clients’, and my

own training. This can range from performing eccentric isometrics on the basic
movement patterns several times per week to as much as every day. The reason
for the higher frequency is because eccentric isometrics are actually highly
therapeutic, as they teach the muscles and body to move and function the way
they’re meant to. In addition, there is an inverse correlation between technique
and recovery. The better the technique, the less recovery time the body needs, as
the exercises will essentially be therapeutic and corrective. Poor technique
demands greater recovery time to handle the negative ramifications produced by
dysfunctional movement patterns.

In addition to serving as an excellent diagnostic tool, properly performed

eccentric isometrics allow higher frequency of training for any movement pattern,
as technique can be more easily emphasized. Eccentric isometrics not only
directly help recovery due to the time spent in the lengthened position, they also
teach proper osteokinematics, which can have a tremendous mitigating effect on
joint and muscle inflammation, as well as improving soft tissue health. In fact, I
never have athletes or clients perform soft tissue work such as foam rolling,
manual therapy, corrective exercises, breathing drills, or pelvic re-alignment drills.
Instead they use eccentric isometrics to produce similar, but superior, body
alignment and soft tissue effects. If the eccentric isometrics don’t produce these
results we know immediately they’re not being performed correctly.
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In terms of my own workouts, most individuals are pretty stunned when I tell
them I train full body 6-7x per week with a moderate to high intensity at nearly
all workouts. The reason my body can handle this is because I use eccentric
isometrics for nearly every movement. Besides the direct therapeutic effect, it
allows me to constantly reinforce proper mechanics and keep my nervous system
efficient and finely tuned. In addition, it promotes optimal strength and
hypertrophy, because the enhanced neuromuscular efficiency allows me to use
the heaviest weight my body is capable of handling at every workout without any
neural inhibitory effects.

Question 25 : Ninety Degree

Angles and Joint Health
Dr. Seedman, I’ve read research studies that suggest shear and compressive forces are strongest
on the knee joints and other joints at 90-degree angles, yet you suggest 90-degree joint angles are
ideal for joint health. How do you reconcile these differing opinions and recommendations?

Answer

The topic of shear force and compressive force is something I discussed with my
biomechanics professors quite extensively during my graduate school years. They
admitted there are many potential flaws associated with these topics, as it has
more to do with whether or not the muscles are in the ideal position to absorb
force properly, which they are when positioned at 90 degree joint angles.
According to the shear force argument, every time an athlete jumps and sprints,
which typically involves 90 degree joint angles (even with proper mechanics), the
athletes should be blowing out their ACL’s or ruining their joints, which as we
know is not the case, particularly when proper mechanics are used. In other
words, we shouldn’t think about movement so much from a shear and
compressive force standpoint. The same is true with an RDL or Romanian
deadlift exercise.

According to the shear and compressive force principles the RDL is one of the
worst movements for the low back, yet we know when proper mechanics are
employed, and when the muscles are firing properly, that it's one of the most
therapeutic movements on the low back, spine, and posterior chain. Simply put,
we need to approach movements from both the neuromuscular and structural
perspectives to see whether or not the muscles can fire optimally and absorb
force. That's the key.

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If we were to simply isolate the bony structures of the body and examine the
body as a skeleton or robotic segments, without considering the neuromuscular
system, then shear force and compressive forces would provide great insight.
However, when we examine the body as a whole, and as one large complex
system that integrates neurophysiology, structural physiology, biomechanics, and
physics, it totally changes the dynamics of what constitutes therapeutic
movements vs. contratherapeutic movements.

Simply put, it’s critical that we consider the entire system of the human body and
how it operates as a whole, not just one isolated part. It is why powerlifters can
have extreme deterioration of cartilage, in addition to bulging discs, yet as long as
the muscles can absorb force properly around the bones and connective tissue,
it’s as if those injuries did not exist. The muscles are the best shock absorbers
money can’t buy. They simply have to be in the proper position to perform this
action and that happens to be at joint angles of roughly 90 degrees which,
ironically, is where the most shear and compressive forces occur.

Lastly, it’s important to point out that regardless of whether or not an individual
decides to stop at a joint angle of 90 degrees, or go beyond 90 degrees such as an
ATG squat, the individual will inevitably have to deal with the same compressive
and shear forces, as they cannot simply bypass the 90 degree joint angle point. In
order to perform a movement with excessive range of motion the individual will
still be required to move into a 90 degree joint angle at some point during the
movement, both on the eccentric and concentric positions. Simply put, the 90-
degree position is not something that can be magically avoided or evaded.
Ironically, most individuals who use the shear force and compressive force
reasoning to make their argument against the use of 90-degree joint angles fail to
understand this simple and obvious concept.

Whether a lifter moves to 140-degrees of joint flexion, or simply moves to 90

degrees, in either case the individual will be required to handle the same shear
and compressive forces associated with 90 degree joint angles. The key
difference is that the individual who does not significantly exceed 90-degree joint
angles is maintaining maximal motor unit recruitment, muscle stiffness,
proprioception, co-contraction, and structural integrity, placing their body in a
position in which the muscles can protect against the shear and compressive
forces. The individual who exceeds 90-degree joint angles sacrifices these
qualities, placing significant stress on the joints and connective tissue.

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Question 26 : Muscle Hypertrophy

with Ninety Degree Joint Angles
Dr. Seedman, will I lose muscle if I stop using larger ROM’s and move only to 90-degree joint angles?

Answer

Definitely not!!! In fact, the opposite is true, for several reasons. First, the 90-
degree joint angle position achieves the most muscle activation and motor unit
recruitment. Second, the 90-degree joint angle position is the safest position and
will minimize the risk of injury. Injuries will substantially limit muscle growth
and strength gains as they impair one’s ability to train with high intensity effort
and heavier loads. Third, the-90 degree joint angle position is biomechanically
the strongest position, able to support the greatest amount of overload, thereby
eliciting tremendous functional strength and hypertrophy. In fact, research
studies increasingly support this notion. For example, a recent study examining
triceps muscle growth showed that motions that involved 90-degree joint angles
produced greater muscle gains and increases in cross-sectional area as compared
to the same exercise performed with a larger range of motion (120 degrees) [2].

Question 27 : Strategy for

Increasing Exercise Intensity
Dr. Seedman, what’s the most effective training strategy or technique to increase exercise intensity?

Answer

If I had to choose one strategy that trumps all others when it comes to increasing
exercise intensity, it would be cleaning up one’s lifting technique and form. It may
seem a bit odd to include this as a means of increasing exercise intensity, but it is
without a doubt the single most effective intensity training technique an individual can
utilize. Cleaning up one’s form and technique not only reduces stress on the joints
and connective tissue, it's unbelievably intense and brutal on the targeted musculature,
not to mention overall conditioning and cardiovascular system function, as it requires
enormous effort, mental toughness, full body tension, motor control, and energy.
Unfortunately, most people substitute exercise quantity for exercise quality, as they're
so focused on increased training intensity and overall work that form inevitably goes
out the window. Ironically, improving exercise quality is the single most effective
training strategy one can use to increase the intensity and energy expenditure while
training. The most effective way to facilitate this is through using eccentric isometrics

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Question 28 : Results Assurance

Using Eccentric Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, how do you know the instructions you laid out for each exercise are correct and
not simply your own personal opinions and interpretations?

Answer

What I’ve laid out in this text represents the most structurally sound, strongest,
most controlled, safest, most stable, most balanced, and most centrated positions
for each movement. Without getting into extraneous detail, I can confidently
state that, based on the extensive research I’ve conducted over the past decade
on each movement pattern, and based on the hands on training of myself, my
clients, and my athletes, what I’ve laid out for the reader represents the optimal
positions for each movement.

In addition to extensively and thoroughly studying the science that underlies the
mechanics and neurophysiology of human movement, one of the key
components that played a vital role in helping me determine the ideal position
for each movement was being able to experiment with very advanced variations
of each movement pattern. Many of these involved very heavy, unstable,
variations with oscillating kinetic energy, under eyes closed conditions. The
mechanics I specifically lay out for each movement represents the only feasible
way to complete some of these incredibly advanced variations. Anything less
inevitably results in loss of stability, lack of motor control, and inability to
perform the movement successfully.

In addition, I’ve spent the better part of the last decade performing each of the
“Big 7” every day, perhaps only missing 10-20 days total during this time period.
I’ve also had multiple athletes and clients perform a similar training protocol and
frequency. This experience quickly taught me what constitutes proper body
mechanics, as anything but perfect technique, when repeatedly performing the
same movement patterns day in and day out, year after year, will result in
inflammation, injury, and musculoskeletal pain, unless the muscles are used in
the exact way they were designed to, with movements that are precisely executed
with perfect body mechanics. When such a precise level of movement is
executed, no such negative side effects occur and, in fact, the movement actually
brings healing and restoration to the body. It is those mechanics that I highlight
in this text, and that are supported by principles of neurophysiology,
biomechanics, structural physiology, and physics.

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In essence, in order to find the proper method for performing a movement, and
the most neurophysiologically and biomechanically optimal positions for a
movement pattern, an individual should simply perform that movement pattern
at a high intensity with heavy loading and repeatedly for a period of time.
Typically, inflammation and injury will begin to ensue in as little as several days
unless, of course, optimal human mechanics (which are the same from person to
person) are employed. When that is the case, the movements can actually be
performed day after day, and year after year, without any negative repercussions,
as each movement provides a therapeutic response with no contratherapeutic
ramifications. This is what I began to do in my mid 20’s, as a result of which,
early on, I developed intense levels of pain and inflammation, forcing me to find
the ideal positions and mechanics for each movement.

Ironically, by perfecting my technique further and further, and honing in more

and more on the proper positions, the pain and discomfort that resulted from
improper execution of the same movements, quickly faded. However, deviating
even slightly from the very precise boundaries and guidelines that I discovered
would always lead to the same pain and inflammation I suffered previously. No
amount of rest, soft tissue therapy, manual adjustments, or corrective exercise
would eliminate these issues other than the proper execution of each movement
pattern with precisely executed eccentric isometrics. I’ve witnessed similar, yet less
severe, trends in the many clients and athletes I’ve worked with over the years.

Question 29 : Mitigating Pain

and Inflammation
Dr. Seedman, when I examine my movements on film they look very similar if not totally identical
to what you’ve demonstrated in your videos, pictures, and book. However, I still feel various forms
of pain and inflammation when I perform the movements with eccentric isometrics. Why is that?

Answer

The naked eye can only see so much and even the slightest external deviations
indicate massive intramuscular deviations. Once one gets the movement patterns
close to what is ideal using basic visual cues, beyond a certain point the correct
method needs to be felt and sensed, not seen. Simply put, use vision, visual
cues, pictures, and videos to get a general idea of the proper position, then rely
on the sense of feel and proprioception to fine-tune the movement to the point
that it feels precisely locked in. One’s muscles can sense exponentially more than
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what any coach or naked eye can see, therefore, the focus should be on fine-
tuning mechanics through one’s sense of feel, not vision. At that point the pain
and inflammation should be largely eliminated if not altogether disappear.

Question 30 : Truth or Fiction |

Stretching & Corrective Exercises
Dr. Seedman, should I still use soft tissue modalities, massaging, mobility drills, stretches,
breathing drills, pelvic re-alignment drills and corrective exercises if I get sore and inflamed after
certain movements?

Answer

Generally speaking, no. This discomfort and inflammation is a result of faulty

mechanics. Rather than masking the symptoms, the lifter should focus on
eliminating them by getting to the heart of the issue which is improper mechanics.
Simply put, they should adjust their form on those exercise until they don’t produce
pain and inflammation. That is, use the physical discomfort as a form of feedback
that tells them their movement is incorrect to varying degrees. The eccentric
isometric protocols laid out in this text will teach the lifter how to do that.

Question 31 : Movement Mastery

Dr. Seedman, in your opinion, is it ever possible to truly master movement to the point where
you can simply maintain your current level of movement mastery without the need to make
additional improvements.

Answer

In my opinion it’s impossible to perfectly and truly master movement. Some

individuals may get very close to this point, however, no matter how close or
perfect we think we’ve mastered our body mechanics, working on our movement
and continually trying to master it is something that must be attended to in an
almost daily fashion. That’s because each human being is born with certain
genetically predetermined or environmentally driven compensation patterns and
movement aberrations. When left unchecked, even for as little as several days, our
bodies will have a tendency to gradually gravitate back to those tendencies. Simply
put, the idea of mastering or completing one’s training is never accomplished and
must be worked on and refined in a never-ending and very consistent fashion.
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Question 32 : Using Other exercise

modalities with Eccentric
Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, once I use your method of eccentric isometric training for several months and
improve my body mechanics to the point where my inflammation and injuries are greatly
improved, can I return to other traditional forms of training using a larger range of motion? For
instance I would like to go back to CrossFit workouts and perform deep ATG squats. Will
there be any negative repercussions?

Answer

This may, in fact, be the only negative consequence associated with eccentric
isometrics and mastering our body mechanics. Once we master our movement
and our body experiences what it feels like to function and move properly,
returning to old and aberrant movement strategies will oftentimes feel worse
than before. That’s because our sensory receptors have become re-sensitized and
can detect faulty movement more readily than before. As a result, poor
mechanics, including a larger range of motion, will most likely produce more
noticeable warning signs and red flags from our proprioceptors and sensory
systems, warning us to terminate those faulty movements. In fact, one of the
many benefits of proper training and eccentric isometrics is that our body
becomes more in-tune with what constitutes faulty mechanics, sending
immediate signals that tell our body to abandon such forms of movement
dysfunction or suffer the consequences. In essence, our body may produce
significant pain signals and/or inflammation to give us immediate feedback on
the faulty movement. This should not be viewed as a negative response, instead
it represents exactly how our bodies are designed to function, by informing us of
any and all potential hazardous situations, including faulty movement.

In addition, because physiologically we will be functioning at far superior levels

in terms of improved endocrine function, decreased inflammation, improved
circulation, enhanced oxygenation, improved mental health, and overall superior
health, returning to any stimuli that would negate these improvements will not
only produce almost immediate warning signs, such as pain and inflammation,
but our physiological function will feel markedly diminished. In other words,
once an individual experiences the health and physiological benefits of proper
movements, returning to faulty movement feels significantly worse due to the
fact that the individual has set a new bar in terms of the level at which their
bodies should be functioning (i.e. maximal health and performance). Individuals
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who have never experienced such a state will not be quite as sensitive to negative
stimuli or poor physiological function as they’ve had to gradually learn to live
with it. In essence, once an individual experiences the effects of proper
movement, such as that associated with eccentric isometrics, they won’t want
return to their old ways of movement and muscular dysfunction. If they do their
body will rebel even more so than before.

Question 33 : Working through

INjuries
Dr. Seedman, if I happen to injure myself or tweak something while training should I give
myself several days off from training, or continue to work through the discomfort?

Answer

Unless the injury is so serious it requires immediate surgery or medical attention

(which most do not), one of the worst things an individual can do for an injury or
tweak is take a full rest period or training layoff. The single most effective strategy
an individual can employ after most injuries is to continue performing very light,
often no weight, eccentric isometrics with perfect form, as this will provide more
therapy, healing, recovery and restoration than any other modality in existence. I’ve
literally witnessed firsthand in my own body, and that of many of my clients and
athletes, such rapid rates of healing with proper eccentric isometric training and
light activation drills it’s almost hard to believe. In fact, specific cases that would
likely take weeks, if not months, to recover from can be almost fully remedied in as
little as 1-5 days with light activation exercise via eccentric isometrics.

In addition, injuries and tweaks, although painful and uncomfortable, represent a

golden opportunity for the individual to take the mastery of their body
mechanics to another level, as the only way they will be able to perform the basic
movement patterns using the muscles or areas of the body that were traumatized
is by using text-book form and perfect mechanics. Essentially, the heightened
levels of pain they’ll experience represents the ultimate feedback on their
mechanics and a coaching tool to help dial in their form. Even if there is a
feeling of discomfort, working through it will help bring healing and restoration
to the traumatized areas. The key is to use lighter loads and focus on creating as
much intramuscular tension and motor control as possible while performing the
basic movement patterns. Simply put, don’t work around injuries, instead work
through them intelligently.
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On similar note, some injuries may not improve significantly for at least 24-48
hours, as it may take time for the healing process produced by the eccentric
isometrics and activation drills to take full effect. In addition, the eccentric
isometrics directed recalibration process may take time to fully transfer into daily
movement habits, such as walking, therefore, there may be a slight delay. However,
this slight delay represents only a fraction of the time it would take for the injured
site to heal, had these lighter eccentric isometric drills not been employed.

Question 34 : Form Perfection

and eccentric Isometric
Viability
Dr. Seedman, even when I try with all my effort to use perfect form on certain eccentric
isometrics such as squats, I can tell they’re not perfect, although in comparison to my normal
squats they do feel significantly more refined. Should I still perform them in this manner since,
as you mentioned, eccentric isometrics reinforce whatever movement pattern you are using? In
other words, if I am still not quite able to have the perfect movement pattern am I setting myself
up to reinforce an improper neural blueprint?”

Answer

If the movement technique a lifter is using for the eccentric isometric is an

improvement relative to their normal movement strategies, this represents a
trend in the right direction in terms of correcting muscle dysfunction, even if the
new strategy is not perfect. The key is each time they perform them they should
try to hone in on technique more and more, and use the inherent feedback from
their sensory receptors to make steady improvements in form. Most individuals
will not exhibit perfect form the first few times they perform eccentric
isometrics, although more than likely it will be far superior to whatever type of
squat/movement they had been previously performing in their routine.

As long as the individual approaches each session with the mindset of building
upon their previous movement improvements, eventually perfect, or near perfect,
form will be attained which will ultimately be their body’s default motor program.
At that point, the goal will simply be to make this movement strategy more and
more automated so that, no matter the circumstance, the body only knows how
to move with proper mechanics. In other words, all traces of muscular
dysfunction related to that general motor program will have been eliminated.

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Question 35 : Below Ninety

Degree Joint Angles
Dr. Seedman, you mention how certain positions, such as squatting significantly below 90-
degree joint angles is incorrect and potentially dangerous. However, when I perform deep squats
I don’t feel pain. Is it still ok for me to perform deep squats provided I don’t feel pain.

Answer

Pain is only one of many consequences and warning signs that arise from
improper movement. Just because a movement does not cause pain does not
mean it’s ideal for the body. The consequences of faulty movement go far
beyond the scope of pain and physical discomfort. If a movement is
biomechanically and neuromuscularly incorrect it will produce a number of
negative physiological side effects, not to mention deteriorating performance as,
when the body does not function optimally, both from a neurophysiological
standpoint as well as a biomechanical standpoint, it negatively impacts
physiological function. Some individuals may be fortunate enough to never, or
rarely, experience pain, however, the physical symptoms may manifest
themselves differently such as impaired breathing, spastic muscle function,
excessive sympathetic tone, poor reflexes, mental issues, poor sleep, impaired
digestion, weakened immune function, anxiety, lack of motor control, impaired
balance, and other symptoms associated with the “Muscle Malady Cascade
Effect” discussed throughout this text.

It’s also important to discuss the topic of existing pain vs. eventual pain.
Although some lifters can temporarily “get away” with faulty mechanics and
poor technique without significant pain or discomfort, eventually it will produce
negative ramifications. I’ve seen this numerous times in individuals I’ve
consulted with, as they explain how they had been performing various
movements the same way for years with no pain or discomfort and eventually it
hit them like a ton of bricks. Suddenly, out of nowhere, there seems to be a
tipping point where a once seemingly healthy lifter begins to experience injuries,
incredible pain, and extreme inflammation throughout their body, as well as
other physical symptoms. For some this may occur after weeks or months while
for others it may take years, even decades. Regardless of the time frame, it will
eventually break. In addition, overall strength, performance, muscle function,
joint health, wellness, quality of life, and overall physical health would have
improved to a much greater degree had proper mechanics and range of motion
been employed in the first place.

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Question 36 : Natural vs unnatural

Movement & Biomechanics
Dr. Seedman, throughout this text, you repeatedly used the term "natural" in regards to
movement and biomechanics. However, oftentimes unnatural means of training seem to produce
beneficial outcomes. For instance, studies show that weightlifting shoes help Olympic
weightlifters more easily handle heavier loads. Even the use of a barbell is not really natural
although it’s still effective. Can you elaborate on what you consistently refer to as “natural” and
why it’s so important?

Answer

When it comes to movement the human body is capable of many movements,

however, only a fraction are optimal and therapeutic. In other words, just
because we can do something doesn't mean that would should, or that doing it
consistently is optimal. For any movement one has to examine the pros and cons
of that movement. Proper and natural movement will have many benefits, with
few if any negative ramifications, particularly when it comes to joint stress or
stress on connective tissue. That is, it will be very therapeutic even when high
forces, such as heavy loads, are applied. So yes, while heavy loading in the form
of barbells may not seem “natural” it will provide a positive stimulus that the
body will perceive as natural and optimal, with no contra-therapeutic effect, so
long as optimal human mechanics are employed.

Faulty movement, on the other hand, which could also be described as unnatural
movement or sub-optimal movement, may have some benefits, but is also associated
with a host of negative consequences. For instance, bouncing with heavy weight out of
the deep, ATG bottom position of a squat, will produce a number of benefits in terms
of strength and hypertrophy on the lower body, but also produce a host of negative
issues on the joints, particularly in the long term. A smooth 90-degree joint angle squat
will provide the same, if not more, benefits in terms of strength and hypertrophy, but
without the negative consequences on the joints or connective tissue.

Foot and ankle mechanics are the same. Yes, the body can easily adapt to a lifting
shoe, however, guess what happens? We shift and change the force vectors of our
movement patterns such that the joints, and stresses across the joints, are no
longer centrated, that is, stress is no longer evenly distributed across the various
joints or across a particular joint structure. So while it may appear to help us at
first glance, we now produce a movement with force vectors that have shifted
towards the knees, and reduced hip activation. Instead of distributing force

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between the hips and knees, we have now placed excessive tension on the knees,
and too little on the hips. As a result, we begin to distort and change our optimal
mechanics, not only during the squat but, gradually, also on other movements like
running, jumping, walking, and sprinting due to the movement transfer effect.

When biomechanists examine the force vectors that are produced when wearing
lifting shoes, the results are very odd, with excessive stress being placed on
certain structures such as the knees. In contrast, under barefoot conditions, the
stresses are more evenly distributed across the involved structures. As a result,
the movements can be performed with few if any negative consequences. The
shoes represent a quick fix with long-term ramifications. Barefoot conditions
represent a long term investment that requires the individual master their
movement and eliminate dysfunction, which takes quite a bit of time and effort.
However, the long term benefits are exponentially greater than shod conditions,
including the elimination of injuries and contra-therapeutic effects.

It should also be noted that many, if not most, of the extreme squat positions
Olympic weightlifters move into during their squats would be impossible without
the assistance and support of the artificial structure of the weightlifting shoe. It’s
as if they need the support of the shoe to allow them to collapse and achieve
extreme depth. If we were able to examine the actual structure of the foot and
ankle complex inside the weightlifting shoe, particularly during extreme squatting
positions, we would likely see very unusual and unnatural forces, torques,
contorted positions, and activation patterns. Simply put, the weightlifting shoe
not only allows such aberrations to occur, it actually disguises and conceals these
various abnormalities, as we can only see the outside of the lifting shoe, not the
foot and ankle complex underneath this bulky synthetic structure.

Instead of using the weightlifting shoe as a crutch to help us with our squat we
should take the time and effort to correct the squat pattern so that we can squat
with optimal mechanics and achieve optimal joint stress and joint centration
across the various joints and involved muscles, rather than excessive stress on
some areas and not enough on others. Again, optimal and natural movement
describes movement that results in adequate joint and muscle centration (i.e.
equal stress across the various structures), whereas unnatural movement
describes movement that results in reduced centration. As a result, over time,
more and more stress is placed on certain areas, leading to injuries and
dysfunction, and various compensation patterns that will affect other related
movements according to the principles of movement transfer described in the
field of motor learning, whereby all movements impact other similar movements.

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Question 37 : Yoga Training

Dr. Seedman you mention how yoga training and other popular forms of exercise are not ideal
as they disrupt our optimal muscle function. However, I began performing yoga several years ago
and have improved my quality of movement and substantially decreased pain in my body. How
do you reconcile these differences?

Answer

All movement falls within a scale. For the sake of simplicity let’s use a scale of 1-10.
The lowest level of muscle function is a 1, while perfect muscle function with
optimal mechanics is a 10. Many individuals who perform yoga chose to do so
because they were previously fairly inactive or experienced some form of pain. Let’s
say in this case the level of function of many of these individuals was a 1, 2, or 3
before participating in yoga. Based on various physiological studies and
neuromuscular principles I would place the level of muscle function achieved
through yoga (although there are numerous types with some being better than
others) at a 5-6 on a scale of 1-10. For most individuals this represents a significant
improvement, particularly if they were functioning at a very low level to begin with.

Many individuals who strength train on a consistent basis also function at a very
low level of movement mechanics, often far below a 5, due primarily to their
poor execution of the movements. For all these individuals, yoga represents a
form of training that significantly improved their pre-existing levels of function
and mechanics, thereby significantly improving their particular muscle function.
However, for individuals who perform proper training such as eccentric
isometric protocols, their level of muscle function may be at an 8 or 9.
Performing yoga would represent a significant regression in their muscle
function and a step back physiologically.

Lastly, it should be noted that most forms of training that are not ideal, involve
movements and drills that fall within the 1-10 scale. For instance, many forms of
yoga and other exercise programs implement standard planks. This is an
excellent exercise that all individuals will benefit from. Unfortunately, many of
these same programs also involve positions, maneuvers, and drills, that are quite
detrimental and that place the body and spine and potentially hazardous
positions.

Simply put, most exercise systems involve both good and bad stimuli, therefore,
the individual will incur a number of physiological responses, some good and
bad. In other words, a mixed bag of physiological responses. Proper movement
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such as eccentric isometric training involves no negative or contratherapeutic

movements as all movement is based on how the human body is designed to
function. Therefore, the stimuli are all therapeutic without any associated
negative ramifications provided proper mechanics are employed.

This illustration is true of all exercise programs including various forms of Yoga,
Pilates, gymnastics, and other forms of exercise that often involve a myriad
movements, some of which are ideal and many of which are not. If any of these
programs produce significant improvements in health and muscle function it’s
simply because muscle function and movement patterns were fairly poor to begin
with. In other words, when it comes to movement, good is the enemy of best.

Question 38 : Over-Under Ranges

for Ninety Degree Angles
Dr. Seedman, earlier in this text you alluded to the fact that while you consistently mention the
90-degree joint angle throughout these pages, you also realize that many movements don’t
always involve exactly 90-degree joint angles but instead somewhere close to it. Can you provide
a more precise range of what those cutoff points are?

Answer

Generally speaking those cutoff points are approximately +/- 10 degrees from
the 90 degree joint angle position. In other words, some movements may
periodically involve 80-degree joint angle positions, while others might
occasionally involve slightly larger joint angles of approximately 100 degrees.
However, once the movements start going significantly past that +/- 10 degree
range (approximately) they’re most likely incorrect to varying degrees, having
deviated too far from that optimal 90 degree joint angle position.

Question 39 : Heavy versus Light

Loads for Optimizing Muscle
Function and Movement Mechanics
Dr. Seedman, throughout this text you discuss the notion of mastering body mechanics and the
idea that technique and body positioning is really the key. With this in mind, if an individual
has very little interest in gaining high levels of strength, is it necessary to perform the “Big 7”

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foundational movement patterns with loads or weights? Could an individual produce the same
or similar results in terms of improvements to body mechanics and muscle function simply by
using light loads or even no loads, such as a broomstick or an empty dowel? Simply put, is it
necessary to use weights or overload to optimize muscle function and movement mechanics?

Answer

Body mechanics can definitely be improved by using very light loads or even zero
loading. In fact, I recommend that individuals perform activities such as
practicing with an empty bar or dowel, on a regular basis. However, these
activates need to be performed in conjunction (throughout the course of a
training week) with various loaded movements. While it’s not necessary to use
incredibly heavy loads, some degree of load and overload is in fact necessary
when it comes to mastering body mechanics. There are several reasons for this,
specifically:

Somatosensory Feedback
Motor Unit Recruitment and Muscle Activation
Intracellular Calcium Release and Second Messenger Signaling
Synaptic Plasticity

SOMATOSENSORY FEEDBACK

First we have to look at the somatosensory feedback components provided by

our central nervous system and proprioceptive mechanisms. These feedback
systems, including the muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, pressure receptors,
and other sensory receptors, rely on a significant degree of tension and
heightened muscle activation to provide maximal feedback. Simply put, in the
absence of significant tension and load, the proprioceptive mechanisms that are
responsible for helping us master our body positioning and kinesthetic awareness
are not fully maximized. Likewise, muscle stiffness, a necessary component of
muscle spindle activation, will be non-functional in the absence of significant
load or tension. In other words, we need a combination of tension, load, and
stretch to optimize these mechanisms.

Now, the key question is how much load or tension do we actually need to
optimize this response? By looking at the two other components related to
movement mastery, namely motor unit recruitment and neuromuscular memory,
we can narrow our criteria and provide specific guidelines in terms of the ideal
loading parameters needed to master body mechanics

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MOTOR UNIT RECRUITMENT AND MUSCLE ACTIVATION

When it comes to mastering our body mechanics, the more muscle fibers and
motor units we can recruit, in conjunction with practicing proper technique, the
more we can enhance body mechanics, as we’re essentially re-training a larger
portion of our neuromuscular system. Simply put, less motor unit recruitment
suggests a smaller systemic re-education process, as we’re only affecting a
fraction of the potential muscle fibers and motor units. In contrast, more motor
unit recruitment suggests a larger and more complete re-education process, as
we’re impacting a larger portion of our potential neurons and muscle fibers.

Fortunately, studies show that inordinately heavy loads are, in fact, not necessary
to produce this response, as it appears that only 50-60% of our max load is
needed to call upon all the available motor units and muscle fibers. This is
particularly true when more accentuated eccentric motions are used, as
recruitment is further elevated when using these loading parameters [3]. Once
individuals move past 50-60% of their max loads, it is the same motor units and
muscle fibers that fire at faster rates. No additional muscle fibers are actually
being called upon.

Although there are exceptions to the rule that suggest heavier loading parameters
may, in fact, be necessary in order to activate the highest threshold motor units
and fast twitch survival fibers, it appears a majority of one’s motor units and
muscle fibers can be activated by simply using 50-60% of their one rep max
loading when training. Simply put, performing eccentric isometrics with
moderate loads of approximately 50-60% of one’s max load will provide a
neuromuscular response that’s more than enough for re-educating the nervous
system and teaching it to move properly. That raises the question: does the
implementation of heavier loads such as 70, 80, 90 and even close to 100% of
our max loads, provide any added benefit when it comes to mastering our
movement and body mechanics? The answer is yes, to some degree.

INTRACELLULAR CALCIUM RELEASE AND SECOND MESSENGER

SIGNALING

To understand why the periodic implementation of heavier loads such as 70%

and more of an individual’s 1RM can provide additional benefits in terms of
mastering movement, it’s important to look at the physiological and biochemical
responses associated with neuromuscular memory and synaptic plasticity. More
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specifically, looking at the excitation-contraction coupling process and intra-

cellular signaling can help answer the question.

Although it was once thought that muscle memory was simply a fictitious and
fabricated principle created by the bodybuilding world, scientific evidence now
points to the existence of muscle memory. Some argue that this concept has
more to do with CNS memory, but in all actuality muscles can adapt structurally
and biomechanically to training and experience, so much so that they are
“shaped” or changed as a result of prior contractions and previous activities.

The best way to explain muscle memory is to look intracellularly, particularly at

calcium (Ca2+) and calcium release, as Ca2+ is the ultimate decoder. In fact, the
shaping of our neuromuscular system and muscle memory is directly related to
the signaling role that Ca2+ plays in all types of muscle contractions [4-6].

When muscle is activated, intracellular levels of Ca2+ increase. The amplitude

and duration, as well as frequency of the Ca2+ signal determines the level of
force produced by that muscle. However, it appears that the amplitude,
frequency, and duration of Ca2+ release also communicates messages to other
key enzymes that regulate other cellular processes, from gene expression to fuel
supply, to neural signaling. In addition, precise patterns of intracellular Ca2+
fluctuations in muscle fibers is the key determinant that coordinates force
production, gene expression and cellular energetics, and which our physiology
will adapt to.

Now, without getting overly scientific, it’s important to understand some of the
basic principles of the excitation-contraction coupling process. In the case of
voluntary muscle contraction, depolarization of the muscle membrane known as
the sarcolemma causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release stored Ca2+ which,
in turn, triggers a muscle contraction. For a muscle to relax again this Ca2+
must return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a process that is driven by ATP.

This specific process, known as Excitation-Contraction Coupling, leads to cross

bridge cycling which is the mechanism whereby the muscles shorten and
contract. The neural firing, activation, and frequency of activation of the muscles
dictates the amount of force production and, ultimately, the coordination and
control of the movement that those specific muscle produce.

The distinction between different movements and skills comes down to this
specific excitation contraction coupling process, as this recruitment of motor
units and muscle fibers, the order in which they are recruited, the number
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recruited, and the frequency with which they are recruited (i.e. the frequency of
motor neuron firing), determines the rate and timing of activation of individual
muscle fibers and, therefore, the amplitude of intracellular Ca2+ release within
the muscle fiber.

These differences in motor neuron firing frequencies determine the different

levels of intracellular Ca2+ within an individual muscle fiber and, ultimately, the
strength or force of contraction which, in turn, affects the type of movement as
well as the coordination and control of movements. Increases in Ca2+ during
muscle recruitment greatly amplify the neural activation signal, as well as
determine whether or not slow or fast twitch muscle fibers are activated.

All of these processes and factors link the frequency of stimulation to muscle
force production, muscle metabolism, muscle gene expression, and cellular
degradation. This shows how muscle memory can be affected greatly based on
the muscle’s exposure to certain types of stimuli, such as the types of training or
past experiences that muscle has gone through. In addition, muscle may gain so
much muscle memory that the muscle itself can adapt to its new and consistent
conditions and take on characteristics of slower or faster twitch fibers. This is a
very evident form of muscle memory that can be seen at almost any level by
simply observing the broad spectrum of individuals who participate in various
types of rigorous activities, including strength based, endurance based, and
power based activities, and the way muscles adapt to that activity.

During any form of movement, as activation frequency increases, there is an

increase in the levels of intracellular Ca2+ in the muscle and ultimately Ca2+
amplitude. In other words, the frequency of muscle activation is the
physiological determinant of Ca2+ amplitude in a muscle fiber and, ultimately,
the degree of muscle contraction or excitation-contraction coupling. This, in
turn, produces a corresponding level of force that is related to the amount of
Ca2+ in the muscle, which then causes specific actions, movements, etc. to take
place. This process, which occurs within a specific muscle, and the
synchronization of this process across multiple muscle groups, is how precise
and difficult movements take place in the high skill tasks seen in various sports.

With prolonged periods of activation there is repeated tetanic contractions in

which the Ca2+ levels within a muscle may remain elevated between successive
contractions, resulting in tetanus, or powerful contractions, such as in weight
training. What’s most critical about these elevations and fluctuations of
intracellular Ca2+ is that they result in activation of second messenger signaling

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which, in turn, affects the body on multiple levels, especially from a biochemical
standpoint and, ultimately, a physiological standpoint.

Repeated contractions or actions result in repeated elevation of Ca2+ and would

alter the type of contraction proteins and metabolic enzymes being expressed.
These fluctuations in Ca2+ levels also provide feedback to calcium-activated,
cellular communication pathways, leading to altered muscle metabolism or
muscle fiber type which, in turn, modulates the force output.

Simply put, the amplitude, along with the duration of elevated Ca2+ levels,
appears to encode messages that determine the magnitude of force production,
the matching of energy supply to demand, and the regulation of gene expression
and muscle protein levels that make the muscle better adapted for each particular
activity. Ultimately, the intracellular changes that occur in response to the types
of muscle activities being performed, result in the shaping of skilled movements
which gives the muscle a certain type of “muscle memory”. Furthermore, these
intracellular Ca2+ levels also seem to impact the neural components of muscle
memory and motor programming, such as neuromuscular electrical activity, rate
of motor unit stimulation, recruitment of high threshold motor units, co-
contraction, Golgi tendon organ activation, muscle spindle activation, motor unit
synchronization, and other neural components.

SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

Related studies of synaptic plasticity and the formation of neural connections

also reinforces this concept, as heavier loads and more intense muscular
contractions generate more action potentials. It’s been shown that an increased
number of action potentials plays a key role in various factors associated with the
formation of new and/or stronger neural connections through processes known
as long term potentiation and synaptic plasticity. These are all neuromuscular
and biochemical processes that are critical in the creation of muscle memory and
motor programs, and are paramount to the concept of movement mastery and
motor control.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

So what does all of this boil down to. The heavier the load or more intense the
activity, the higher the levels of intracellular Ca2+ release. And the higher the
levels of intracellular Ca2+ releasee, the stronger the second messenger signaling
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that ultimately creates the strongest muscle memory and neuromuscular

blueprints of a movement or activity. With this in mind, if the goal is to learn or
master a movement, particularly when applied to more rigorous muscle activities
such as strength training, the more intense the activity, the stronger those neural
blueprints will be ingrained into our muscles and central nervous system. Simply
put, if an individual can perform eccentric isometrics with heavy loads using
perfect form, this will produce the strongest level of physiological re-wiring and
neuromuscular re-education that ultimately expedites movement mastery.

Having said all this, the most important factor still comes down to proper
mechanics and form. The last thing we want is to instill faulty muscle memory
by performing and reinforcing flawed movement patterns in the CNS. And
since using heavier loads produces a stronger muscle memory response,
performing flawed movement patterns with heavy loads represents the worst
possible scenario in terms of movement mastery, as it strongly ingrains flawed
movement in the CNS via heightened levels of intracellular Ca2+, second
messenger signaling, synaptic plasticity, and formation/reinforcement of neural
connections. In contrast, heavy loading with proper form provides the same
Ca2+ second messenger signaling response but in this case it is associated with
optimal motor programming and ideal muscle memory.

Simply put, if an individual is only able to keep perfect form using 50% of his or
her 1RM then that represents the heaviest load they should incorporate into their
training on a consistent basis. However, if an individual is, in fact, capable of
using textbook mechanics with 90% or more of their 1RM, they should
periodically use that, as this will instill and ingrain proper mechanics in their CNS
even more strongly.

In other words, there is a direct relationship between the amount of load an

individual can handle with perfect form, and the degree of movement mastery
and proper muscle memory they can instill in their CNS. The heavier one can
perform eccentric isometrics with perfect form the more effective this response
will be.

In essence, the loading parameters that should be used with eccentric isometrics
to maximize the movement mastery response is anywhere between 50-100% of
an individual’s 1RM. In addition, loading and total weight used represent a dose
dependent trigger that induces various physiological signaling mechanisms that
ultimately contribute substantially to the muscle memory response.

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Question 40 : Mastering Body

Mechanics without Eccentric
Isometrics
Dr. Seedman, is it possible to master your body mechanics without the use of eccentric
isometrics?

Answer

In my opinion, it’s highly improbable, if not completely impossible. Perhaps

there are other methods out there, but none that I’m aware of. If they did
produce a similar effect then they would inevitably have to involve nearly the
same principles and procedures outlined in this text, as they would be predicated
on foundational concepts of human physiology and biomechanics, although they
would most likely be called by a different name other than eccentric isometrics.

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R efer en c es

1. Matthew R. Rhea, J.G.K., Mark D. Peterson, Drew Masse, Roberto

Simao, Pedro J. Marin, Mike Favero, Diogo Cardozo, Darren Krein,
Joint-Angle Specific Strength Adaptations Influence Improvements in Power in
Highly Trained Athletes. Journal Of Human Movement, 2016. 17 (1), 43-
49.

2. Goto, M., et al., Partial range of motion exercise is effective for

facilitating muscle hypertrophy and function via sustained intramuscular
hypoxia in young trained men. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning
Research, 2017. Publish Ahead of Print.

3. Beck, T.W., et al., Mechanomyographic and electromyographic

responses during submaximal to maximal eccentric isokinetic muscle
actions of the biceps brachii. J Strength Cond Res, 2006. 20(1): p. 184-
91.

4. Berridge, M.J., M.D. Bootman, and H.L. Roderick, Calcium signalling:

dynamics, homeostasis and remodelling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2003.
4(7): p. 517-529.

5. Chin, E.R., Role of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinases in skeletal

muscle plasticity. J Appl Physiol (1985), 2005. 99(2): p. 414-23.

6. Tomporowski, P., Motor Learning and Skill Development Kinesiology

Course at The University of Georgia. 2010.

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Chapter 11

Unlocking the
Mysteries
Connecting the Dots

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CHAPTER 11
Unlocking the
Mysteries
Connecting the Dots
Th e R ec o v er y a n d V o lu m e D ilem m a

hroughout the strength and conditioning world, it’s a known fact

T
that the ability to recover varies significantly amongst individuals.
Some individuals report that they can only perform 1-2 sets of a
given movement pattern once every 7-15 days, such as the
abbreviated high intensity workout routines popularized by Mike
Mentzer and Arthur Jones, while others can get away with very
high volume, such as seen with many professional bodybuilders. Although
muscle building capabilities are determined in part by genetics, as well as the
levels of myostatin, and even the use of anabolic steroids, perhaps muscle
function and movement mechanics represent another key piece of the puzzle.

For instance, I’ve seen in myself, as well as many of my clients, an improved

ability to handle increasingly greater levels of volume and intensity when training
once they lock in their body mechanics. In contrast, when I initially work with
clients who have very poor levels of muscle function and motor control, they
tend to overtrain much more easily than those with better muscle function. Once
they improve their muscle function they have a significantly greater ability to
recover, with less likelihood of overtraining.

The concept of muscle confusion and “changing it up” may be related to this
same issue. Simply put, if one is repeatedly using their muscles improperly,
inevitably this will cause negative ramifications and negative physiological
consequences. In essence, if a lifter is going to use faulty mechanics when
training then “changing it up” is critical, as alternating contratherapeutic stimuli

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is necessary. However, performing movement correctly semi-consistently or

consistently, is actually quite therapeutic.

Th e Ph ys ic a l A c tiv ity A n d S tr en g th
Tr a in in g Q u a n d a r y

Many research studies indicate that various forms of physical activity help
decrease chronic inflammation and fight oxidative stress. Yet some studies
involving strength training show that it may produce increased levels of chronic
inflammation and CRP as well as oxidative stress. But strength training is
supposed to be a therapeutic and healthy activity. So what gives? Perhaps the
answer lies in the fact that strength training, when performed improperly, carries
a host of negative and some positive effects. However, when properly
performed, negative repercussions, such as increased levels of chronic
inflammation, are eliminated while positive effects, such as decreased
inflammation, are enhanced.

R ea l W o r ld A n ec d o ta l Ev id en c e V s .
Em pir ic a l R es ea r c h

Many individuals discount anecdotal evidence and practical experience

suggesting that empirical research is the only thing we should rely on. However,
these real life experiences and practical factors are just as critical when it comes
to advancing any scientific field, particularly kinesiology and health. Combining
empirical research with anecdotal evidence, practical experience, observational
data, professional conjecture, and personal accounts, allows us to go beyond the
confines and restrictions of what can be feasibly studied in a research setting.
That is, we can work beyond these confines and form highly educated
assumptions, theories, and opinions based on years of knowledge, education, and
hands on experience from real world scenarios. If we had to wait until there was
concrete proof and evidence for every claim, assertion, assumption,
recommendation, and theory, we would never maximize the impact we have in
any of our fields, particularly those that are science based, as the research often
lags behind real-world application.

For instance, it may be decades before research empirically shows just how
critical muscle function is in terms of maximizing health and minimizing
inflammation-related maladies. Yet, by studying the scientific literature, and

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putting it together with experiential data and anecdotal observations, we can

understand how important this truly is. As a result, we can begin to inform
others in our society of its importance, ultimately impacting the health and well-
being of the human population as a whole. If we waited for the research to
validate these claims, who knows what dire consequences would ensue of as a
result of keeping such information hidden from the general public. This may be
why disease and sickness is so prevalent. As a society, we look too much to
medicine and pharmaceutical drugs for relief, rather than focusing on
maximizing the health of our body, including its largest endocrine organ, our
skeletal muscles.

M u s c le Z o n in g V s . M o v em en t M a s tery

Many practitioners, therapists, kinesiologists, chiropractors, strength coaches,

and trainers will attempt to isolate an injury or area of inflammation by honing in
on a specific muscle or muscles, and simply focusing on improving soft tissue
health, recruitment, activation, and the function of that individual
muscle/muscle group. I refer to this as muscle zoning, and it often involves a
number of approaches from soft tissue work, dry needling, corrective exercises,
mobility drills, traction exercises, partner assisted stretches, breathing exercises,
pelvic re-alignment drills, body manipulation, e-stim, ultrasound, infrared
treatments, contrast training, laser treatments, unique therapeutic modalities,
manual resistance, and number of other unusual drills that may appear to
resemble techniques from a torture chamber more so than therapeutic activities.
Muscle zoning, and all of the unique treatments that go along with it, are
typically a waste of time and are often completely ineffective, not to mention
counterproductive as treatment for most, if not all, forms of musculoskeletal
issues. Here’s why.

First, the root cause of the issue is never just one isolated muscle or muscle
group. It’s always several muscles that affect a movement pattern or that cause
pain in a specific area. The issue is related more so to movement patterns and
groups of muscles, not one specific muscle. Trying to isolate a specific muscle
and honing in on a precise spot is rarely successful and, even if it is, the level of
success is moderate at best compared to the results achieved by mastering basic
movement patterns. In addition, very rarely is a practitioner truly able to
pinpoint the exact problem area (even if there was one), despite the fact that the
pain may manifest itself in one particular muscle, as there are too many muscles
and systems involved and pain can often be referred. Therefore, the location of
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the pain does not necessarily reflect the source of pain or dysfunction, only
where the inflammation appears externally.

Second, even if a practitioner does happen to locate a specific area or muscle

that’s causing issues, movement is far more complex and involves much more
than one isolated muscle. Most, if not all, movement involves sensory integrated
motions. For instance, although an individual may have a weak quadrates
lumborum muscle when they squat (a common diagnosis by many “movement
specialists”), it may simply be a symptom related to a host of other factors.
These may include the fact that they do not position their hips correctly, activate
the feet appropriately, contract the lat muscles properly, or position their spine in
correct alignment. As a result, their quadrates lumborum muscle is likely to be in
a biomechanically compromised position and not functioning properly. To say
“we need to fix the quadrates lumborum” is not the solution. Fixing the whole
movement pattern will essentially fix and correct all the muscles involved in that
exercise, including the quadratus lumborum and all of the other involved
muscles around the spine, hips, ankles, feet, shoulders and more.

Attempting to focus specifically on the quadratus lumborum will be largely

ineffective and ultimately quite frustrating, as it never addresses the root cause
but instead only the associated symptoms. In fact, what can take corrective
exercise specialists and soft tissue therapists months to resolve can often be
remedied in minutes with proper cuing and coaching on basic movement
patterns, particularly when using eccentric isometrics.

One prime example I often recall is from a corrective exercise seminar I attended
while in graduate school. There were hundreds of individuals at this seminar
hosted by several very famous kinesiologists and “movement specialists”. During
the first half of the seminar we studied movement assessment and corrective
exercises and remedies. During the second half of the seminar we were split up
into smaller groups to work on each other by locating various movement
aberrations and muscle issues and then attempting to treat them. One of the
individuals in our group had a very poor squat pattern and, as a result, the group
focused for well over 30 minutes on attempting to correct this. At least 6
individuals attempted to treat the issue. Each felt the issue was something
different than the other. One believed it was a transverse abdominal issue, one
felt it was a hamstring problem, another hip mobility, another t-spine extension,
another glute activation, another lumbar alignment, another breathing patterns,
and so on.

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Numerous attempts were made by these individuals to correct this young man’s
squat pattern with various treatments, many of which had been discussed earlier.
Many of the treatments were making the young man break out in a cold sweat
from the resulting pain and discomfort. The treatments included soft tissue
work, corrective exercises, mobility drills, traction exercises, partner assisted
stretches, body manipulation, breathing exercises, stretching, pelvic alignment
drills, manual resistance, and a number of other highly unusual drills and
manipulative therapies that would have made a voodoo witch doctor look like a
composed physician. The young man continued to complain of extreme
discomfort but was willing to go along with the various attempts to treat him as
he was just as curious to determine what worked.

Each time we assessed his squat form there was either no improvement or his
mechanics worsened. Even the presenters at the seminar were a bit unsure as to
what the remedy was. Finally, after roughly 30 minutes of this insanity I’d had
enough and asked if I could take a crack at resolving what by now was the
debacle of the century. First, I had him perform several bodyweight squats all of
which were just as aberrant, if not worse than when we first assessed him. He
now also complained of various pains and areas of stiffness that seemed to be
getting worse with each treatment. Also, there were now numerous issues with
his squats, including valgus angle collapse, excessive forward lean, hip loading,
spinal misalignment, and numerous other issues. Instead of spending time and
energy determining what, where, and why every single aberration was occurring I
simply focused on cueing him with some basic coaching tips, how to squat
properly using natural range of motion and basic principles of eccentric
isometrics. This included pushing the ankles out, keeping a neutral spine, setting
the hips, back, keeping the feet screwed down, stopping at a 90 degree joint
angle, bracing the core, performing a slow eccentric with a pause in the 90
degree joint angle position, and maintaining high levels of full body tension.

Within minutes the young man’s squat improved dramatically and his levels of
pain and discomfort diminished almost completely. I was almost slightly
embarrassed and uncomfortable, as the scenario made it look as though I was
simply attempting to-show up many of the other individuals in my group. In
addition, everyone seemed semi-perplexed and surprised at how such simple
cuing and coaching, using the most basic concepts of movement, could be so far
superior to any of the “latest and greatest” therapeutic advancements in the
fitness industry. Although this is only one specific scenario, I’ve literally lost
count of the number of times I’ve witnessed similar scenarios when I work with
individuals. In fact, it’s almost a consistent trend I encounter on an almost
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weekly basis, as I work with individuals who have tried every form of treatment
and therapy prescribed to them by physicians, muscle specialists and physical
therapists, all with little, if any, improvement in pain and quality of movement.
Once we teach them how to move correctly using the basic tenets of eccentric
isometrics laid out in this book, they being to improve more in a matter of
minutes than they did during the months, and sometimes years, they spent under
the care of various “pain and movement specialists”.

Now, when it comes to the example of the young man at the seminar, as well as
the countless similar scenarios I’ve been a part of, I’ll be the first to admit that
many of the professionals who treated the pain and injuries had far greater
knowledge of functional anatomy than I did. In fact, some of their assessment
methods were beyond my understanding. Unfortunately, none of them had any
idea how to properly treat the root cause of the issue, or the symptoms for that
matter.

When it comes to movement, we can spend years attempting to assess and

determine various reasons why a movement aberration or muscle dysfunction
occurs. This is oftentimes no more than educated guesswork, as the human body
is too complex and advanced to ever pinpoint a specific reason, just as trying to
determine why someone developed a certain form of cancer is rarely possible or
practical. The goal should not be to determine what caused it, or why the issue
occurred, but simply to find the appropriate cure. Similarly, an individual who is
sick with terminal cancer is not as interested in finding a physician who
understands why they developed the illness as they are in finding an individual
who holds the cure.

I’m always the first to acknowledge my own limitations, as there are many
individuals in this field who have exponentially greater amounts of knowledge
than I have. The one thing I can claim is that while they may have infinitely
greater levels of knowledge and information stored in their brains, I offer what
they typically cannot, a solution and cure to most, if not all, movement issues in
the form of properly performed eccentric isometrics on the basic movement
patterns. This simple yet scientifically sound form of training represents a cure
that not only resolves muscle and movement related issues, but also a host of
physiological, psychological, health, and performance related issues.

This is not some exotic groundbreaking discovery that I can take credit for but
simply a basic understanding of the human body and physiological concepts
predicated solely on how God created our bodies. Only through deep prayer,

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trial and error, and scientific investigation did this truly become clear to me, as it
would to anyone who views the human body from the “Divine” perspective.
Simply put, we can spend a lifetime searching endlessly for answers and going
around in circles attempting to resolve physiological debacles that seem so
scientifically complex and complicated that we can drive ourselves mad. Only
when we take an approach and mindset based on the principles that underlie
how God divinely crafted our bodies can we find answers. In fact, we often find
perfect solutions that seem incredibly simple and trivial and all this time were
right in front of us, if we only took the time to change our perspective and
mindset. Until we examine our bodies from the Almighty’s viewpoint, we will
continue to search endlessly for answers that seem impossible to obtain yet, in
reality, the true answers are so simple and basic they are almost unbelievable.

C o r r ec t C o a c h in g V s . C o r r ec tiv e
C r a zin es s

Unfortunately, very few coaches, trainers, and athletes know how to properly
coach basic movement patterns such squats, hinges, lunges, pulls, and presses.
As a result they’re forced to resort to various forms of crazy yet ineffective
methods (i.e. muscle zoning) to treat basic physical issues. Learning how to
properly coach, cue, and teach basic movement patterns with foundational
principles of eccentric isometrics will do wonders not only in terms of treating
the human body but also by eliminating the need to fall back on the nonsensical
and ineffective therapeutic modalities commonly seen in the fitness industry.

Elim in a tio n O f Ph ys iq u e Im b a la n c es
a n d D is pr o po r tio n a lity

Eccentric isometrics not only produce significant improvements in size, strength,

and athletic performance capabilities, they also help to create an incredibly
developed, muscular, and well-rounded physique. That’s because maximizing
form and muscle function is one of the most important yet oftentimes neglected
aspects of bodybuilding, physique training, and figure training. If one truly wants
to gain the most size and strength possible they’ll want to improve their
movement mechanics as this will allow them to optimally stimulate all of the
available muscle fibers. Eccentric isometrics are ideal for this.

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In addition, proper mechanics are critical as a means of eliminating and

minimizing physique imbalances, asymmetries, and areas of disproportionality.
Most lifters inevitably have certain strengths and weaknesses when it comes to
physique appearance and size. For example, many bodybuilders often have
excellent quad development but poor glute and hamstring development. This is
often a direct result of faulty mechanics and poor activation patterns on their
squats, hinges, and lunges. Although some of these imbalances and areas of
disproportionality can be semi-remedied by incorporating additional isolation
work for the posterior chain, the single most important factor that contributes to
a proportional and well-balanced physique is proper technique and lifting
mechanics. This places adequate stress and stimulation across all of the targeted
muscles without over-emphasizing some and under-emphasizing others.

Similarly, many individuals have poor upper back and lat development, not
because they were born with an inability to grow ample muscle in their upper
back and lats, or a disproportionally low number of muscle fibers in their back in
comparison to other muscle groups, but simply because their form and
movement patterns do not allow ideal or optimal recruitment of targeted
musculature. Regardless of the program they use, the number of sets prescribed,
or the amount of high intensity techniques they implement, results will be sub-
par at best until technique, posture, movement mechanics, muscle mind
connection, and activation patterns, are dialed in. Although genetics and
individual differences can account for some imbalances in the physique, if a lifter
consistently runs into issues with areas of weakness and disproportionality from
a physique standpoint, chances are their technique needs to be improved. The
best way to remedy this issue is through the consistent use of properly
performed eccentric isometrics.

Th e In ev ita b le R es u lt o f Pr o per
C o a c h in g

Many individuals often ask me how I coach certain movements. Although I give
basic cues and tips I don't force anyone into a specific position, depth, or range
of motion. I simply teach them to use their body's own sensory feedback and
proprioception to find the optimal positions and stopping point via various
methods of neuromuscular re-education, particularly those involving eccentric
isometrics. I’ve coached literally hundreds if not thousands of individuals and,
inevitably, once these athletes master their own form, by finding the optimal
positioning for their body, and reach a point where no pain or negative side
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effects are produced and only therapeutic benefits are derived, the mechanics
end up looking almost identical from person to person.

That's because proper form and mechanics, such as 90-degree joint angles, are
based on scientific constructs and principles that remain constant from person to
person regardless of individual differences. The human body will naturally
gravitate to these optimal positions if given the chance, as this represents how
we were designed to move. This is true of all movements and movement
patterns. I simply coach the person on how to use their body’s own sensory
feedback to find these optimal positions.

M a x im iz in g G en etic P o ten tia l B a s ed o n

Th e S c a le S ys tem

As mentioned numerous times throughout this text, body mechanics, muscle

health, and overall muscle function, are critical for well-being, fitness, longevity,
quality of life, health, deceleration of the aging process, and performance. In fact,
it’s most likely the single most important factor that an individual has control
over, followed closely by other lifestyle factors including, nutrition, dietary
habits, sleep patterns, stress levels, environmental factors, alcohol consumption,
sports/nutritional supplements, and more. Regardless of these factors, everyone
is born with a pre-existing ceiling in terms of the optimal state of health,
performance, fitness, wellness, and overall function their bodies can attain. It’s
for this reason I like to employ a grading system based on a scale of 1-10 that
describes, in very general terms, where an individual’s ceiling is.

Using this scale, a grade of 1 would represent incredibly poor health, very low
function, and most likely extreme disease and physical illness. In contrast, a 10
represents a small fraction of the human population who happens to be blessed
with an incredible ceiling when it comes to maximizing their genetic potential.
These are individuals who have extreme vigor, energy, muscularity, leanness,
amazing hand eye coordination, exceptional athleticism, near perfect health, and
no apparent inflammation or pre-existing health concerns. In reality, few, if any,
individuals ever attain this level of health and fitness, even if they have the
genetic potential to arrive at this almost-inhuman level of perfection.

With this in mind, here’s how I use this system to describe the impact and
effects that training, muscle function, and lifestyle factors have when it comes to
maximizing genetic potential. It’s also worth noting that this is simply my own

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classification system, not based on scientific research or empirical data but only
on my own observation, experience, and professional opinion. It should also be
pointed out that not every component is related or mutually inclusive, as there
are many individuals who are born with incredible health yet very low ceiling for
gaining muscularity. Likewise, there are occasional instances where individuals
are born with the ability to gain incredibly amounts of muscle mass and amazing
physique while also being quite prone to a variety of health issues. In this scaling
system, therefore, I am simply using basic generalizations, based on common
trends, for the purpose of illustrating a very important concept and topic as it
applies to the principles outlined in this book.

Most human beings are born genetically predisposed to a variety of minor to

major health or physiological issues. If they choose to make the right lifestyle
choices and decisions, and manage their health and fitness, most of these issues
will remain at bay for a majority of their life. Having said that, I would classify
most human beings as being born with a genetic potential ranging from a 5-9.
Unless there are extreme health concerns early in life, most individuals would
not fall below a 5. In contrast, very few individuals are born with a potential of
10.

As previously mentioned proper muscle function is most likely the single most
important factor, followed closely by nutrition and diet, that an individual can
control in order to maximize their genetic potential as a human being. To better
illustrate this I’ll use several basic examples.

First, let’s take the example of an individual who has the genetic potential to
reach a 7 in terms of health, wellness, longevity, and fitness. If this person
completely disregards their body, and does little to maintain their health,
including lack of proper exercise, poor nutrition, and undesirable lifestyle habits,
they will most likely end up functioning at a very low and unhealthy level,
probably somewhere in the range of 2-4. However, if that individual does
everything optimally, starting from an early age including proper exercise,
mastering their body mechanics, optimal nutritional habits, and wise lifestyle
choices, they will more or less be able to function (for most of their life) at a 6 or
7, although there will be natural and gradual declines with aging. The key here is
that it’s impossible to maximize genetic potential or for that individual to reach a
level 7 unless muscle function and movement is mastered, as the consequences
associated with the various forms of muscular dysfunction are too significant to
not have a large impact on health and well-being.

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Simply put it’s impossible to optimize health, fitness, wellness, performance, and
overall genetic potential without proper muscle function. And, in my opinion,
it’s impossible to optimize muscle function without the proper implementation
of eccentric isometric protocols.

If we take a similar example of an individual who is born with a very rare genetic
potential of 10, yet they do very little, if anything, to optimize their health and
performance, and make inadvisable health and lifestyle choices throughout their
life, they will likely end up functioning at a 3, 4, or 5 at best. In contrast an
individual who is born with a very low genetic ceiling, such as a 5, could actually
enjoy a more fulfilled, active, healthy, and overall higher quality of life, in
comparison to the level 10 individual, if they took all of the necessary steps to
maximize their performance and function, particularly movement mechanics,
dietary habits, and other lifestyle choices.

The point here is to illustrate that regardless of an individual’s genetic ceiling,

even those that are born with a predisposition to a variety of health issues can, in
fact, live a better quality of life than an individual born with near perfect
genetics. Simply put, most human beings have a choice to maximize their health
and make the most of their quality of life. No matter how many health issues
they may think they have, embarking on the journey to maximize their muscle
function and movement mechanics can literally cause the body to function and
feel like that of a much more genetically blessed individually. Their health and
function may never be perfect, nor ever reach the same level as that of some of
their family members or friends, yet by taking control of their life and
maximizing their muscle function, dietary habits, and lifestyle choices, many of
the health and physical issues they may be prone to will have only a minor, or
potentially zero, impact on their overall quality of life. On the other hand,
foregoing the decision to maximize their movement mechanics, nutritional
habits, and lifestyle choices may be the very choices that cause every genetically
predisposed health issue and physical malady to be expressed in their body,
thereby degrading and ultimately destroying their quality of life.

It should also be pointed out that every individual manifests their physical
symptoms differently based on a variety of genetic factors that are too complex
to fully predict. For instance, the negative consequences associated with even
one type of muscle dysfunction vary quite significantly. In fact, two individuals
may have the exact same, or very similar, type of muscular dysfunction yet have
it manifest quite differently. For this example let’s use anterior shoulder drift or
shoulder rounding. In addition to producing pain in a variety of different places
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in the body, this small, yet significant, physical issue can have a host of other
potential negative ramifications, associated with inflammation and its
downstream consequences.

For instance, this shoulder rounding may cause one individual to be more prone
to breathing disorders, thereby impacting oxygenation, circulation, and even
mental state (i.e. anxiety), whereas the same shoulder-rounding syndrome may
manifest itself as a cardiovascular, pain, or hormonal issue in another.
Attempting to determine all of the potential maladies associated with each form
of dysfunction is nearly impossible. The key is that every form of muscular
dysfunction will ultimately produce some form of physical malady and health
issue (i.e. the muscle malady cascade effect) beyond the obvious issues associated
with pain and inflammation in the related site (i.e. shoulder pain). The only thing
we can predict is that eliminating any and all traces of this or any other
dysfunction represents the only way to truly eliminate or minimize all health and
physical maladies associated with faulty movement.

It should also be pointed out that all individuals manifest health and
inflammation issues to varying degrees. Even the slightest deviation in shoulder
positioning in one individual may produce a host of negative consequences and
inflammation, therefore, eliminating this form of muscle dysfunction would be
paramount to improving their quality of life. In contrast, in other individuals it
may take more extreme deviations in shoulder function to produce only minor
accompanying health and physical issues. The goal should not simply be to see
what each human being can “get away with” in terms of dysfunction but, instead,
to maximize their movement mechanics and muscle function as a means of
maximizing their physiological function and minimizing the “muscle malady
cascade effect”.

It is important to note that mastering body mechanics and muscle function, as

well as other lifestyle and dietary factors, may not ever eliminate all physical
ailments and maladies. However, mastering our body mechanics will do
wonders in terms of minimizing the effects of some of these ailments as much as
is humanly possible. In other words, it may be the only course of action that
ensures these issues remain somewhat manageable and prevents them from
becoming overwhelming. Likewise, it may ensure that many of the maladies we
are genetically predisposed to are kept at bay and do not substantially manifest
themselves for a majority of our lives. Simply put, mastering our body with the
use of eccentric isometrics can help minimize the various health issues we’re
genetically predisposed to.

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Lastly, some individuals are simply born with a genetic predisposition and greater
propensity for inflammation, particularly that which is musculoskeletally related.
For these individuals, maximizing their genetic potential in terms of health,
wellness, and fitness, may unfortunately mean that regardless of how dedicated
they are to mastering their movement they may always experience a low, yet
manageable, level of body inflammation. However, had they not chosen to take
the necessary steps to maximize their genetic potential in terms of mastering
their movement, proper nutrition, and optimal lifestyle factors, the
musculoskeletal pain would most likely be almost excruciating and unbearable,
oftentimes incapacitating them and putting them out of commission in terms of
daily life activities, including the ability to be physically active. It’s worth noting
these same individuals who chose to maximize their muscle function and health
and fitness will, often times, have far more manageable levels of pain and less
musculoskeletal inflammation than individuals who are born with the genetic
potential for near bulletproof bodies yet have that done little to optimize their
physiological function and movement mechanics.

Th e R ipple Effec t A n d S er ia l
D is to r tio n Pa tter n s

The human body is quite sensitive to movement aberrations. One faulty

movement pattern or area of dysfunction can create a ripple effect. In turn, this
can produce a number of detrimental consequences and compensation patterns
throughout the kinetic chain not to mention a host of indirect effects on one’s
overall physiology via the “Muscle Malady Cascade Effect”. Other prominent
strength coaches and researchers in this field have noticed similar findings. In
fact, renowned strength coach and kinesiologists Bret Contreras has written
about the subject and mentioned the fact that dysfunctional areas of the body
can affect everything else in the musculoskeletal system, both above and below
the site, like a chain reaction which he refers to as “Serial Distortion Patterns”.
In essence, it’s a series of multiple compensation patterns that are created from
one misalignment. Simply put, if one has an unstable or immobile joint
somewhere in the body, they’ll likely develop problems in other joints, as the
body is an inter-connected unit.

For example, weak hips and glutes in an individual can cause the knees to cave in
when performing various movements. While the problem exists at the hip, it will
produce compensation patterns and dysfunctional alignment in the feet, ankles,
knees, and low back. In addition, such a form of hip weakness will alter the
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individual’s ability to hinge at the hip joint, predisposing them to flex more at the
spine when performing movements. As a result, this creates faulty postural
alignment, which further impacts the low back, shoulders and neck. In other
words, there is no such thing as an isolated area of dysfunction given everything
in the body is impacted by even one area of misalignment or flawed recruitment.

M a n a g in g A llerg ies A n d O ther D a ily

H ea lth Is s u es

Along the same lines as above, many individuals are genetically predisposed to
suffer from a variety of allergies and daily heath issues such as nasal congestion,
mucus accumulation, food allergies, and sinus issues. What I’ve seen on a
consistent basis with nearly all of my clients and athletes is that mastering their
body mechanics and muscle function is superior to most if not all other forms of
treatment for these issues. It may not altogether eliminate certain issues or
allergies that individuals are genetically predisposed to, however, they will
become much more manageable. Many of my clients and athletes who may have
previously struggled with certain foods, such as dairy or nuts, are almost always
able to better handle these foods once they learn to master their body mechanics
and implement eccentric isometric training. That is not to say that they
completely eliminate the issue or no longer have lactose intolerance, only that
their bodies can more easily handle the various dairy products, most likely due to
improved enzyme production, digestion, decreased inflammation, and overall
improvements in physiological function.

I’ve also seen numerous cases where specific nasal, sinus, or food allergies are
developed as a result of faulty muscle function and mechanics. In fact, when
individuals start feeling joint and muscle inflammation on a consistent basis,
some form of allergy almost always follows soon thereafter. It is actually quite
common for individuals to develop a specific allergy they had never suffered
with before in their lives. While various factors including nutrition, lifestyle
choices, environment, mental state, pollutants and other factors can have a
significant impact, there is often a very strong correlation with muscle
dysfunction. Simply put, many of the allergies and daily health issues that most
individuals consider part of everyday life can be minimized, if not totally
eliminated, by mastering body mechanics with eccentric isometrics.

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Classification Of
Body Durability
Although the goal with proper training and eccentric isometric implementation is
to create as bulletproof a body as possible, there are genetic, environmental, age,
gender, and psychological limitations, as well as prior health history and past
injuries that may impact the level of intensity that one can/should push to in
their training. When it comes to determining how to classify body durability and
how it would dictate training I have 4 categories I typically will use to classify a
client. They are as follows.

C a teg o r y 1

Physiological Description: Individuals who fall into Category 1 have the most
bulletproof bodies. That is not to say they won’t get injured with faulty
mechanics, only that it may take longer for it to occur and injuries will most
likely not be as severe. Most individuals in this category will either be younger, or
more genetically blessed, and will fall in the 8-10 range of the 1-10 genetic scaling
system previously discussed. In addition, many high school and collegiate
athletes, as well as some younger professional athletes fall into this category.
However, some middle aged individuals who were born with more bulletproof
bodies may also fall into this category.

Training Implications and Guidelines: These individuals are able to get away with
various forms of muscle dysfunction for much longer periods, often years, and
periodically decades, before suffering the negative ramifications associated with
faulty mechanics. Ultimately, it will catch up to them unless they focus on
improving their body mechanics. Although the consequences won’t be as visibly
apparent until further down the road, the “muscle malady cascade effect” will
still have an impact on their bodies to varying degrees. This will oftentimes be
somewhat subtle, to the point that it’s quite difficult to detect until many years
later when the effects are more noticeable and extreme.

These individuals have few if any training limitations provided mechanics are
proper and eccentric isometrics are frequently employed. They can periodically
go as heavy as possible without negative repercussions provided form and
mechanics are correct from a visual standpoint. Simply put, as long as the
movement and eccentric isometric positions look right to the naked eye in terms

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of the guidelines laid out in this text, there are no weight or loading restrictions
and most, if not all, exercises can be incorporated in their training regimen. That
is not to say they should always train this heavy or intense, as lighter and
moderate workouts should still be employed, at least once per week, but
performing periodic workouts, at incredibly high intensities, will more than likely
not be problematic.

Summary: Category 1 represents the most bulletproof physiological makeup.

These individuals can go as heavy as possible with eccentric isometric training, as
long as mechanics look proper. On the 1-10 RPE scale of loading intensity, the
load can periodically feel maximal at a level of 9-10, although this is not
necessary to achieve noteworthy results.

C a teg o r y 2

Physiological Description: Individuals who fall into Category 2 are able to train at
relatively high intensities particularly when it comes to eccentric isometric work,
however, their bodies are more susceptible to very slight deviations in form and
mechanics. I estimate roughly half of the general population falls into this
category, including many athletes who are slightly more pre-disposed to injuries
and body ailments, as well as many middle aged individuals typically ranging
from their late 20’s to early 40’s. Most of these individuals are likely to fall into
the genetic scaling system as a 6-8. This also represents the category of
individuals who have suffered one to several musculoskeletal injuries, yet are still
fairly strong, active, and healthy. This also happens to be the category where I
would personally classify my own body.

Training Implications: Although the individuals can use relatively heavy loads, there
is little to no room for any form of aberrations or improper activation patterns.
In addition to looking correct to the naked eye, the movements must feel correct
and proper to the lifter. As long as these two factors 1) looks right, and 2) feels
right, are satisfied, the individual should have little if any problems when
periodically using heavier loads. If these individuals perform movements with
such heavy loads or intensities that the movements no longer feels proper, even
though to the naked eye it may appear correct, eventually negative consequences
will ensue. If these individuals attempt to periodically train similarly to a
Category 1 individual, they will eventually suffer the consequences, although it
may take weeks or months. Several moderate and or lighter intensity workouts
per week should also be incorporated into their training routine. Lastly, minor

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adjustments in their training routine may be required such as the elimination or

modification of more physically strenuous, awkward, or advanced movements.

Summary: The physiological makeup is far from bulletproof. However, as long as

perfect mechanics are employed, and the movements both look and feel correct,
training, particularly that involving eccentric isometrics can be quite heavy and
intense. On the 1-10 RPE scale of loading intensity, the load should rarely if ever
exceed a 9.

C a teg o r y 3

Physiological Description: Category 3 individuals typically involve those who range

from their mid 40’s to late 60’s, although it can include individuals who are much
younger or older. These individuals’ bodies are much more sensitive to even the
slightest forms of inappropriate training stimuli or faulty mechanics. Their
movement aberrations can oftentimes produce immediate aches and pains that
can set them back several days or longer if form is not remedied or immediate
action is taken to eliminate the various muscular dysfunctions. Most individuals
in this category will fall into the 4-6 range of the 1-10 genetic scaling system
previously discussed. In addition, these individuals will most likely have suffered
multiple severe injuries, surgeries, health issues and/or musculoskeletal issues
throughout their lives.

Training Implications: Most individuals who fall into a Category 3 will have to forgo
various intense or advanced exercises such a certain forms of axial loaded barbell
movements (i.e. barbell deadlifts and or heavy barbell squats). Some may still be
able to perform these but only with substantially lighter loads. Loading for most
movements will need to be decreased by approximately 25% of the max load
they feel they could handle for an intense set. Simply put, loading parameters will
need to be moderate in most cases, while occasionally being able to go
moderately heavy but rarely, if ever, beyond this threshold. Most importantly
there are 3 criteria the lifter will need to satisfy.

As with category 1 and 2, the movement will need to both look right and feel
right. However, and more importantly, the movement will need to feel
therapeutic on their body. This represents an even more stringent criteria than
the “feel right cue” as a movement may feel right biomechanically and
structurally, yet it may be so heavy that it may not necessarily feel therapeutic on
the muscles due to some of the pressure transferring to the surrounding joints

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and connective tissue. These individuals may be able to train similarly to those in
category 3 for as long as several weeks or several months, but eventually they
experience the negative repercussions and oftentimes are set back with various
forms of pain and inflammation that may last several days to several weeks.

It should also be noted that these individuals can still produce significant
improvements in strength, size, conditioning, fitness, and muscularity, however,
they will have to forego slight degrees of progress in terms of physique and
performance improvements for the sake of staying healthy, functional, and pain
free. Lastly, these individuals will most likely need to incorporate at least 1-3
lighter strength training sessions per week, focusing solely on mastering their
mechanics and producing movement that involves little, if any, stress yet feels
very therapeutic on their body and muscles.

Summary: The physiological makeup of Category 3 individuals is quite sensitive to

any and all forms of improper muscle function or biomechanical aberrations.
Loading parameters should rarely go past moderate or moderately heavy loads,
and the movement should both look and feel right and, more importantly, feel
therapeutic. In other words, these individuals can periodically perform eccentric
isometrics as intensely or heavy as is desired provided the movements feel
therapeutic with no signs of contratherapeutic stress to their bodies. On the 1-10
RPE scale of loading intensity, the load should rarely if ever exceed a 7.

C a teg o r y 4

Physiological Description: Category 4 typically includes elderly individuals or those

who have suffered severe injuries, trauma, or medical issues. Individuals who fall
into the genetic scaling system of 1-4 will typically fit into this category although
some individuals who fall in the 5-6 range or above may fit here if various
circumstances, such as injuries or health issues have limited their physical
function.

Training Implications: Lighter loads, as well as less physically taxing eccentric

isometric exercises should be employed, including the use of lighter dumbbells,
lighter kettlebells, cables, bands, and bodyweight movements. The use of barbell
movements should be highly limited if not fully eliminated altogether. The key is
to produce an ample stimulus while causing little if any stress to the
body. Another way to think of this is that these individual should use the lightest
weight possible to elicit a significant training response. However, if the load is

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too light and not intense enough this won’t produce ample muscle activation,
motor unit recruitment, or muscle spindle activation. As a result it will be
difficult to maximize proprioception, sensory feedback, strength gains, and
movement mechanics.

Similar to Category 3, the movements must both feel and look correct, and must
also feel physically therapeutic to the body. It should also be noted that some
movement patterns may not ever be perfect. For instance, if an elderly individual
has suffered permanent structural changes to their spine and posture, most
movements will not be perfect or showcase perfect alignment. The key is to
maximize their mechanics, posture, and form as much as is possible when
training to minimize the effects of aging and spinal degeneration. A total of 2-3
lighter strength training sessions per week focusing on properly performed
eccentric isometrics will be ideal for these individuals.

Heavy and even moderate loads should be largely avoided. For most individuals
slight mild improvements in strength and muscle gains may be made, although
the focus at this stage is maintenance of strength and muscle tissue (i.e. avoiding
muscle atrophy), while maximizing function in terms of movement mechanics,
symmetry, stability, mobility, and overall muscle function. Using excessive
loading and intensity, combined with any significant movement aberrations or
technique flaws, could spell disaster and produce various injuries that could set
the individual back weeks or months, oftentimes requiring surgery or medical
attention.

Summary: This represents the most sensitive and susceptible of all physiological
makeups. Individuals who fall into Category 4 should employ lighter loads while
still eliciting a significant training stimulus. On the 1-10 RPE scale of loading
intensity, the load should rarely if ever exceed a 5.

Th e W o r s t C a s e S c en a r io

It is important to emphasize that proper movement mechanics must be

incorporated into all the protocols laid out in this text. If not, dysfunctional
movement patterns will be ingrained in the CNS. In fact, performing any type of
isometric, particularly in the stretched position, reinforces whatever movement
pattern is being performed, whether good or bad. Therefore ensuring that
proper technique is used is of the utmost importance.

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In other words, whatever movement strategy one uses with eccentric isometric
protocols will be even more permanently etched in the CNS and will become our
body’s go to movement strategy. With this in mind, performing these with
precision and proper execution is essential to say the least. In essence, eccentric
isometrics create some of the strongest neuromuscular (neural) blueprints for
human movement. Therefore, it’s of the utmost importance they be the right
blueprints and not riddled with flaws. With that said eccentric isometrics are
perhaps the best training strategy to iron out the kinks of any lift or motor
program.

M en ta l D is o r d er s , C R P , A n d M u s c le
Fu n c tio n

Numerous studies have shown a positive correlation between mental health,

cognitive function, and exercise. Although more extensive research is needed,
recent studies suggest that muscle function may play an integral role in mental
health and in fighting various disorders such as depression and anxiety. For
example, one recent investigation found a strong correlation between
inflammation (CRP levels), autonomic nervous system function (i.e. excessive
sympathetic drive) and depression, more specifically in those with suicidal
tendencies [1].

As highlighted in previous sections, muscle function may be the single most

important factor that impacts levels of inflammation, as well as autonomic
nervous system function. The way we move, and the manner in which we use
our muscles, is ultimately what dictates our muscle health and, ultimately, our
overall physiological health by minimizing inflammation. Learning to manage
these factors could be integral in minimizing various mental and psychological
disorders. Perhaps learning to move correctly and using our muscles properly
holds the answer.

Po s tu r e, D epr es s io n , a n d D a ily
A c tiv a tio n D r ills

While it may seem somewhat difficult to comprehend that something as simple

as posture could impact mental health, a recent study showed that performing
simple postural exercises several times per day was effective at reducing
symptoms of depression and increasing the rate of remission at 12 weeks [2].

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Other studies have reported similar results [3, 4]. Besides demonstrating the
importance that posture has on overall health, including mental state, these
studies provide additional support for the idea that basic activation drills should
be performed several times throughout the day to reinforce optimal muscle
function. This includes, but is not limited, to eccentric isometric bodyweight
squats, single leg stands, planks, standing rows (with resistance bands), lunges,
bodyweight hip hinges, perfect posture holds (stand with perfect posture) and
other bodyweight drills, all of which can be done at work or at home with little
to no equipment.

IQ , In tellig en c e, A n d M u s c le Fu n c tio n

Improved cognitive function is one of the many benefits associated with

exercise, physical activity, and muscle function. However, the impact muscle
function has on cognitive function may be even greater than previously thought.
Although there are only a handful of studies to date that would support this
notion, it appears there is a strong correlation between muscle function,
proprioceptive feedback, and IQ or intelligence levels. Several studies of the
relationship between IQ and the Hoffman (H) reflex [5, 6] showed that
individuals with higher IQ scores appear to also have superior muscle spindle
function, as demonstrated by greater H-reflex responses by various measures.

As highlighted in past chapters, the H-reflex is a reliable measure and indicator

of muscle spindle function. And muscle spindle function is a reliable indicator of
proprioception, sensory feedback, kinesthetic awareness, and overall muscle
function. These factors are also reliable indicators of our movement mechanics.
It would appear then that muscle function, movement mechanics, and
proprioception are in fact related to intelligence and IQ. Is it possible that
improving one’s muscle function and movement mechanics by eliminating
various types of muscle dysfunction and movement aberrations may in fact
improve one’s intelligence and IQ?

Lea k y G u t S yn d r o m e a n d Ex tr em e G I
Is s u es

The incidence of leaky gut syndrome and extreme gastrointestinal issues has
been on the rise for several decades. While the exact cause of these is largely
unknown, researchers have recently identified both inflammation, as well as

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intense exercise, such as strength training, as a potential contributor to these

issues [7, 8]. Many individuals who strength train also seem to suffer from these
disorders. Ironically, many of the issues associated with leaky gut syndrome and
extreme GI issues are quite similar to those associated with faulty muscle
function including extreme fatigue, joint pain, inflammation throughout the
body, reduced ability to recover from exercise, impaired immune function,
frequent headaches, poor sleep patterns, food sensitivities and more.

Perhaps many of these issues are not so much associated with intense exercises
as the studies suggest. Instead, they are more likely to be associated with the
inflammation produced by the use of faulty body mechanics, which ultimately
leads to disruption of physiological function and the internal environment.
Movement, strength training, and exercise are meant to be therapeutic and
beneficial on the digestive system. If the opposite is occurring the problem likely
lies in the execution of the movements, not in the exercise itself.

H yper m o b ility S yn d r o m e A n d
Im plic a tio n s Fo r H u m a n M ec h a n ic s

The topic of joint hypermobility and joint laxity provides interesting insight into
human movement and body mechanics. Research, including numerous case
studies, has shown that individuals who suffer from joint laxity and hypermobility
(a fairly common syndrome) also tend to suffer from a large array of health issues,
many of which are similar to those associated with faulty muscle function and
movement aberrations, including numerous musculoskeletal injuries and
inflammation [9, 10]. While scientists have noted that some of the health problems
are a direct result of the syndrome itself due to connective tissue abnormalities that
impact the flexibility of visceral organs, as well as smooth muscle, skin, blood
vessels, and the tissues of the eye, many of the health issues appear to be directly
impacted by the body mechanics of these hypermobile individuals.

In essence, these individuals typically perform movements with exaggerated

range of motion and long, contorted-like movements, with very little joint
stability, similar to the way many strength coaches and trainers teach movement
and range of motion in strength training. In fact, the movement strategies used
by these hypermobile individuals during exercises like the squats, hinges, lunges,
upper body pushes and pulls has an uncanny resemblance to the methods we see
advocated in many strength and fitness settings. The similarities are so
prominent that, upon first glance, it would appear that most of the

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recommendations for movement and range of motion in the fitness/strength

and conditioning industry have as the end goal training individuals to move in a
similar, if not identical fashion, to individuals who suffer from hypermobility and
joint laxity syndrome.

While impossible to prove or disprove, it’s likely that a significant portion of the
health issues hypermobile individuals suffer from are a direct result of faulty
movement patterns, as they appear to be quite similar to those experienced by
apparently healthy individuals who consistently practice the same exaggerated
movements. Perhaps many of the health issues commonly reported in
hypermobility syndromes are simply a by-product of faulty movement and lack
of motor control, most of which can be significantly improved through proper
training. Furthermore, perhaps these same symptoms are frequently seen in
apparently healthy subjects simply because of the use of faulty body mechanics
and excessive range of motion perpetuated by the fitness industry. So much for
the notion that infinitely greater levels of mobility, flexibility, and range of
motion are ideal.

Lim ited M o b ility: A B les s in g In D is g u is e

Just because one has semi-limited mobility and is unable to move into extreme
joint positions doesn’t place them at greater risk for injury. In fact, it may suggest
just the opposite, provided it’s not all the way at the opposite end of the scale.
For example, a study examining dancers found that individuals who had shorter
range of motion (ROM) and less mobility actually had reduced levels of
patellofemoral pain and associated joint issues compared to dancers who were
able to achieve those extreme joint positions [11]. In other words, it appears that
the inability to produce the exaggerated positions is a blessing in disguise, as it
may prevent joint issues associated with extreme range of motion activities.

Dr. Stu McGill, known as a worldwide leader in the area of spinal biomechanics,
has suggested that if we look at the countries around the world that report the
highest rates of hip dysplasia, we’ll also see excellence in the sport of Olympic
weightlifting, dominated by those that can squat to greater depth. This further
highlights the fact that just because the human body can do something doesn’t
mean it should. Furthermore, maximal ROM and optimal ROM are two very
different things. It might be better, therefore, to be more concerned about using
excessive ROM rather than too little ROM, although optimal ROM at an
approximately 90 degree joint angle is ideal.

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Po s tu r e A n d D a ily Liv in g

Although proper posture is important for daily living, postural alignment when at
rest or during relaxed conditions will vary moderately from person to person.
However, during periods or activities of high impact, exercise, or intense physical
activity, these postural variances should more or less be eliminated to the point
that postural alignment looks almost identical from person to person. Simply put,
focusing on perfecting posture when in a relaxed or resting state should not be the
primary focus for individuals when it comes to maximizing movement mechanics.

While it is very important to continue to work on improving posture and spinal

alignment while in a relaxed and resting state (i.e. walking, standing, and sitting),
it’s more important that perfect postural alignment be incorporated during
physical activity and exercise. Maximizing postural alignment and spinal
positioning during exercise and strength training will automatically improve
resting and relaxed posture. Yes, individuals should be aware of their posture
when possible during resting and relaxed states, however, this should not be
something they become overly consumed with. Over time, as they learn to move
and exercise correctly their normal everyday postural state will continue to
improve significantly.

That being said, some individuals may never achieve perfect postural alignment
when at rest or in daily life. However, through proper exercise their postural
alignment should continue to improve and be exponentially better than if they
had not addressed it during exercise. For instance, some individuals may always
be prone to shoulder rounding. On a scale of 1-10 with 1 being very poor
posture and 10 being perfect, they may be at a 1 or 2 in terms of shoulder
rounding and t-spine flexion during daily life. However, even with proper
training and maximization of their body mechanics, they may never achieve a 10
but instead peak at a 7, 8, or 9. While it’s not perfect, it’s far better than had
posture and shoulder rounding never been addressed with proper exercise.

S ys tem R eb o o t

When it comes to employing eccentric isometrics by inducing physiological rewiring

via neuromuscular re-education, the process is very similar to a system reboot or
software update on an advanced computer system. However, in this case it’s a reboot
and re configuration of our body, externally and internally, a reset of our physiological
systems to their optimal functional state, in keeping with how we were created.

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Ps eu d o Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic s

Many individuals mistakenly think eccentric isometrics are all about going as
deep as possible and holding the bottom position. In fact, I’ll frequently see
individuals on the internet and social media performing what I refer to as
“pseudo eccentric isometrics”, using excessive range of motion and disregarding
foundational principles of eccentric isometric protocols. Unfortunately, these
individuals are doing more harm than good, as they’re implementing eccentric
isometrics erroneously and collapsing in the stretched position, thereby
ingraining faulty mechanics in their CNS, not to mention inciting the host of
issues that accompany the “muscle malady cascade effect”.

The goal with eccentric isometrics, and any proper movement, is to produce the
most natural range of motion while staying as tight as possible. In reality, this
does not produce a large range of motion, but instead produces a
biomechanically sound range of motion which is often times more abbreviated
than what most individuals are accustomed to. As mentioned throughout this
text, these positions typically involve 90 degree joint angles, parallel positions,
and perpendicular joint segments, all of which represent the most
biomechanically sound positions for both producing and absorbing force.

If an individual claims to be performing eccentric isometrics but fails to

implement the foundational principles laid out in this text, what they’re
performing is simply counterfeit or pseudo eccentric isometrics. To the
untrained eye these will look quite similar to standard eccentric isometrics,
however, upon closer examination and scrutiny most, if not all, individuals who
have familiarized themselves with this text should be able to tell the difference
within seconds. The best way to becoming adept at spotting counterfeit eccentric
isometric technique is to fully master, comprehend, and understand what proper
eccentric isometrics protocols entail.

Ps eu d o 90-D eg r ee Jo in t A n g les

Similar to the above topic, just because an individual achieves 90-degree joint
angles does not indicate that he or she is in the correct position. For instance,
some individuals may produce a 90-degree joint angle position during horizontal
presses, however, they do so with extreme elbow flare, scapular protraction, and
shoulder elevation, all of which are incorrect. In other words, they’re performing
pseudo 90-degree joint angles, as the other foundational elements of proper

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movement including spinal alignment, posture, and optimal osteokinematics are

not present. The 90-degree joint angle principle must occur in tandem with these
and other factors outlined in this text, otherwise it’s simply incorrect and ingrains
aberrant mechanics.

Liv in g O n Th e Ed g e

The topic of “living on the edge” is by no means a novel topic as a handful of

coaches and professionals in the fitness and health industry have been discussing
this for years. The main principle is simple. The healthier an individual is
physically, and the more efficient their overall physiological function is, the less
likely it is they will contract an illness or become infected with an unusual virus
or bacteria, as their bodies are capable of fighting off these pathogens. In other
words, these individuals live relatively far away from “the edge”, as their bodies
are unlikely to become ill, regardless of how directly exposed they are to the
various contaminants, pollutants, toxins, or contagions.

In contrast, an individual who’s body and internal physiological functioning is

sub-optimal is continuously “living on the edge”, as they are unable to fight off
the contaminants and even the slightest exposure to some contaminant,
infection, bacteria, toxin, or pollutant will cause an almost immediate disruption
of their physiological function. In other words, it takes very little to push these
individuals’ bodies over the edge, with even the slightest disruption acting as the
final straw that breaks the camel’s back.

Over the years training my clients and athletes, as well as myself, I’ve observed
this physiological phenomenon to be quite accurate and indicative of how
healthy individuals are. Yes, it’s impossible to be 100% invulnerable to all forms
of contaminants, bacteria, viruses, and pollutants, but by optimizing our health
through maximization of our muscle function, body mechanics, lifestyle factors,
and nutritional habits, our bodies becomes highly adept at warding off these
various illnesses and ailments. I’ve seen a direct correlation in individuals I’ve
worked with in terms of their levels of muscular dysfunction and their
susceptibility to various illness. The worse their overall muscle function and
movement mechanics are, the more likely they are to be “living on the edge”, as
coming into contact with even a mild pollutant, bacteria, and/or illness seems to
frequently cause health issues. As individuals learn to master their body
mechanics via properly executed eccentric isometrics, and are no longer “living
on the edge”, exposure to the various factors that previously caused them

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physical issues no longer produces any significant, or the same degree of negative
side effects.

Many individuals often complain that their bodies are highly sensitive to various
contaminants, bacteria, viruses, infections, and or pollutants, and it’s not
uncommon for people to complain that some specific form of these can trigger
various allergic responses in their bodies, over which they have no control. While
it may be true that exposure to the various contaminants and pollutants triggered
this response (i.e. upper respiratory issues, gastrointestinal distress, breathing
issues, immune dysfunction, coughing, throat agitation, thick mucus,
musculoskeletal pain, migraine headaches etc.), the issue likely had more to do
with the fact that their bodies were already on edge and it took very little to push
them over that edge.

This scenario is something we as humans deal with on a daily basis, whether it’s
common cold viral strains, food allergies, environmental pollutants, toxins in the
air, contaminants in our food or the various bacteria we come into contact with
in our daily lives. Yes, some individuals will be genetically more susceptible to
falling ill. However by maximizing their muscle function, movement patterns,
nutritional habits, lifestyle, and overall health, they can live farther away from
that edge, and be exponentially less susceptible to contracting and dealing with
many of the health issues of our present day society.

Liv in g O n Th e Ed g e W ith Fa u lty

Er g o n o m ic s

Along the same lines as the subject of “living on the edge”, the topic of faulty
ergonomics refers to a very similar concept except the negative side effects
manifest themselves more so at the musculoskeletal level with almost immediate
pain. For instance, it’s quite common for individuals to complain of certain
chairs, sitting positions, furniture, driving positions, and sleeping arrangements
and point to these as the cause of significant musculoskeletal pain, inflammation,
tightness, and muscular spasticity. While, it’s true that there is some degree of
correlation, and often causation, between these faulty ergonomics and the
associated pain, the faulty ergonomics simply represent the final straw that
pushed their already highly susceptible musculoskeletal systems over the edge.
In other words, an individual who harbors significant tension and inflammation
in their hips, back, knees, and shoulders, and who also exhibits aberrant posture
and faulty movement mechanics, is much more likely to experience pain and

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discomfort when placed into an ergonomically unsound position. In contrast an

individual who masters their muscle function, posture, and movement mechanics
will likely be unfazed by such faulty ergonomics, as it takes more than an
uncomfortable chair or stiff bed to cause them significant body pain.

This phenomenon is something I witnessed firsthand when first implementing

proper eccentric isometric protocols. Prior to that my hips, back, and knees would
become so stiff from sitting in the car or any semi-tight sitting quarters that I
would literally have to get up every 20-30 minutes to shake my legs out as a means
of alleviating the pain, tension, and extreme discomfort. Once I began to gradually
master my body mechanics with eccentric isometrics, few if any sitting, resting, or
lying positions would cause any pain or discomfort regardless of how long I held
the position. Similarly my shoulders, neck, back, and traps would be incredibly stiff
every morning upon waking. Originally I placed the blame on “sleeping in a bad
position (i.e. sleeping on my arm), however once I began consistently employing
eccentric isometrics these symptoms completely faded, allowing me to have
undisturbed sleep with a well-rested and revitalized body upon waking.

Th e O v er -C u ein g S c en a r io

Learning how to improve or fix a movement pattern requires the understanding

of basic cues and fundamental principles of a movement. For instance, a
common problem during squats is that individuals don’t set or hinge their hips
back when squatting. Understanding how to implement the “hip hinge” cue is of
the utmost importance for mastering their squat. Unfortunately, something I
periodically witness is once individuals have mastered their squat, or the hip
hinge position during the squat, they will continue to focus on the same “hip
hinge” cue that was previously necessary in order to fix their squat. As a result,
they begin to over-hinge past the point where they need to.

Rather than focusing on the same cue indefinitely, once a cue is implemented
properly and it becomes automatic in the central nervous system, it’s unnecessary
to overemphasize that same cue further. Simply keeping that cue in mind, but
not attempting to further emphasize it, will be sufficient. This is true of any and
all cues. Once a cue is properly executed, continuing to emphasize it is typically
not necessary and can be counterproductive, as it can cause the person to
produce excessive levels of that particular adjustments, as in the case of over-
hinging on the squat. As with any cue, the goal should be a natural level of that
adjustment, not an excessive or unnatural level.

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Ex tr em e C u ein g

On a related note, we also don’t want to cue individuals to move into a certain
position by taking the cue to an extreme. For instance, many individuals will
attempt to fix anterior pelvic tilt by moving excessively into posterior pelvic tilt.
Rather than overcompensating by going to an extreme in the opposite direction,
the goal should be to make just enough of an adjustment into posterior pelvic tilt
that the pelvis and spine are now in a neutral position and no longer in anterior
pelvic tilt. Simply put, the goal with any cue is to move the person into the
desired or optimal position, never into the extreme opposite position. This will
only cause additional issues that will need to be corrected in the future. As
repeatedly stated in this text, the goal is natural or optimal movement, never
extreme movement or excessive adjustments.

Th e K eto g en ic C r a ze

Therapeutic ketones, along with the ketogenic diet, have gathered quite a bit of
popularity over the last few years. If you examine much of the literature
surrounding ketones, including that espoused by the companies pushing their
products, the message is quite clear: if an individual is tired of feeling constant
fatigue, energy dips, poor digestion, joint pain, muscle soreness, stiffness,
allergies, headaches, poor sleep quality, low energy levels, and poor tolerance for
carbohydrates then according to these companies, ketones are just what they
need. Now, I’m not saying that ketones or ketogenic diets don’t have their place
in a proper diet, nor that the products are entirely useless. In fact, they could
provide a nice, yet subtle, boost in health and performance if used properly.
However, the notion that ketones are the new miracle product guaranteed to
revitalize the most clinically ill individuals is not only highly overhyped, it actually
lends credence and underscores the fact that many individuals are dealing with
the negative consequences of inflammation and oxidative stress. These health
issues could, and should, be largely relieved through proper training and
mastering of one’s muscle function and body mechanics.

Similar situations present themselves almost daily in the health and fitness
industry, with new companies fervently pushing their latest and greatest
products, guaranteed to alleviate pain, fatigue, allergies, stiffness, poor immune
system function, brain fog, and more. Rather than simply looking to trendy new
products to treat the symptoms, however, the industry should be looking at
treating the root cause – namely faulty muscle function and poor movement
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mechanics, along with poor dietary habits, and unhealthy lifestyle factors. Once
an individual beings to dial in each of these components, starting with their
muscle function and diet, not only will they have alleviated the aforementioned
symptoms, they’ll be less likely to be duped into buying the latest and greatest
snake-oil remedies on the market as they’ll have no need to seek relief from
over-hyped supplements and remedies having already optimized their health.

M a x im iz in g O u r G en etic Po ten tia l

When it comes to genetics, all we can do is maximize our genetic potential in

terms of physiological function. It won’t ever be perfect. It won’t ever be pain
free, it won’t ever be without some ailments. But by optimizing our muscle
function we can maximize our physiological function and minimize the
alignments and physical issues that each of us is genetically predisposed to,
ultimately allowing us to live our lives to the fullest.

Per fo r m a n c e Tr a in in g V s . H ea lth
Tr a in in g

When it comes to training for maximal health and maximal performance the
methods are actually quite similar. The individual needs to focus on maximizing
movement mechanics with the basic movement patterns using eccentric
isometrics. As a result, the body will function at its optimal level. In turn, the
body will not only feel healthy and function at an optimal level physiologically,
this improved functional state will allow the person to perform maximally from
both an athletic and functional standpoint.

The key difference between performance training and health training lies
predominately in the loads and intensities that will be used. It should be pointed
out that training for maximal size and strength is quite similar to training for
optimal health, as a healthy physique and one that is functioning optimally will
have the greatest potential to gain strength and size as well as optimize physical
appearance. There will be some obvious distinctions between the training
programs, depending on the specific goals and aspirations of the individual,
however, the protocols will look far more similar than what most coaches,
trainers, and textbooks commonly suggest.

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A S im ple Tr u th

Strength training and movement in general should never cause joint issues and
inflammation, it should resolve such issues. Unfortunately, as a misinformed
society we have come to accept the misguided notion that individuals who train,
including high performance athletes, will consistently have joint issues and
muscle aches. Movement should be therapeutic, not destructive or
contratherapeutic. Eccentric isometrics represents the ultimate modality for
resolving this debacle, as it teaches the individual how to perform movement in
such a way that it is only therapeutic to the body.

Tr a p B a r Im plic a tio n s : M o r e Th a n
M eets Th e Ey e

It’s ironic that the trap bar or hex bar has become one of the most popular
training tools in many strength and conditioning settings with many coaches and
trainers substituting traditional lower body barbell movements with trap bar
squats/deadlifts. Research studies also support its use, suggesting that the trap
bar may in fact be a better option for inducing strength and power gains in
athletes as compared to traditional barbell movements such as barbell squats [12,
13]. Although there are multiple potential explanations for this, one logical
conclusion, particularly when viewed from a biomechanical and
neurophysiological perspective, is that such results may be largely due to the fact
that individuals are required to use mechanics and technique that more closely
mimic 90 degree joint angles when using the trap bar. In contrast, the joint
angles and mechanics typically used and taught with barbell movements often
involve larger joint angles, well in excess of 90 degrees, parallel joint segments,
and perpendicular body positions. Perhaps the traditional Olympic barbell
would produce the same, or even superior results, if optimal 90-degree joint
angles were consistently utilized, as is more commonly the case with the trap bar.

A n O b v io u s Les s o n Fr o m Po w er lifter s

Although powerlifters are often required to use excessively large ranges of

motion in competition to satisfy specific man-made criteria in terms of squatting
to depth and touching the bar to the chest, it’s ironic that many tried-and-true
powerlifting protocols involve more abbreviated ranges of motion. In fact, many
advanced powerlifters have reported superior improvements in strength and

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performance, as well as joint health and inflammation, by performing

movements with abbreviated motions including floor presses, pin presses, board
presses, Spotto presses, box squats, partial movements, rack pulls, trap bar
deadlifts, deadlifts from elevated surfaces, and more.

A look at many of these protocols shows that most of these variations involve
modifications that tweak the “traditional lifts” and adjust them such that the
mechanics, joint angles, range of motion, and body positions more closely
resemble 90 degree joint angle positions, perpendicular joint angles, and parallel
body segments. Ironically, many of the same powerlifters who use such methods
are the first to argue furiously against the notion that squatting below parallel or
touching the bar to their chest is damaging to their joints. Yet, the training
methods they resort to suggest that they instinctively gravitate towards methods
that minimize excessive range of motion and consistently employ more compact
90 degree joint angle positions, whether they’re willing to admit it or not.

Th e Fu tility O f C o a c h in g D yn a m ic
S peed M o v em en ts

It’s quite common for athletes to engage in advanced and oftentimes highly
complex speed and agility drills as well as plyometric activities. Most often very
little coaching and teaching is given to these individuals before participating in
such activities. Even in relatively ideal settings in which strength coaches or
“movement experts” instruct and teach the movements and drills properly, the
system is highly flawed as the inherent nature of the drills is for movements to
occur quickly, making coaching and teaching difficult.

Correcting movement patterns under these quick and complex conditions can be
frustrating and oftentimes driven to failure, as no amount of coaching and
instruction will significantly alter movement patterns in such dynamic speed-
based circumstances when movements are occurring too quickly to allow
significant modification or correction. As a result, flawed movement patterns will
simply be further embedded and impressed in the individuals dysfunctional
neuromuscular systems, making these activation and recruitment habits all the
more difficult to break. In essence, quick and complex movements serve only as
a mechanism to further ingrain pre-existing movement patterns, whether they be
sound or flawed. For most athletes and individuals these patterns are, in fact,
flawed.

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Although with practice these movement may improve slightly, they will never be
fully perfected until a closed loop movement system is used that allows for
neuromuscular re-education to occur, using the most basic forms of movement
patterns in the most controlled setting possible. These closed loop movements
involve the ability to slow the movement down and use inherent feedback,
proprioception, and kinesthetic awareness, to modify and fine-tune the
foundational movements as they occur. This describes eccentric isometrics and
explains why individuals must master basic foundational movements with
eccentric isometric protocols before aggressively implementing traditional speed
and agility drills.

Simply put, if a person can’t squat, hinge, or lunge correctly, having them
perform agility and speed drills is not only futile but counterproductive, as the
flawed activation patterns will be further ingrained. This will further transfer
back into their already flawed squat, hinge, and lunge etc., creating a vicious cycle
in which each movement performed, whether it be squats, hinges and lunges, or
speed and agility drills, will simply serve to reinforce the faulty execution of the
other. In essence, the individual needs to master (or close to it) the basic
foundational movement patterns before consistently participating in more
dynamic activities, such as traditional speed and agility drills, as well as
plyometric activities.

Th e R e-Ed u c a tio n Per io d : A G a m e O f

Pa tien c e

When undergoing the process of neuromuscular re-education, particularly one

using eccentric isometric training principles, the body will inevitably attempt to
hold onto old dysfunctional habits as it has, unfortunately, became quite
comfortable with these flawed activation patterns. For some individuals it will
take a few months to eliminate the old habits and effectively replace them with
new habits that will become their bodies’ go-to and default movement strategies.
For some individuals it may take longer, such as 6 months, a year or even more.

Regardless of the time period, many individuals will attempt to continue to

participate in their current sports and physical activities while undergoing the
neuromuscular re-education process. Although it’s possible to do so, these
activities will only serve to slow down and interfere with the neuromuscular re-
education process, as old habits will inevitably reappear and attempt to creep
back into the CNS, making it harder to form new correct ones. In a perfect

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world it would be ideal if these individuals waited for a period of several months
in order to allow the new habits and proper movement mechanics to replace the
old ones, and for the neuromuscular re-education process and physiological
transformation to have taken effect to a significant degree.

It would be best if individuals could wait until the proper execution of basic
foundational movement patterns became their bodies’ automatic default
movement strategy. At that point, once they gradually returned to their athletic
activities, the new proper habits would trickle into their various movements (i.e.
running, jumping, cutting, hitting, throwing, tossing, kicking, catching etc.) and
gradually begin replacing the old dysfunctional activation patterns.
Unfortunately, many athletes and individuals do not have the patience to
undergo such a strict re-education process. In the long run this would allow
them to master their sport and athletic performance to the highest degree by
giving the athletes the best opportunity to eliminate all traces of the
dysfunctional movements they’ve naturally gravitated to over their lifetime.

R ea c tio n Tim e A n d R es po n s e Tim e

Improving neuromuscular function not only improves the quality of our

movement, it also minimizes response time and reaction time due to greater
efficiency in the firing of the nervous system and the absence of neurological
hiccups. Less effort will also be spent on the movement since the body will not
be working against itself. Attentional capacity becomes an issue in terms of
response time and reaction time simply because if an individual has to focus a
significant fraction of their resources and attentional capacity to the movement
itself they won’t be able to react to the environment as well. Learning to move
fluidly so the body can do this automatically, with little or no thought or
neuromuscular hiccups (i.e. pain, spasticity, and neuromuscular inhibition), is
what allows us to maximize our response and reaction time, as all of the
attention can be focused on more important aspects, such as attending to our
environment and surroundings. This is important for athletic performance as
well as everyday living and survival.

Not surprisingly, there is a strong correlation and relationship between response

and reaction time and aging. Much of this has to do with cellular and
neuromuscular degeneration which is also related to inflammation and oxidative
stress. By maximizing our muscle function and decelerating the aging process we
can maximize our response time, reaction, time, and reflexive reactions. This is

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also related to the subject of autonomic nervous system function, as a properly

functioning body will have optimal levels of sympathetic and parasympathetic
drive. Faulty muscle function can directly impair autonomic nervous system
function often leading to excessive sympathetic tone (fight or flight and anxiety)
which causes individuals to respond and react in an almost delayed, disoriented,
and confused fashion.

Lastly, an individual who is trained to move properly has learned to narrow

down their movement to one option: the correct one. Movement response then
becomes quite simple, smooth, and rapid, with few, if any, options to sift
through, as there is only one specific option at the end of the response selection
process. When there are unlimited degrees of freedom, with an infinite number
of possible ways to move, as in the case of faulty movement which presents an
infinite number of flawed movement selections, the individuals will inevitably
take longer to respond, having to sift through various options before selecting
the correct one. In reality, the difference may be less than tenths of a second,
however, when it comes to maximizing athletic performance, avoiding a fall, or
responding to an oncoming vehicle this can mean the difference between success
and failure, or even life and death.

Th e G o o d , Th e B a d , a n d Th e U g ly o f
M o v em en t Tr a n s fer

When it comes to movement, all movement, be it good or bad transfers.

Performing even one movement with proper mechanics positively impacts all
other movements including the “Big 7”. In contrast, performing even one
movement with poor form can negatively impact all other movements and skills
including the “Big 7”. This is why it’s critical that we continue to clean up all
movement patterns and perfect movement on all drills, as even the slightest
deviation and faulty execution can begin to bleed into a variety of activation
patterns, ultimately impacting a host of movements and overall muscle function.

Th e N o W a r m -u p Tes t

If an individual’s muscles are functioning properly and they’ve mastered their

body mechanics by successfully implementing the eccentric isometric protocols
outlined in this book, they should be able to go into an all-out sprint anywhere,
anytime. Now, I’m not necessarily recommending one do this on a regular basis,

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nor am I suggesting this would result in optimal speed and performance. Rather,
it’s something one should be able to do without injury, discomfort, or
restriction.

Well before the modern era of fitness arrived, sprinting was considered a normal
means of survival, necessary for fleeing, chasing, hunting, and basic playground
activity. The idea of performing a 20-30 minute warm up consisting of
contortionist movements, foam rolling, and excessive mobility drills would’ve
been considered a luxury, if considered at all, not to mention that fact that it’s
completely unnecessary and counterproductive.

Because sprinting represents the epitome of explosive, rapid and violent

movement, being able to perform such an activity without warming up is
probably the single most informative diagnostic test of muscle function one can
perform. Any neuromuscular inhibition, muscular spasticity, strength deficit,
excessive co-contraction, activation impairment, asymmetry, imbalance,
weakness, immobility, instability, faulty posture, or any other movement
deficiency will almost immediately be exposed.

On a similar note a lifter should also be capable of performing 80-90% of their

1RM for any lift anytime, even under semi-cold conditions. Having the ability to
quickly summon the nervous system and perform a relatively heavy squat, hinge,
lunge, press, or pull without significant preparation is not only a great way to
expose areas of inflammation or weakness, it represents a level of movement
competency that any well-trained athlete should be capable of. This is something
other strength coaches, including legendary Charles Staley, have alluded to in the
past. If half of one’s training time is devoted to warming up their joints and
blunting the pain and inflammation associated with dysfunctional movement,
chances are their lifting technique needs a serious overhaul.

Before I began implementing the eccentric isometric protocol into my training

routine, the thought of sprinting, jumping, or performing a heavy squat without
warming up literally made me cringe, as my body instinctively knew it would
result in almost immediate injury. Performing such activities even under the
most physically prepared and warmed up conditions would periodically injure
me, let alone doing anything physically demanding under semi-cold conditions.
However, after properly implementing the eccentric isometric protocol into my
training, the no-warmup sprint and no-warmup heavy lift method is something I
periodically employ during my own training with no negative ramifications, as it’s
something I can safely and repeatedly do.

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R eth in k in g Ec c en tr ic M o v em en t

Most lifters completely misunderstand the true function and purpose of

eccentric movement. Many trainees and coaches think of eccentric motion as an
arbitrary phase of movement that just happens to stimulate muscle growth and
functional strength through various forms of musculoskeletal lengthening
contractions. In reality, eccentric movements serve 2 primary functional
purposes and are usually a means to an end when it comes to movement.

First, eccentric motions are a useful means of absorbing force during high
impact or heavy resistance movements. Second, eccentric movement sets the
individual up for the most powerful and efficient concentric motion. In other
words, eccentric motions help to prime the concentric phase. If the eccentric
motion is too large or too short these functions will be compromised. In other
words, fulfilling some pre-determined path or satisfying certain arbitrary depth
criteria for successfully completing a lift is an unnatural, counter-intuitive, and
non-functional approach to eccentric motions.

Instead the lifter should approach each eccentric phase with the goal of
achieving ideal mechanics to maximize force production and force absorption,
not only during the eccentric phase itself, but also during the subsequent
concentric movement.

The idea of going any deeper once the individual reaches an approximately 90-
degree joint angle serves no functional purpose other than to satisfy some
erroneous notion that such extreme depth will be beneficial to the body. In
terms of performing functional movement, or performing repeated cycles of
eccentric and concentric motions, going deeper serves no functional purpose,
just as asking a sprinter who has perfect 90-degree joint angle mechanics and
optimal sprint technique to use larger motions would serve no functional
purpose other than to slow them down and most likely produce injuries, tears,
and muscle ruptures.

Furthermore, as previously mentioned, performing movements with a large

range of motion, significantly beyond 90-degree joint angles, does not promote
increased flexibility and mobility. Instead, it actually degrades mobility and
functional range of motion by producing inflammation and pain. The result is a
“shut down” of range of motion as the body begins to send inhibitory signals
and limit movements that produce so much discomfort and distress in the first
place.

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Many individuals will argue that picking up a heavy object off the floor with joint
angles significantly beyond 90 degrees is something that’s quite functional given
it’s something we periodically have to do whether in the weight room or in daily
life. Which gets us into the topic of cyclical vs. non-cyclical movements.

Certain movements fall into the category of non-cyclical movements. Those

movements typically involve little or no eccentric muscle contractions, force
absorption, impact, or deceleration. For example, picking up a heavy object off
the ground, and even setting it back on the floor in the usual fashion, is an
example of a non-cyclical movement. In contrast, movements that fall into the
category of cyclical movements typically involve just as much eccentric stress as
they do concentric stress, and tend to involve force absorption, high impact and
deceleration, as well as pre-stretching of the muscles prior to the eccentric
motions. Cyclical movements make up the bulk of high intensity physical activity
and the type of high force situations we encounter during sports and athletic
events, as well as daily life. Movements such as throwing, running, jumping,
kicking, hitting, and punching, tend to fall in this category.

During these movements the eccentric phase is used to absorb force and set the
individual up for the most powerful concentric muscle action. Under these
circumstances one should make use of approximately 90-degree joint angles as
dictated by proper mechanics. As noted above, a majority of movements,
including those we perform during training, involve a significant eccentric phase
and fall into the cyclical category. As a result, the eccentric phase needs to be
treated as a functional means of producing ideal movement, not an arbitrary
component of movement to be carried out with an excessively large range of
motion.

While not the most therapeutic or ideal, particularly when performed from
extreme positions, occasionally training non-cyclical movements is acceptable, as
we are not relying on the use of functionally-based cyclical eccentric motions
that involve force absorption to produce the movement. Under these
circumstances adhering to the 90-degree joint angle principles is not as critical as
it would be during cyclical actions that involve repeated eccentric motions and
deceleration.

From a practical standpoint, training with greater depths and range of motion is
periodically acceptable, provided the movement is a non-cyclical movement. For
instance, performing barbell squats from pins pre-set at lower heights such that the
weight semi-free-falls to the pins, i.e. a height that precludes a controlled eccentric

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phase or force absorption, or performing deadlifts from a slight deficit is, again,
not ideal but acceptable, if the lifter feels the need to produce such movements in
their training. As long as the frequency of such training, and number of repetitions
are kept to a minimum, it is unlikely these movements will ingrain faulty mechanics
in the same vein that performing eccentric-based deceleration motions with
extreme depth would. The need for this type of training is questionable, however,
as in most, if not all cases performing proper eccentric isometrics will prepare the
body to deal with the type of extreme positions a person may encounter
occasionally in life or competition. All in all, it may be best to simply avoid such
extreme situations, unless they are absolutely necessary.

B r ea th in g : H elp O r H in d r a n c e

When it comes to proper breathing during training, the lifter should focus on
using proper technique and body mechanics and optimal breathing patterns will
inevitably follow. Being overly focused on breathing patterns while training is a
distraction that will keep one from focusing on their mechanics. In addition,
when it comes to breathing during strength training, the goal is not a greater
intake of oxygen, as the activity is anaerobic, not aerobic. The goal of breathing
is to create additional bracing throughout the core and entire body. In other
words, the breathing should create or enhance the bracing effect rather than
degrade it. As a result, body mechanics, spinal rigidity, intramuscular tension, and
overall movement mechanics will be significantly more dialed in.

Th in k in g B eyo n d Pa in

The negative ramifications of faulty movement patterns are numerous, with pain
being one of the most obvious. However, increased inflammation, aging,
digestive issues, impaired immune function, sleep issues, anxiety, breathing
disorders etc. are just as noteworthy. In other words, pain is only one of many
factors associated with faulty body mechanics. Genetically, everyone’s body
responds to faulty mechanics differently. Some may experience pain while others
may never experience a significant level of discomfort, and still others may suffer
from even more insidious physical issues. Pain is only one of many, potentially
more severe, factors to consider. However, it’s probably the most common and
easiest to detect and monitor, therefore, oftentimes it is also the most commonly
cited example of the negative consequences of faulty movement patterns.

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Along the same lines, faulty posture also often leads to pain. However, some
individuals may never experience pain as an expression of postural aberrations
and instead may experience other more insidious expressions of postural
abnormalities. For instance, because the spine is the signaling highway, poor
posture can often cause short-circuiting of neural signaling, leading to reflexive
and neuromuscular hiccups, involuntary twitches and plasmatic movements, lack
of neuromuscular coordination, faulty recruitment patterns, restriction of blood
flow, as well as everyday balance and stability issues. These, along with other
muscle functional abnormalities, can further lead to falls, mobility restrictions
and, ultimately, result in injury as well as aging.

Th e Tr u th A b o u t EM G

As discussed throughout this text, EMG is not the end-all be-all when it comes
to determining proper muscle function or activation patterns. In fact, specific
movement patterns that we know from a biomechanical and neuromuscular
standpoint are faulty and potentially damaging, such as a guillotine press, have
been shown to produce high EMG readings and muscle activation in the chest
fibers. However, we also know that performing chest presses with excessively
flared elbows and bringing the barbell close to the clavicle, as in the case of a
guillotine press, not only sacrifices the total load we can handle, it also creates
tremendous stress on the joints, tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue of the
upper body.

Simply put, excessively high EMG readings may actually indicate that a particular
movement is potentially harmful or damaging, and the body is working overtime
and against itself to prevent injury. In other words, extremely high EMG
readings, particularly in the context of faulty mechanics, can often be an
indication of dysfunctional movement patterns and unnatural motions the body
is attempting to resist. Perhaps a more appropriate way to use EMG is to first
ensure that, biomechanically, the individual is using proper mechanics, form, and
spinal alignment. Only then can we determine how loads, force vectors and
strength curves can be adjusted, or what subtle maneuvers can be made to
produce higher EMG readings and muscle activation, without abandoning the
foundational constructs that are pivotal for the proper execution of that
particular movement pattern.

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B ein g “In Th e Z o n e”

Being “in the zone”, is a common phrase used by athletes when they feel
everything come together during a specific event or performance. Although
impossible to prove or disprove, being in the zone most likely comes down to a
number of factors including physical, psychological, emotional, and
environmental. One critical component is most likely related to muscle function,
that is, that moment in time when the individual’s muscles and neuromuscular
system happen to be functioning and operating at an exceptionally high
efficiency. Being in the zone does not have to be a random or fluky occurrence
that happens only on rare occasions. In fact, it can be a predictable and
consistent occurrence, that manifests itself during almost every practice,
performance, and competition, if body function is maintained at peak and
maximal levels. Attaining this level function most likely requires fully mastering
body mechanics, movement patterns, muscle function and neuromuscular
efficiency, at which point the individual’s physiological and psychological
systems should consistently function at peak conditions.

B la n k et S ta tem en ts

Many coaches and trainers are quick to point out that there is no such thing as a
one-size fits all approach to movement as doing so simply represents blanket
statements. However, when it comes to coaching advice or training
recommendations, anything that we accept as a standard norm for any
movement and performance concept is a blanket statement. In fact, most of
what we see in the fitness and exercise industry consists of such blanket
statements. For example, the recommendation that one should avoid valgus knee
and ankle collapse during lower body movements, avoid elbow flare on bench
press, minimize cervical flexion and hyper extension on axial loading
movements, the recommendation to coach optimal shoulder and scapular
packing on pressing exercises, or advocate the need to avoid lumbar flexion
when deadlifting, these are all blanket statements which don't vary person to
person, as they are universally sound principles predicated on scientific concepts
that remain constant no matter who you are.

The same is true for most of the components of a majority of movements,

including the execution and technique of the “Big 7”exercises. There is an
optimal way to squat, hinge, lunge, press, and pull, just as there are optimal
biomechanics for any movement or skill. This is what expert biomechanists do
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for a living, that is, determine the exact angles and positioning that will maximize
performance, training, and overall osteokinematics when performing a
movement. There are rarely numerous “optimal methods” when it comes to
performing a particular movement. Often it boils down to one specific approach
and a precise manner of execution that maximizes physiological
performance. The goal of eccentric isometric training protocols is to teach the
body this optimal approach, and etch it deeply in the central nervous system.
These optimal methods of movement then become the default strategies that
dictate how we move in all aspects of performance and everyday life, and
ultimately impact our overall health and wellbeing.

S im ple Per s o n a l Ex a m ple

At approximately 24 years of age my body began to breakdown and show

evidence of the detrimental effects of performing movement with faulty
mechanics, even though many of these dysfunctional mechanics were fairly
subtle. During this period most individuals would have observed my technique
and considered it optimal and perfectly in line with how movement is currently
taught in the fitness industry. For instance, I would squat below parallel with
what appeared to be near prefer mechanics and body control. My lunge form
was controlled and perfectly upright, with my torso remaining perpendicular to
the floor. My RDL or hip hinge involved an extreme stretch with my torso either
parallel to the ground or even slightly beyond parallel, all the while maintaining a
relatively neutral spine.

In terms of upper body movements, the range of motion was very long and
exaggerated (i.e. a large stretch at the bottom of chest presses), and my technique
very controlled and smooth, all of which looked very pleasing to the eye. In fact,
most strength coaches comparing my technique as it was then to what I currently
advocate, would likely suggest that the form practiced in my early and mid 20’s
was far superior to what it is now. Unfortunately, my mechanics during that
time, while seemingly optimal, were not in keeping with the foundational
principles of neurophysiology and biomechanics. As a result, the number of
aches and pains, and the levels of inflammation, as well as associated pathologies
I developed became so extreme by the time I was in my mid 20’s that I could
only perform movements such as squats and deadlifts every 2-4 weeks.

Furthermore, my strength levels, muscle mass, body composition, and overall

athleticism began to deteriorate at an almost alarming rate. My shoulders, neck,

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back, knees, ankles, feet, and nearly every area of my body was in continual pain
and discomfort. I also developed numerous body ailments, allergies, sinus issues,
immune dysfunction, frequent upper respiratory infections, breathing issues,
anxiety, sleep abnormalities, digestive disorders, mood swings, constant fatigue,
and a number of other physical issues.

Once I began performing movements in keeping with the foundational

principles of neurophysiology and biomechanics (i.e. 90-degree joint angles
applied to eccentric isometric protocols), as our bodies were designed to
function, rather than based on arbitrary man-made guidelines, such as those
used in mainstream fitness and strength and conditioning settings, not only did
the aches and pains begin to quickly diminish, all other associated ailments began
to significantly decrease. Instead of performing the movements sparingly, only
every few weeks, to prevent any contratherapeutic effects, I was soon able to
(and still am able to) perform all the basic foundational human movement
patterns (i.e. “The Big 7”) every day of the week with few, if any, rest days
throughout the course of a year. I’ve also experienced many similar, if not
identical, scenarios when working with other athletes and clients.

Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic s , En d u r a n c e, A n d
Lo n g D is ta n c e Ev en ts .

The beneficial effects of eccentric isometrics training on performance and the

cementing of proper mechanics in the central nervous system is not limited only
to strength events and explosive sports. In fact, the effect and impact they have
on endurance activities is just as powerful due to the improved mechanical
efficiency that’s been shown to minimize energy expenditure and effort, allowing
athletes to move at higher speeds and intensities with greater ease. When
muscles function properly, all physiological function including enzyme
production, cardiovascular function, pulmonary function, digestive health, and
more operate optimally. When it comes to long-distance events and endurance
activities, this is critical.

Lastly, posture and spinal alignment has been shown to be critical for oxygen
uptake and utilization. Improving posture will provide a more powerful effect than
any form of training and/or ergogenic aid in terms of an immediate improvement
in distance performance and endurance. In fact, I’ve seen multiple cases of athletes
who have cut down their endurance times by well over 10% in as little as several
sessions simply by learning how to maintain proper postural alignment.

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C o n d itio n in g a n d C a r d io

One of the first things an individual will notice when performing eccentric
isometric movements is how intense they are, both intramuscularly and
cardiovascularly. In fact, once individuals begin to implement eccentric
isometrics consistently they should notice large improvements in several areas
including conditioning, cardiovascular function, endurance, and work capacity.
While it’s quite feasible to reach sufficient levels of conditioning and
cardiovascular health through intense eccentric isometric strength training
(along with proper diet), individuals should still include at least some form of
additional conditioning and cardio training into their routine based on
performance goals, health objectives, and body composition goals.

Individuals should also perform at least 20-30 minutes of brisk-pace walking

daily which can be split into several smaller walks, accumulated throughout the
day, or simply performed as one longer walk. In addition, most individuals
should aim to perform 1-2 high intensity interval cardio sessions per week, either
in the form of sprints, or intense bursts on any cardio machine (elliptical, bike,
stepper, rowing machine). For example, an individual might perform 15-45
seconds of sprinting or high intensity training followed by 15-45 seconds of low
intensity intervals/recovery work, then repeat that cycle for 8-15 minutes.
However, individuals should gain at least a moderate level of movement mastery
before engaging in high intensity cardio training as faulty mechanics, combined
with intense interval cardio work and sprinting, can produce injuries, while also
making it difficult to re-program the nervous system with proper mechanics.

Th e S im plic ity o f 90 -D eg r ee Jo in t
A n g le O v er lo a d

While many coaches and kinesiologists will argue that deeper or larger ranges of
motion well in excess of 90 degree joint angles are ideal for maximizing muscle
growth (which as we’ve already concluded is incorrect), few of these individuals
will downplay the importance of the overload effect. One factor that nearly every
practitioner in the fields of fitness, exercise, and kinesiology can agree upon is
that overload is perhaps the single most important factor when it comes to
continual gains in strength and hypertrophy. Ironically, the position that
produces maximal force, torque, and power output, while placing the greatest
amounts of natural tension on the targeted muscles, thereby maximizing the
overload response, is the 90 degree joint angle position. Such a simple, and

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seemingly common sense, truth continues to be overlooked by most

practitioners in this field, as they fail to understand and apply the basic concepts
of neuromuscular physiology and biomechanics.

Fo o t M ec h a n ic s A n d A g in g : La r g er
Im plic a tio n s

Recent studies show a strong correlation and relationship between foot and
ankle mechanics, and aging [14]. As discussed earlier in this text, foot and ankle
mechanics are a strong predictor and indicator of overall muscle function and
movement mechanics, as it’s literally impossible to perform any movement
properly, particularly lower body exercises, with faulty foot and ankle mechanics.
It’s not far-fetched, therefore, to assume that overall muscle function and
movement mechanics are also strongly correlated with aging. If this is the case,
then improving muscle function, from head to toe, by using eccentric isometrics
and foot and ankle exercises, is critical when it comes to decelerating the aging
process and maximizing quality of life.

M u s c le A s s es s m en ts a n d Fa ls e
Po s itiv es

The sports science industry has no shortage of movement tests, muscle

assessments, and neuromuscular screenings. While some of these tests have
varying degrees of value, many of these assessments can produce false positives,
particularly when used on individuals who have learned to master their body
mechanics. For instance, most assessments, particularly those used in the
physical therapy sector, often involve non-functional, and overly-isolated muscle
movements. Some of these include testing and assessment of the rotator cuff
muscles, as well as external and internal rotation of the hip to name a few. While
a minimal amount of stability, mobility, and motor control in these areas is
important, most of these test results should be taken with a grain of salt. That’s
because, more often than not, the only thing these tests can determine is the
efficiency with which an individual can perform non-functional movements of
isolated muscles in positions that actually hold very little carryover and transfer
to sports, performance, and everyday life.

For example, determining whether an individual is able to efficiently perform

isolated external and internal rotation movements of the rotator cuff is

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completely uninformative, as no human movement or skill, including throwing,

involves such an isolated position. Instead, it is much more practical and useful
to determine whether these individuals are able to stabilize and control basic
movement patterns such as presses, pulls, squats, hinges, and lunges. Once able
to perform these movements in a pain-free manner, complex movements, such
as throwing, which involve a moderate degree of external and internal rotation of
the rotator cuff, will inevitably follow. That’s because once it is able to control
and stabilize the basic movement patterns the body will have learned to control
the combined, full body, integrated movement of all the relevant muscles and
joints, as opposed to one isolated muscle group, or single motion.

Ironically, these same individuals will oftentimes perform only moderately well
and, in some cases, below average on isolated muscle tests and screenings.
However, if the 7 basic movement patterns have been mastered with proper
mechanics, these lower assessment scores simply reflect the body’s attempt to
resist and protect itself from having to perform contorted, non-functional,
isolated muscle movements. This is especially true of individuals with a previous
injury, as the last thing their body wants to do is isolate the susceptible joint in a
non-functional position that represents faulty movement, and could exacerbate
the previously injured site and/or cause further issues.

As noted above, a properly functioning body will resist being placed in poor
positions that represent faulty mechanics, as many of the assessments do.
Unfortunately, a therapist will oftentimes diagnose these individuals as being at
high risk for injury when, in fact, what they exhibit is superior muscle function
and body mechanics, as reflected by their ability to detect and resist aberrant
mechanics and faulty isolated positions.

When it comes to assessing and analyzing muscle function and movement, one
need only look at the basic and more advanced variations of the “Big 7”
movement patterns. Basic functional skills such as running, hitting, jumping,
throwing, kicking, and sprinting also represent activities and movements that
should feel and look biomechanically sound and more importantly be relatively
pain free. The full extent of the assessment needed to determine how functional,
healthy, and safe an individual’s movement and muscles are, consists of the
degree to which an individual has mastered both the basic and advanced
variations of the “Big 7”, and can perform basic athletic skills and daily tasks in a
pain free manner.

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In essence, most of the physical assessments and screenings of muscle function

used by therapists and practitioners provide only a minimal amount of
information regarding an individual’s quality of functional movement. Instead,
the goal should be to assess the individual by examining how efficient they are at
performing functional holistic movements and full-body integrated practical
tasks such as squats, hinges, lunges, presses, and pulls. Simply put, assessing how
well someone can squat, hinge, lunge, horizontal press, horizontal pull, vertical
press, and vertical pull will tell us most everything we need to know about that
individual’s movement, and provide us with infinitely more insight than we could
ever gain by performing dozens, if not hundreds, of isolated movement
screenings and muscle function tests commonly used by therapists and
practitioners.

Tr u e M en ta l A n d Ph ys ic a l To u g h n es s

Many lifters will claim that performing movements with a large stretch, well in
excess of 90 degree joint angles, is superior to performing movements at 90
degree joint angles simply because they’re more difficult, intense, and strenuous
on the body. In reality, the opposite is true. Movements that involve
approximately 90-degree joint angles require markedly greater activation,
muscular tension, concentration, mental fortitude, intensity and overall strength.
Performing movements with a range of motion significantly past 90 degree joint
angles represents the antithesis of this, as it involves reduced muscle activation,
neuromuscular relaxation, and neuromuscular inhibition.

Coaches, lifters, and trainers who advocate using a large range of motion in
excess of 90 degree joint angles suggest that the increased load the lifter is
capable of handling during these ‘shortened’ movements is simply a form of
cheating by making the exercise easier. Once again, this notion could not be
more flawed. It is true that when a lifter performs movements with excessive
range of motion they won’t be able to handle as much overall load or produce as
much torque and force. This is a byproduct of the reduced motor unit
recruitment and muscle activation needed to achieve such collapsed positions, as
a result of which the lifter is punished with compromised contraction strength
and reduced force-producing capabilities. The sensation that lighter loads feel
heavier is simply a byproduct of faulty mechanics giving the lifter the illusion
that they are doing more work. In reality, they’re doing less work by reinforcing
neuromuscular inefficiency and making the movement feel unnecessarily taxing
and physiologically exhausting.
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On the other hand, a properly executed movement that incorporates

approximately 90-degree joint angles, rewards the lifter with greater force-
producing capabilities, as every muscle fiber is firing maximally, turning the
muscles into coiled springs. This requires the highest levels of concentration, and
focus, as well as mental and physical intensity to avoid weak links and prevent
energy leaks. Essentially, this maximizes load, power, speed, motor unit
recruitment, intramuscular tension, and hypertrophy, all of which are
compromised when moving significantly past 90 degree joint angles. In essence,
when using 90-degree joint angles the lifter is controlling the load – with larger
motions, the load is controlling the lifter.

M o v em en t M a s ter y V s . M o v em en t
Elim in a tio n

Movement elimination and movement rationing have become the new craze in
the fitness industry. These consist of eliminating basic foundational movements,
or using them very sparingly due to their contratherapeutic effects. However,
these effects are rarely, if ever, produced by the actual exercises themselves.
Instead, they are generated by improper movement execution.

Rather than turning to these movement elimination and movement rationing

protocols, the goal should be to correct, modify, fine-tune, and master these
same movements. This will allow the foundational movements (i.e. “The Big 7”)
to produce only therapeutic and beneficial effects, so much so they don’t have to
be used sparingly but can, instead, be used frequently with near limitless benefits
and no drawbacks. If, on the other hand, technique is poor and exercise
execution is faulty (as it typically is in most settings), then these same movements
should, in fact, be performed sparingly, as the negative consequences will
oftentimes outweigh the benefits.

Th e Tr u th A b o u t B u tt W in k

Butt wink is a natural movement strategy our body uses when going into a deep
squat or any movement that involves extreme hip flexion. Trying to eliminate
this actually goes against the natural grain of our body when we move into this
deep position. Instead of trying to eliminate butt wink during loaded ATG
squats, stop doing ATG squats with loads and high forces. Squat to 90 degree
joint angles during these high force training scenarios and the body will have no

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need to move into butt wink. Remember, a deep ATG squat represents a
completely different movement strategy than we're aiming for during high load,
high force movements. A deep ATG squat or third world squat is a position of
rest and relaxation, while a 90 degree joint angle squat is the appropriate position
for high force, force absorption, and high impact activities. Stop confusing the
two and stop trying to address butt wink when it has no application whatsoever.

R eflex o lo g y, Pr es s u r e Po in ts , a n d
M erid ia n s

Many eastern medicines, osteopathic treatments, and alternative medicines rely

on pressure points, meridians, reflexology, trigger points, chakras, and muscle-
organ relationships to address sickness and healing. Although there is some
degree of quackery and pseudoscience involved, there is likely some degree of
truth, as evidenced by consistent anecdotal and experiential data from hundreds
of thousands of individuals. In fact, the element of truth shared by all of these
methods is that they each highlight the critical relationship between skeletal
muscles and the other systems in the human body, and the impact each muscle
can have on these physiological systems. Simply put, every physiological system
in our body appears to be linked to skeletal muscles in some fashion, many of
which we have yet to understand. The one conclusion we can draw is that fully
maximizing our physiological function requires the optimization of our
musculoskeletal health and muscle function.

3 Reasons for Impaired Range of Motion

Although it’s oftentimes quite complex, there are three primary factors that can
negatively impact range of motion and limit mobility.

1. Muscles that are so tight they are resistant to stretch and won’t fully
elongate (e.g. tight chest muscles).
2. Antagonist muscles that are too weak to stretch and elongate the short muscles
into position (e.g. back muscles that are too weak to stretch the chest).
3. Short muscles that are so tight and spastic they refuse to shorten any
further and are therefore unable to elongate the opposing muscle
groups. A common example of this is hip flexors that have become so
tight they can’t shorten any further, inhibiting any additional hip flexion,
which ultimately results in a decreased ability to stretch and elongate the
antagonists (e.g. glutes and hamstrings).
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Th e “Ex er c is e M o r e” Pr es c r iptio n : A
Fitn es s In d u s tr y D ilem m a

Many exercise and fitness regimes contribute to chronic inflammation by re-

enforcing faulty movement patterns in the body’s central nervous system.
Although being physically active is paramount for overall health, haphazardly
increasing or adding more exercise, whether it be resistance training,
cardiovascular conditioning, core strengthening, or mobility drills, can often
produce more negative consequences (e.g. inflammation and oxidative stress)
than benefits, particularly if proper movement mechanics are not emphasized.

Unless proper movement patterns are systematically implemented, increasing the

volume of exercise will oftentimes serve only to reinforce pre-existing levels of
muscular dysfunction, which directly contributes to “unhealthy” skeletal muscle—
a key mechanism underlying chronic inflammation. Simply put, more exercise is
not always the answer, but proper exercise is the key. However, once proper
mechanics are mastered, an individual can safely increase the volume of training
without incurring the consequences that typically result from poor mechanics.

A N ew M o b ility Tr en d

In the next few years it’s likely we’re going to see a massive shift in terms of how
we approach the concept and training of mobility. For the last decade, strength
coaches, therapists and trainers alike have fallen prey to the belief that their
athletes have an ever increasing need for mobility. The resulting undesired trend
has been one of producing excessive range of motion at the expense of stability
and structural mechanics, for the sake of gaining greater mobility.

This is one of the main reasons we see so many non-contact related injuries in
sports and in society. Rather than focusing on increasing mobility, the goal
should be to optimize mobility by finding the appropriate balance between
increased range of motion and structural stability. Properly performed eccentric
isometrics represent the perfect modality for eliciting this response.

Ex tr em e M u s c le S o r en es s : Th e
Im plic a tio n s Fo r Tr a in in g

Over the last decade studies have confirmed the fact that extreme muscle
soreness and DOMS, particularly soreness that lasts for multiple days or longer,
can lead not only to muscle atrophy due to excessive muscle damage [15], the
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muscle may also temporarily convert to slow twitch muscle due to the increased
expression of embryonic myosin, or slow myosin, in regenerating muscle. From
an athletic performance standpoint, as well as strength training, physique, and
even general health and fitness purposes the implications are quite obvious. Fast
twitch muscle is not only critical for the production of power output, it also has
the greatest potential for gains in strength and size. Fast twitch muscle fibers also
appear to increase insulin sensitivity and improve hormonal function.

Faulty mechanics, dysfunctional movement, and exaggerated range of motion are

largely responsible for producing extreme soreness and excessive muscle
damage. Fortunately eccentric isometrics help alleviate these issues by
eliminating dysfunction and teaching the body how to move properly.
Furthermore, it appears that eccentric isometrics are not only highly effective as
a means of improving mechanics, strength, muscularity, and health, they may
also prevent the conversion of fast twitch muscle fibers to slow twitch fibers by
preventing excessive muscle damage, which is much less likely to occur when
proper mechanics are employed. If true, this would be yet another reason why
athletes, lifters, general populations, and even geriatric populations (given the
strong correlation between aging and loss of fast twitch muscle) would benefit
greatly from the use of eccentric isometrics.

Th e U ltim a te R ep R a n g e

A majority of the training I do with my athletes, as well as myself, consists of rep

ranges between 1-6. While this may seem like a very limited and unusually low
rep range, it’s anything but. In fact, when implemented properly and performed
with textbook eccentric isometrics, the 1-6 rep range provides all of the training
stimuli one needs to optimize strength, hypertrophy, and performance. It does,
however, require a change in training mindset as well as a complete overhaul of
one’s training approach. Here’s what I mean.

A majority of the training protocols recommended by mainstream magazines, as

well as performance coaches, rely on quantity rather than quality to produce the
desired training stimulus. For instance, 3-5 sets ranging anywhere between 5-20
reps represents the most common recommended rep range and set schemes.
However, such recommendations often promote faulty movement mechanics
and poor neuromuscular efficiency, as the emphasis is on accumulating a high
volume of total reps, i.e. quantity over quality, particularly when it comes to
movement execution.

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Unfortunately, this approach has been passed down the iron game lineage from
coach to coach and trainer to trainer. As a result, the standard for performing
most movements involves garbage reps with very little attention paid to the
proper execution of each repetition, not to mention the goal of each repetition
itself. In essence, the concept and overall perception of what a traditional
strength training rep should entail has become so bastardized, flawed, and
distorted in mainstream fitness, that junk reps have become the norm while
properly executed reps with optimal motor control have become the rare
exception. This is something expert strength coaches Christian Thibaudeau, John
Rusin, and Vince McConnell, as well as world-renowned kinesiologist Stuart
McGill, have discussed over the years.

Most individuals approach their program with the main goal being the
completion of their programmed sets and reps, rather than the program being
the means to an end. Instead of focusing on mindlessly completing a desired rep
range, the goal should be to optimize each and every repetition, of every set, by
producing the most potent training stimulus possible, with maximal muscle
recruitment on every single rep. In other words, stop chasing reps, chase muscle
stimulation instead. This requires the lifter use laser-like focus and pay attention
to every component of the movement (both internal and external factors), which
includes controlling the eccentric phase of the exercise, pausing in the stretched
position, smoothly but aggressively completing the concentric phase, then
aggressively squeezing their targeted muscles in the fully contracted position. In
other words, performing a properly executed eccentric isometric.

It also requires the lifter to pay attention to their form, body mechanics, and
muscle mind connection on each and every repetition, rather than being zoned
out like a brain-dead zombie. Not only will this produce a level of training
intensity few iron game warriors have ever experienced, it will also produce an
incredibly potent training stimulus, as each repetition will trigger functional
strength and hypertrophy, not to mention improve body mechanics and
neuromuscular efficiency. With this approach the optimal rep range will be much
lower than what most individuals are accustomed to, as each repetition is
exponentially more intense than the last, both physically and mentally. In
essence, higher reps sets would be impractical as it would be nearly impossible to
attend to the same level of detail, focus, and intensity for more than a brief
duration.

Unfortunately, most lifters focus solely on the amount of reps and sets they
complete instead of focusing on the amount of quality time under tension
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induced by each and every rep. When a lifter incorporates garbage reps there’s
no choice but to compensate with copious amounts of volume to produce any
type of meaningful growth stimulus. It’s for this reason most programs
emphasize higher rep sets, as their approach consists of a large number of
garbage reps rather than quality time under tension. With proper form and
methodically executed reps, higher reps are unnecessary, as even a handful of
properly executed repetitions will produce a worthwhile training stimulus. Simply
put, focus on quality of reps rather than quantity of reps.

This is something I’ve observed time and again with pro athletes who train with
me for the first time. These genetically gifted specimens are accustomed to going
through just about every training routine and protocol one could imagine, as
they’ve been “training” for the better part of their lives. However, once I get a
hold of them, lighten the load, slow the movement down, execute each
repetition with textbook mechanics, and attend to the various components of
proprioceptive feedback, just a few sets of several repetitions exhausts them to
the point they’re literally seeing stars. Most individuals cannot fathom how only a
few reps with a light load can produce an adequate training stimulus. However
once they try it, their attitude towards training is forever changed, as they come
to understand the power of high quality reps.

Something else to keep in mind, and I allude to above, is the time under tension
involved in properly executed repetitions as comparison to garbage reps. A
proper rep, using a methodically executed eccentric isometric protocol, will take
anywhere from 5-8 seconds to complete. In contrast, the typical repetition
performed by most athletes, including seasoned lifters, is usually 1-3 seconds at
best. Performing a textbook set of 3-5 dialed-in repetitions will, therefore, take
longer to complete than most traditional sets of 8-12 reps.

Additionally, that time under tension for 3-5 properly executed eccentric isometric
reps will involve high quality time under tension, as opposed to the spastic muscle
contractions with excessive momentum that most lifters are accustomed to. With
this in mind, if one is looking to improve strength and power they can focus on a
rep range of 1-3 reps. If the goal is strength and hypertrophy they can move up to
3-6 reps. In other words, the 1-6 rep range provides nearly every form of training
stimulus one needs from resistance training while simultaneously ingraining proper
body mechanics, rather than sloppy form and dysfunctional movement.

When it comes to rep schemes, something I also use quite frequently with my
athletes is the auto-regulation principle. For instance, I may provide a certain rep

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range as a guideline, such as 3-4 reps for a particular set. However, I’ll often tell them
to focus on getting as much out of every rep as possible. If the guideline was 4 reps
but they reach 2 or 3 and simply begin to fatigue due to the high intensity of
muscular contractions produced by 2-3 perfectly executed reps, then there’s no need
to aim for the 4th rep, unless they can complete it with the same intensity and focus.

Additionally if they think they’ll be able to use better form for a given load by
aiming for 2-3 reps rather than 4-5 reps during that set, then 2-3 reps should be
their goal. In other words, the objective should be to take each set one rep at a
time, maximize the effectiveness of each rep, and continue on in that fashion
until no more perfect reps can be performed in that manner. Simply put, never
sacrifice form or the effectiveness of a repetition for the sake of performing
more total repetitions. Doing so is ultimately what leads to ineffective garbage
reps that wreak havoc on the joints while doing little if anything to stimulate an
ample training response.

Another way to think of this is rather than focusing on the specific number of
reps that must be completed, focus instead on inducing the strongest training
stimulus from each and every repetition whether one reaches 1,2, 3, or 6
reps. Keep in mind, just a few sets of several properly-executed eccentric
isometric reps will do more to stimulate strength, hypertrophy and performance
improvements than any number of high-volume garbage-rep sets.

It’s also important to note that this training strategy consisting of 1-6 textbook
reps doesn’t need to be periodized or used only in certain training cycles or
program phases. Instead, it can be used on a continuous basis, and make up the
majority of one’s training. In fact, the whole notion and idea behind
periodization is based on the unfortunate truth that most individuals perform
garbage reps in their training while using aberrant form and dysfunctional
movement mechanics. This inevitably necessitates that a variety of advanced
periodization models and training cycles be strategically implemented to deal
with such lousy movement execution. When proper mechanics are employed no
such strategies are needed, and in most cases they are actually counterproductive.

Lastly it’s important to point out that while a majority of my training, and that of
my athletes, involves the 1-6 rep range, I still do periodically use higher reps
primarily during finishing sets of isolation type exercises such as bicep curls, leg
extensions, and lateral raises. However the form and technique involved is the
same regardless of the rep range. In other words even though reps increase,
form, intensity, and attention to detail never degrade.

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Th e C o r e C r a ze

Over the last decade the fitness industry has become obsessed with core training.
While core training is a key component of most fitness routines, and something I
include in nearly all of my training programs, an excessive amount of core
training is unnecessary provided the basic movement patterns are performed
with proper mechanics. One reason core training has become so trendy is
because coaches, trainers, and therapists alike have seen that including more core
exercises appears to improve motor control and joint health, particularly low
back pain. Ironically, much of the low back pain and lack of motor control
exhibited by trainees, lifters, and athletes is, oftentimes, due to faulty mechanics
on movements such as squats, hinges, lunges, rows, and presses, and a common
result of using excessive range of motion and sloppy movements with poor
postural alignment.

Simply put, much of the core training recommendations, as well as corrective

exercises that are frequently pushed in the fitness industry, represent the need to
combat the negative ramifications of using dysfunctional mechanics on the basic
movement patterns. In other words, the way most individuals perform
movements such as squats and hinges forces them to undergo some form of
postural re-alignment to compensate for the awkward stress placed on the back
by performing faulty movements (i.e. excessive range of motion), and
necessitates the inclusions of many core movements.

By using eccentric isometrics and teaching the body how to perform

foundational human movements correctly, not only do we improve muscle
function, performance, and strength, it becomes unnecessary to include endless
amounts of core training in our routines, as the movements we perform produce
no negative side effects on our joints or spine. In addition, properly performed
movements including squats, hinges, lunges, and upper body pushes and pulls
inherently involve high levels of core activation, making it even more
unnecessary to program excessive amounts of actual core exercises into our
routines.

Th e C o s t B en efit A n a lys is o f
M o v em en t

When it comes to performing strength training movements or exercises with an

exaggerated ROM we need to perform a cost-benefit-analysis or risk-reward

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breakdown. Ultimately, the potential benefits must outweigh the potential risks.
Similarly the benefits and therapeutic effects must outweigh any negative
consequences. If the negative consequences outweigh the potential benefits then
it's not ideal for most individuals. It boils down to what is optimal for the human
body. Sure, the human body is capable of many amazing things. However, not all
of them are beneficial or optimal. Just because we can do something doesn't
mean we should. Simple yet effective illustrations of this concept are ATG
squats and pistol squats. Obviously, ATG squats and pistol squats carry some
benefits, but the potential risks for most folks far outweigh the benefits,
particularly given there are superior options with greater benefits and less risks.

Along the same lines, if we examine data on professional dancers (e.g. ballet,
Russian dance, eastern European dance, gymnastics) who use very exaggerated
positions and excessive ROMs to produce aesthetically pleasing movements, we
find that the incidence of joint pain in the hips, knees, ankles, and back is
unusually high and severe compared to other populations. This has been shown
to impact their mental state not to mention their overall physiological health.
Many of these individuals have incredible flexibility and mobility but,
unfortunately, the movements they perform produce a host of consequences.
Oddly enough it typically takes 5-20 years for them to manifest many of the
extreme symptoms associated with their exaggerated movements, oftentimes
requiring the need for surgery and/or face living with extreme pain for the
remainder of their lives.

A cost-benefit analysis would say, therefore, that the benefits of dance (e.g.
relative improvements in strength, muscularity, conditioning, physique
appearance, and fitness) do not outweigh the consequences, including the joint
inflammation and physical pain produced by these same exaggerated
movements. This is particularly true given we can reap similar, if not significantly
better, results using sound training methods (e.g. proper strength training). The
dancer might argue that the extreme pain they endured on a daily basis, and is
common among dancers, was worth the fulfilling, yet short-lived, career in their
art. Ultimately, the cost benefit analysis comes down to the individual and what
they hope to reap from their training.

Pistol squats and ATG squats fall in a very similar category to that of the
extreme joint positions exhibited by professional dancers. A thorough risk-
reward breakdown suggests most individuals would be wise to avoid such
movements. However, certain populations, regardless of the inherent
consequences associated with these extreme movements, still choose to include
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them in their training. This is, oftentimes, because for this population the end
goal itself is the successful completion of these exercises, not optimal muscle
function, proper body mechanics, improved fitness, and a pain free lifestyle,
which can be achieved using a variety of movements, such as properly executed
squats.

It should also be noted that performing extreme positions and drills such as
pistol squats will improve performance in one key area, namely, the ability to
perform these drills (e.g. pistol squats). However, performing these drills too
frequently will likely lead to inflammation and joint issues, and an eventual
deterioration in the performance of those same movements. Ironically, many
people have reported an enhanced ability to perform extreme positions, such as
pistol squats, the less frequently they incorporate them into their training, likely
due to elimination of the excessive inflammation and joint stress associated with
the frequent performance of these exaggerated movements.

D o n ’t R u n B efo r e Yo u C a n W a lk

A troubling trend in the fitness industry, particularly when it comes to social

media, is the endless posting by individuals of unique and creative innovations of
basic movement patterns performed with lousy form. So let’s set the record
straight. One must earn the right to perform unique and creative variations of
traditional movements. If an individual has yet to master the basic mechanics on
standard exercises, they should not be showing the world the latest, crazy
exercise variation they’ve come up with. All they’re doing is demonstrating their
ability to perform unique and, possibly, innovative movements with aberrant
mechanics. This is never something to be proud of. They would be better off
using light variations of the basic movement patterns, including bodyweight
drills, and mastering these movements first. Only then will their body be capable
of performing any unique variation thrown at it with proper technique. This
represents the fundamental principles of motor learning in a nutshell.

A th letic Per fo r m a n c e, Ec c en tr ic
Is o m etr ic s A n d M o v em en t M ec h a n ic s

Optimizing an athlete’s nervous system function is the key to enhancing

performance. Even a genetically gifted athlete with incredible power, speed, and
torque, will be limited by an inefficient central nervous system. Improving CNS
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function improves speed, strength, mobility, anaerobic endurance, agility,

stability, aerobic endurance, and balance.

Poor motor unit recruitment, including the inability to recruit the optimal
number of motor units, low frequency of firing of these motor units, and
improper motor unit synchronization, are a common occurrence even in elite
athletes. In addition, inhibitory mechanisms including, autogenic inhibition from
Golgi tendon organs, excessive co-contraction during concentric movements,
muscular spasticity, local inflammation, muscle spindle desensitization,
hypertonicity, insufficient reciprocal inhibition, reflexive inhibitory mechanisms,
and poor intra-and-intermuscular coordination, can also impede performance
and limit an athlete’s ability to showcase their abilities.

Though common, these issues can be traced back to the CNS. Fortunately, the
CNS is highly pliable, allowing specific training techniques to elicit
improvements in neuromuscular firing patterns in as little as several minutes.
When athletes being using eccentric isometrics protocols and learn how to
properly activate the targeted muscles, they immediately sense and feel
innervation in these previously inhibited or dormant areas. Like someone turning
on a light switch, the athlete can now engage these newly recruited muscles in
more complex movement patterns.

With consistent training, and mastery of movement mechanics via eccentric

isometrics protocols, the athlete gradually learns to transfer these firing patterns
to more complex movements until these recruitment patterns become instinctive
and automatic. Once proper motor unit recruitment and efficient movement
patterns become the athlete’s default strategy for movement, speed, power, and
explosiveness begin to rapidly improve in all areas of performance. Furthermore,
attention capacity is no longer fully focused on movement quality. Instead the
athlete’s mind becomes free to focus on competitive strategies and advanced
techniques unique to their sport/event. As pointed out by various investigators
and motor learning experts, skill and movement can then be mastered and
meticulously refined, ingraining the strongest and most efficient neural
blueprints in the CNS for long-term success and competitive dominance.

Although proper neuromuscular efficiency is critical for performance, structural

issues can also be a significant limitation for athletes. Lack of functional muscle
mass, musculoskeletal disproportionality, muscular imbalances, muscular
asymmetry, and poor body alignment can all have a detrimental impact on
performance. Each of these areas, while highly detrimental to performance, can

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be remedied with consistent application of properly executed eccentric isometric

protocols applied to the “Big 7” movement patterns, as well as additional
exercises aimed at core stability and foot and ankle activation.

A d v a n c ed Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic s

Once an individuals has learned to master the basic concepts of eccentric

isometrics with traditional variations of the “Big 7” foundational movement
patterns, periodically implementing more advanced eccentric isometric
modalities can be useful to further master body mechanics. This includes
combining eccentric isometric protocols with bottoms up exercises, hanging
band technique, offset loading, offset positioning, offset elevation, kickstand
variations, single leg variations, perturbation training, oscillating kinetic energy,
accommodating resistance, suspension systems training (e.g. rings) specialty
barbells, landmine exercises, double barbell protocol, isolateral trap bar
variations, stability ball movements, slide-board exercises, foam roller variations,
(e.g. foam roller chest press), head off horizontal presses, T-bench presses,
longitudinal trap bar variations, unilateral barbell movements (e.g. javelin press),
horizontal band resistance, reactive neuromuscular training (lateral band
resistance), power rack eccentric potentiation training, eccentric isometric
Olympic lifting variations from the hang position, reverse bottoms up
movements, makeshift-safety squat bar method, periodic unstable surface
training (i.e. BOSU ball), escalating density training, overcoming isometric
training combined with eccentric isometrics, bilateral assisted negative
accentuated training, one and one-half method, and other unique training
modalities.

Performing eccentric isometric variations of unstable movements such as

bottoms up variations, hanging band variations, offset loading, and other similar
techniques, produces an enormous amount of proprioceptive feedback from
muscle spindles, maximizing kinesthetic awareness even further. In essence, the
instability from the load combined with the emphasized stretch during the
eccentric isometric produces an incredible amount of sensory feedback which
the lifter can use to fine-tune and bring their mechanics and overall body
positioning to another level. To kick up the level of somatosensory feedback a
notch further, the lifter should try performing these unstable eccentric isometrics
with eyes closed. These represent some of the most advanced and difficult, yet
highly effective, eccentric isometric variations available to master one’s
movement mechanics. When an individual can successfully perform these
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movement variations without loss of motor control, balance, or mechanics, it’s

safe to say they’ve mastered their movement. They should be prepared physically
and mentally, however, as these are some of the most challenging yet effective
techniques they’ll ever attempt.

R a pid Ec c en tr ic Is o m etr ic s

Rapid eccentric isometrics represent one of the most advanced training

techniques I use with my athletes and clients. The protocol is almost identical to
traditional eccentric isometrics with one key difference. Rather than performing
the eccentric/lowering phase slowly, the lifter performs the eccentric phase with
maximal speed. In other words, they pull themselves into the bottom position as
quickly as possible using the reciprocal muscles (i.e. using the back muscles to
pull the bar down quickly during bench press). However, the several second
pause in the stretched 90 degree joint angle position remains the same as in
traditional eccentric isometrics.

Besides enhancing the rate of force absorption and deceleration capabilities,

these promote the mastering of body mechanics even further. That’s because the
rapid muscular stretch activates the dynamic response of the muscle spindles
even further, providing additional levels of sensory feedback. Unfortunately, they
can be quite dangerous unless movement is perfect or near perfect. In other
words, rapid eccentric isometrics should only be performed once traditional
eccentric isometrics have been mastered, or close to it. These can be performed
on the same days as traditional eccentric isometrics or on separate days.
Generally speaking, rapid eccentric isometrics should not replace traditional
eccentric isometrics, but should be performed in addition to them on a periodic
basis (e.g. once per week).

C o m pa r in g Effo r t Lev els o n A TG

S q u a t v s . 90 -D eg r ee S q u a t

In reality, pausing in the rock bottom position of an ATG squat takes

significantly less effort than pausing at a 90 degree joint angle. That’s because the
bottom of an ATG squat involves very little active tension and muscle activation
given one is simply collapsing in the bottom position and hanging out on their
tendons, ligaments, and connective tissue. Simply put, one’s muscles and central
nervous system are doing very little to hold the position at that point. In fact, it

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doesn’t take enormous levels of strength, muscle, and force production to hold
this position, although coming back up from such a biomechanically
compromised position does. Pausing at the 90-degree joint angle or parallel
position, on the other hand, takes enormous amounts of focus, strength, mental
toughness, active muscle tension, concentration, motor control, proprioception,
and intramuscular tension. Additionally, it requires a highly calibrated central
nervous system, and precisely dialed in motor unit recruitment patterns, not to
mention rock solid biomechanics with optimized leverage. This concept is true
not only of squats but of any and all movement patterns.

Th e C o m plex ity O f Pa in

Pain is enormously complex, and more than likely we’ll never fully understand it.
The one thing we can agree on is that there is an “ouch” factor present that most
likely involves both mental and physical components. While we could argue for
decades about the various pathways involved, and the exact science, individuals
who experience pain couldn’t care less about the science. They simply want a
solution and a remedy for their physical discomfort.

Properly performed eccentric isometrics represent the solution as they are the
single most effective cure I know of for treating most forms of physical pain. By
maximizing our muscle function and movement mechanics through eccentric
isometric protocols we can manage pain, inflammation, and physical discomfort
more effectively than any medicine, pharmaceutical, or therapeutic modality
there is.

Lim its To M y U n d er s ta n d in g

As the author of this text and developer of the eccentric isometric protocol I
truly wish I could fully understand and explain every single component in terms
of “what, why, and how” eccentric isometrics produce the incredible results I’ve
witnessed. In fact, many of the benefits and healing effects I’ve observed over
the years as a result of using eccentric isometrics have left me quite
dumbfounded and astonished, with no apparent way to fully explain all the
results. The one thing I do know is that the beneficial effects, while they may
appear to be almost too good to be true, bring healing and restoration to a
variety of physical and mental issues that seemingly were untreatable via modern
science.
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A person who is stricken with a life-threatening disease typically doesn’t care

about the exact underlying science and medical explanations of the syndrome,
particularly if those explanations provide no answers in terms of solving their
physical debacle. Instead they are interested predominantly in one thing, namely
the cure, even if the “why, what, and how” factors are relatively unexplainable at
that time. For a variety of issues, properly applied eccentric isometrics represent
that cure. We’ll most likely never fully understand every “why, what, and how”
component but, for the time being, and as long as these modalities provide the
therapeutic healing effects to our body, this is sufficient explanation and
rationale to satisfy our understanding.

M u s ic : A H elp O r H in d r a n c e

When it comes to performing eccentric isometrics and mastering movement, the

key is to maximize somatosensory and proprioceptive feedback from the
muscles so that the individual can attend to this information and make the
necessary adjustments. This allows the individual to fine-tine and ultimately
master their positioning and body mechanics. Surrounding distractions that draw
attention away from the somatosensory and kinesthetic feedback make it more
difficult for an individual to attend to this important proprioceptive information,
making it all the more challenging to fine-tune their movement. These
distractions can be visual stimuli (i.e. the mirror or physical surroundings), as
well as auditory stimulus, including most loud sounds, noises and even most
forms of music.

While listening to music when training may seemingly appear to help an

individual become acutely more psychologically amped up and motivated, it acts
as a distracting element that keeps the individual from learning how to tune into
the most subtle levels of proprioceptive feedback critical for mastering one’s
body mechanics. Simply put, surroundings that involve less distracting visual
stimuli, as well as less noise and music, are more ideal for strength training and
precisely executed movements, particularly eccentric isometrics. A majority of
individuals, however, have become desensitized to most sensory stimuli,
particularly auditory stimuli, and feel as if they need music blasting in the
background to help them focus. Learning to re-train the nervous system to
operate at maximal levels without the use of auditory distractions is critical.

At first the absence of external sensory stimuli may make it difficult to focus, but
in the long-term the effects will be ideal, as the individual learns to master their

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mind, and brings their mental focus, and concentration to another level instead
of relying on other sensory stimuli to assist in priming their neurophysiological
function. Much of this comes down to first re-training the mind so that the body
can perform at optimal levels. Individuals should not rely on music to motivate
or inspire them during training simply because they’re mentally and emotionally
too weak to focus their minds without the use of a crutch. Instead they should
learn to focus and concentrate their thoughts on the task at hand, namely
movement mastery, without the use of distractions such as ear-deafening music
that, ultimately, produces mental deficiencies and a lazy, sluggish mentality.

Fa u lty M ec h a n ic s A n d
M u s c u lo s k eleta l Is s u es

Even with severe musculoskeletal issues, injuries, and pre-existing pain, most
individuals will be able to perform a majority of foundational strength training
movements and traditional physical activity provided their mechanics are spot
on. The more severe the issues, the more important it is for movement to be
performed perfectly, without even the slightest aberration, as there simply is no
room for error. For instance an individual with severe hip, low back, and knee
issues will, in fact, be able to perform relatively intense barbell squats, hinges,
lunges, and even jumps provided they use perfect mechanics, which most
individuals are capable of achieving regardless of their body structures or
preexisting injuries. However, even the slightest deviations will make it painful
and potentially detrimental regardless of how light the loads are, including even
bodyweight.

It should also be pointed out that there is a significant, direct relationship

between the level of exaggerated ROM and pain/musculoskeletal issues. The
further an individual goes beyond the optimal ROM on a movement (e.g. a 90
degree joint angle), the more their preexisting and pre-disposed imbalances,
asymmetries, mobility restrictions, inflammation, pain, inhibition, instability, and
flawed mechanics become apparent. In contrast, such issues will essentially be
inconsequential, as long as optimal ROM and proper mechanics are maintained.
If not, many of their symptoms will re-appear.

For example my personal battle with scoliosis is not an issue during squats unless
I perform squats with too great a ROM or a lack of hip hinge mechanics. If I do

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perform squats with even the slightest breach in mechanics and exaggerated
ROM, not only does the movement begin to look unusually asymmetrical, I
immediately begin to feel significant pain in my hips, low back, knee, feet and
shoulders. Ironically, performing the squats with proper mechanics and optimal
90-degree joint angle ROM actually helps relieve all of the symptoms mentioned
above, bringing healing and restoration to my body.

I’ve actually lost count of how many times I’ve witnessed this exact same
scenario in other individuals with bad hips, knees, ankles or low back pain,
whether genetically predisposed or a result of prior injuries. The movements
produce no signs of pain or any biomechanical aberrations until they go past that
optimal position, or they use faulty osteokinematics. When that happens, even
the slightest issue, including the most minimal levels of dysfunction that would
normally not be problematic, begin to produce pathologic symptoms.

Lastly it should be pointed out that many imbalances and asymmetries are almost
instantaneously eliminated and resolved by simply focusing on performing the
basic movements with proper 90 degree joint angle mechanics, using the
foundational principles of eccentric isometric laid out in this book. Simply put,
the body has the ability to respond with a number of unique and novel
compensation patterns when faulty movement occurs. These compensation
patterns typically differ from side to side, as well as from person to person.
However, no such compensation patterns are needed when basic biomechanical
principles of optimal movement are followed using correct 90-degree joint
angles.

Lo w G r a d e N o n -C lin ic a l S pin a l Les io n s

Spinal lesions and spinal cord injuries can disrupt movement, motor control, and
muscle function on a number of levels. Poor posture and improper spinal
alignment, though less severe, are not dissimilar in that they too can produce
disruptions and short-circuits throughout the central nervous system, ultimately
affecting movement and motor function. Simply put, these subtle yet non-
critical/low grade spinal lesions can create neural glitches, neural misfiring, and
neuromuscular hiccups in our movement and physiological reactions. Therefore,
maximizing and improving posture and spinal positioning, particularly during
movement, is of the utmost importance.

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Th e D im in is h ed V a lu e O f R es ea r c h O n
Tr a in in g V o lu m e A n d Pr o to c o ls

In terms of practically applied exercise and sports science, we really know very
little, if anything, about proper programming and optimal volume of strength
training, given most programming has been established using dysfunctional and
inappropriate movement patterns (i.e. beyond the 90 degree joint angle position).
The field of kinesiology, particularly in regards to properly employed training
protocols, represents relatively unexplored territory. That’s because until now
most of the studies on topics related to training have been carried out under
flawed conditions, with faulty mechanics, using exaggerated movements such as
squatting below parallel, chest pressing in a collapsed manner, vertically pulling
with exaggerated range of motion, and lunging with little, if any, trace of proper
hip hinge mechanics. All of these represent faulty and counterproductive
positioning and ROM, which in turn produces many adverse effects.

Such forms of exercise do, indeed, require excessive recovery and restoration
periods as the movement is no longer strictly therapeutic and purely beneficial
but is, in many ways, contratherapeutic, producing a host of unwanted effects.
The proper execution of movement patterns completely re-defines recovery,
volume, and training limits, as the athlete is capable of handling greater
frequency, loads, and volume, eliminating the myriad adverse effects while
enhancing and multiplying the benefits.

Although such a scenario may seem difficult to understand and accept, perhaps
the example of a baseball pitcher will help lend credence and clarify the topic. If
a pitcher’s technique and form were assessed and found to exhibit many flaws
and technical errors, as well as produce varying levels of pain as a direct result of
the pitching style, it would inevitably be assumed that such an athlete would not
be able to handle as large a pitching volume as his counterpart pitcher and
teammate, who happens to be using proper pitching technique. In other words,
the volume the technically-flawed pitcher would be prescribed would certainly be
less than the technically sound pitcher. Therefore, the mandated volume of
training, or pitching in this instance, would be based on the potential risk of
injury and the ability to recover associated with ones pitching style, rather than
on perfect pitching technique.

By the same token, the term ‘overuse” may be erroneously applied to describe
the unwanted effects of the pitching. However “improper use” would be the
more appropriate term as overuse is rarely an issue. Simply stated, training

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volume would be adjusted to accommodate improper execution of the

movement in order to prevent or reduce pain, inflammation, and misuse effects.
Yet, we know that proper muscle function is therapeutic, as opposed to
dysfunctional movement patterns which are contratherapeutic. In this example,
the technically flawed pitcher represents the vast majority of athletes and fitness
enthusiasts participating in contra-therapeutic exercise routines, as the
movement patterns utilized in these settings are analogous to the aberrant
technique used by the technically-flawed pitcher.

On the other hand, the technically sound pitcher represents an exclusive level of
physiologically functional superiority rarely encountered in the strength and
conditioning industry, as perfect execution of movements and biomechanics has
yet to be implemented on a consistent basis. If such a scenario were to become
the norm, then training parameters in terms of volume, frequency, and aspects of
recovery would certainly need to be re-assessed, as individuals would inevitably
be capable of handling training parameters and programming conditions
previously believed to represent extreme overtraining (e.g. significantly greater
volume and frequency).

The above by no means implies that the improper protocols and movements
patterns commonly used don’t provide some benefit, as indeed the benefits,
oftentimes mistakenly, appear to outweigh the negatives. In such a scenario the
saying “good is the enemy of best” holds precise implications as the positives
achieved from the improper movements mask the truth and blind many from
seeking superior methods. Simply stated, the relative success of common training
strategies, compared to zero training strategies or protocols, are blinding
kinesiologists and coaches alike from taking a deeper look for fear of losing the
few benefits attained by their current inferior training ideas. Perhaps pointing out
the fact that much of the success experienced from current and popular training
protocols occurs in spite of the inferior methods, may help misguided and
confused trainers, athletes, and kinesiologists to reconsider and explore proper
protocols and movement patterns.

A n In ter es tin g Ph en o m en o n

Even after a serious injury an individual can still perform functional foundational
movement patterns for that body part, with relatively heavy loads, provided the
movements are performed with nothing short of textbook mechanics. Ironically,
each time I’ve witnessed this phenomenon, where an athlete learns to perform a

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movement pain free despite prior injury, another phenomenon occurs: their
form not only ends up looking perfect, the form across every injured athlete
ends up looking almost identical.

Furthermore, it is the same form and general mechanics my clients end up

employing as a means of staying pain free and performing the movements
without any ensuing inflammation. Because there are many wrong ways to move,
but only one right way, it’s as if these extreme scenarios force each individual’s
body to gravitate towards that one correct method, as anything less simply won’t
suffice. This method also happens to represent optimal mechanics for the
human body. The eccentric isometric methods and protocols outlined in this
book involve those same mechanics.

Fir s t S teps Fir s t

The first step most researchers, coaches, trainers and practitioners in the field
need to take is to accept the truth. This will be difficult on multiple accounts.
First, it requires accepting the fact that most everything they have implemented
up to this point, in terms of exercise execution and technique, is wrong to
varying degrees. Second, it requires complete re-evaluation and revamping of
one’s current ideas, thoughts, and theories, including some they have developed
over the course of many years and under the tutelage of various coaches and
mentors. Third, one must admit the inescapable truth that they have also
promoted or at least contributed (to varying degrees) to the development of
pathologies in anyone they have coached or trained, including those they
seemingly helped more than harmed, as a result of faulty movement patterns.

Lastly, and most importantly, this re-evaluation process requires individuals to

think not only in traditional scientific terms, but from a standpoint of science and
divine reasoning combined. In other words, this requires us to approach
movement from the standpoint that God created our bodies, rather than from an
evolutionary perspective that idealizes the notion that we randomly evolved as
simple beings from meaningless cells over the course of billions of years - a theory
that is just as flawed as the strength training principles it indirectly supports.

These steps may seem arrogant, harsh, and severe, but as a professional in this
field I was forced to go through these same steps and accept all of these
aforementioned truths, roughly 7 years into my career at the age of 25. It was
quite difficult, and in many ways gut-wrenching at the time to accept, particularly

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the notion that I had been subjecting the many individuals I worked with to
improper training methods. And yes, I initially went through a period of self-
denial followed by severe frustration and resentment. But in order for my eyes to
be opened that I could comprehend how our bodies were meant to move and
function, these were truths that I was forced to come to terms with. Looking
back at my own development as a professional in this field, this was as critical a
phase as any in my career.

Ev o lu tio n : Fa c t O r Fic tio n

It should be indisputably clear to those who have thoroughly and thoughtfully

read the text up to this point, that there is a correct way to move and an
incorrect way to move. More specifically, there are literally hundreds of incorrect
ways for humans to move, whereas proper movement can almost always be
narrowed down to a very precise method of execution, with little room for
deviation, particularly when it comes to specific movement patterns.
Furthermore, if there is, in fact, a proper or correct way to move with little room
for interpretation, any other methods or guidelines for movement must
inevitably be wrong, and flawed to varying degrees.

The specific guidelines for proper movement execution are not based on
manmade principles or derived theories. Instead, they are predicated on
foundational principles determined by the way God Almighty created our bodies,
and explained by sound science including biomechanics, neurophysiology, and
structural physiology. In contrast, faulty recommendations for movement are not
predicated on these same principles. Instead, they are based on man’s
interpretation of how human beings can, and should, move grounded in the
belief that we are a continuously evolving species capable of adapting to
whatever stimulus placed upon it.

When we move as God intended us to move we reap the myriad therapeutic and
physiological benefits of moving correctly. In contrast, moving outside the
boundaries of how God intended for us to move, constantly and repeatedly,
represents faulty and erroneous mechanics and brings about physical and
possibly even mental illness and death. In other words, correct movement
means moving and using our bodies as God intended them to be used, within
very narrow boundaries. Incorrect movement, on the other hand, encompasses
everything else, which has infinitely large boundaries and makes up over 99% of
the movement strategies we see practiced on a daily basis.

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In essence, for us to have an accurate and correct understanding of how to

implement movement, we must begin with one key principle: the understanding
that our bodies were created by Almighty God.

An atheistic view would reason that there are numerous correct ways to move
with no single perfect approach, given we are evolving organisms capable of
adapting to whatever stimulus is placed upon us. However, this viewpoint is
inherently flawed as the body does not adapt when it consistently moves outside
our Creator’s boundaries, nor does it evolve to withstand whatever stimulus we
place upon it. Instead, it rebels, becomes ill, inflamed, and begins to deteriorate.
In fact, the premise underlying the need to correct movement and eliminate
dysfunction is that continual and consistent repetition of faulty movement
produces a host of unwanted side effects, inflammation, injury, and cellular
degeneration.

Our bodies do not, in any way, evolve in order to adapt to a given stimulus, nor
does our musculoskeletal system successfully comply with whatever demands we
force upon it. In fact, one could go as far as saying that rather than evolving and
adapting to a stimulus, our bodies rebel to the point that they devolve, or regress,
as our human physiology will fight back so much so it will literally begin to break
down piece by piece. If we were, in fact, an evolving species this would not
occur, as there would be no such thing as faulty mechanics and our bodies would
adapt to whatever demands were placed upon it. Simply put, every form of
movement would be acceptable to our bodies and have little to no impact on our
physiological function. We know this is not the case.

The view that God very carefully created something as intricate as the human
race would advocate that we have very specific pre-determined ways of moving,
as our Creator knew exactly how and why He created us as He did with certain
inherent features. The goal is, therefore, to understand how God intended us to
move and use our muscles and body, and do so accordingly, rather than rebel
and go against the laws of nature set by God for us humans.

During my first several years of training, as an undergraduate student, I

approached training as an evolving species, based on the methods taught at
universities and in the mainstream fitness industry (whether they realized it or
not). However, progress was not only minimal, many of the training techniques
and protocols were counterproductive. Once I approached the body as a unique
creation of the Almighty, and changed my training methods to line up with this
ideology, my training techniques became infinitely more successful. In fact, the

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foundations of everything I’ve laid out in this book are based on this creationist
approach.

When anyone, including myself, treats the body as an evolving organism rather
than a purposeful creation by God, our methods and approaches to training are
markedly flawed, as the underlying foundational principles are steeped in
erroneous theories and misguided rationale. Unfortunately, most of the
techniques and methods advocated by the mainstream fitness industry, and
practiced in strength and conditioning settings, were designed under such a
flawed rationale. To fully understand the human body, and the way it is meant to
move and be trained, literally requires the acceptance of a creationist mindset.
Failing to do so will cause the individual to wallow in deception and flawed
training methods indefinitely, with a host of muscular dysfunctions, movement
aberrations, inflammation, and physiological issues to show for it.

After years spent investigating the human body, particularly from a

neurophysiological, biomechanical, applied kinesiology, and the various other
scientific perspectives I have laid out in this book, this thought process and
viewpoint became stronger and stronger. In fact, the more research I do and the
more I delve into the scientific literature, the more it reinforces and bolsters my
faith in God as it is undeniably obvious that we were in fact masterfully and
perfectly created in the image of God as is stated in the Bible. Every aspect of
literature I’ve laid out in this book confirms this and should allow the reader to
see firsthand how precisely designed our bodies are and how enormously
complex, yet masterfully crafted, we are. It’s only when we begin to operate and
function outsides these boundaries that we begin to breakdown physiologically
and suffer the negative consequences.

The idea that our bodies randomly evolved into the precise assortment of atoms
and cells we currently embody is incredibly absurd, particularly when viewed
from the scientific perspective of human movement, biomechanics, and
neurophysiology. The fact is that to operate with the level of precision and detail
with which we move and function could only have been accomplished by a
Master Crafter of Divine wisdom and all-knowing understanding who oversaw
our creation and development to these exact specifications.

The idea that our bodies randomly formed into such an incredibly precise and
amazingly complex structure without the hand of a Divine Creator is, in my
opinion, ludicrous and beyond comprehension. By simply examining the
foundational elements of optimal human movement laid out in this text such as

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biomechanics, structural physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology, and

biochemistry, and seeing how each component is perfectly congruent and
aligned with the others in and of itself shows how perfectly designed we are. In
fact, this approach illustrates just how perfectly each piece of science fits
together like one intricately designed puzzle.

Simply put, the more we examine the science that underlies human movement
and muscle function, the more undeniable it becomes that we were, in fact,
created by God. No sheer act of chance, random occurrence, or evolutionary
force could have fabricated such remarkable beings as our human bodies, nor
have ensured that every component of our internal and external physiological
function would line up so perfectly with each other. I suppose it’s possible that
these elements could have randomly and by sheer coincidence occurred on their
own without any divine intervention. However, as calculated repeatedly by
scientists, the chances of this occurring are less than one in one trillion.

If, in fact, a divine force was involved in our creation, this would suggest there
was zero coincidence in our physiological development. Instead, every
component was purposefully planned and meticulously accounted for with
intentional precision and attention to detail. Now, it’s impossible to prove or
disprove anything, including creation or evolution, however, given the numbers,
I personally have more confidence in a scenario in which the chance that our
physiological outcome occurred as it did is in fact a perfect 1 in 1 chance rather
than 1 in 1 trillion long shot.

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R efer en c es :

1. Chang, C.C., et al., The relationships of current suicidal ideation with

inflammatory markers and heart rate variability in unmedicated patients with major
depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res, 2017.

2. Bosworth, T., Simple postural exercises may reduce depressive symptoms.

MDedge Psychiatry, 2018.

3. Wilkes, C., et al., Upright posture improves affect and fatigue in people with
depressive symptoms. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry, 2017. 54: p. 143-149.

4. Kim, Y., et al., Depression and posture in patients with Parkinson's disease. Gait
Posture, 2018. 61: p. 81-85.

5. Tan, U., The Hoffmann reflex from the flexor pollicis longus of the thumb in left-
handed subjects: spinal motor asymmetry and supraspinal facilitation to Cattell's
intelligence test. International Journal of Neuroscience, 1989. 48(3-4):255-
69.

6. Tan, U., The inverse relationship between nonverbal intelligence and the latency of
the Hoffmann reflex from the right and left thenar muscles in right- and left-handed
subjects. Int J Neurosci, 1991. 57(3-4): p. 219-38.

7. Davison, G., et al., Zinc carnosine works with bovine colostrum in truncating
heavy exercise-induced increase in gut permeability in healthy volunteers. Am J Clin
Nutr, 2016. 104(2): p. 526-36.

8. Clark, A. and N. Mach, Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain

axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 2016. 13:
p. 43.

9. Castori, M., et al., Management of pain and fatigue in the joint hypermobility
syndrome (a.k.a. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, hypermobility type): principles and
proposal for a multidisciplinary approach. Am J Med Genet A, 2012. 158A(8):
p. 2055-70.

10. Wolf, J.M., K.L. Cameron, and B.D. Owens, Impact of joint laxity and
hypermobility on the musculoskeletal system. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 2011.
19(8): p. 463-71.

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11. Steinberg, N., et al., Joint range of motion and patellofemoral pain in dancers. Int
J Sports Med, 2012. 33(7): p. 561-6.

12. Swinton, P.A., et al., A biomechanical analysis of straight and hexagonal barbell
deadlifts using submaximal loads. J Strength Cond Res, 2011. 25(7): p. 2000-
9.

13. Oranchuk, D.J., et al., Comparison of the Hang High-Pull and Loaded Jump
Squat for the Development of Vertical Jump and Isometric Force-Time
Characteristics. J Strength Cond Res, 2017.

14. Suwa, M., et al., Age-related reduction and independent predictors of toe flexor
strength in middle-aged men. J Foot Ankle Res, 2017. 10: p. 15.

15. Aoi, W., Y. Naito, and T. Yoshikawa, Role of oxidative stress in impaired
insulin signaling associated with exercise-induced muscle damage. Free Radic Biol
Med, 2013. 65: p. 1265-72.

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Chapter 12

- The Journey Thus Far -

Quotes
Additional Insights &
final Thoughts

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CHAPTER 12
The Jo urney Thus Far | Connecting the Dots

Quotes
Final Thoughts
he following chapter consists of personal quotes, key insights,

T
quick thoughts, and pointers that should help any individual in
their quest for movement transformation. Whether you’ve made it
to the end of this book or simply skipped ahead, these quotes will
both help reinforce previous chapters as well as drive awareness
for those just beginning in their movement transformation
journey. Above all, these quotes will help you live well and train hard in a
movement-optimized fashion while ensuring optimal performance, health,
muscularity, speed, and movement efficiency. In total, there are 14 sections
throughout this chapter. While each section has great merit, feel free to jump to
the section that needs additional clarification. In essence, this final chapter can
serve as a quick refresher course for any of the key topics throughout this book.

ECCENTRIC ISOMETRICS – PAIN, PAIN SCIENCE, AND

MOVEMENT FOUNDATION INFLAMMATION
MOVEMENT, FORM, AND PROGRAMMING, EXERCISE
BODY MECHANICS INTENSITY, AND REP RANGE
MUSCLE FUNCTION AND STRENGTH TRAINING AND
MUSCLE HEALTH PERFORMANCE
THE BIG SEVEN MOVEMENT LIFTING FORM, TECHNIQUE,
PATTERNS AND OPTIMAL ROM
MOBILITY, STRETCHING, COACHING AND TRAINING
AND RANGE OF MOTION ADVICE
INJURY, REHAB, AND RECOVERY TIME AND
TIGHTNESS OVERTRAINING
FOOT AND ANKLE HEALTH CLOSING THOUGHTS
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Eccentric Isometrics

Eccentric isometrics are not simply a matter of performing a movement

with a slow negative and pausing. Instead, it’s a mindset and a
neuromuscular scenario involving fine-tuning and adherence to sensory
feedback. Simply, it is not just mindlessly performing a slow eccentric
accentuated repetition. Externally they may look very similar but
internally and intramuscularly they are completely different.

Properly performed eccentric isometrics represent the perfect modality

for teaching the optimal balance between mobility and stability.

When performing eccentric isometrics, many individuals will become overly

consumed with performing the holds for as long as possible. However, the
key for maximizing the effect of eccentric isometrics lies in the quality of
the hold not the quantity/duration of it. Simply, you’re better off
incorporating a 2 second hold with textbook technique (i.e., staying tight
throughout, maintaining maximal co-contraction in the bottom, using a
neutral spine, and avoiding a collapsed position) rather than holding the
rock bottom position with improper spinal alignment for more lengthy
durations. The former will produce improvements in performance and
overall physiological function whereas the latter will degrade it.

There are few techniques more effective for strength and hypertrophy than
eccentric isometrics. The combination of an occluded stretch, increased time
under tension, and high degree of motor unit recruitment is a highly potent
stimulus combination for muscle growth. Besides this direct effect, eccentric
isometrics also have an indirect impact on strength and hypertrophy. Simply,
they help establish efficient movement patterns leading to greater ability to
overload with the end result being tremendous gains in strength and size.

Eccentric isometrics program the body to move in the most

biomechanically efficient positions, inevitably leading to enhanced
performance as well as decreased joint and muscle inflammation. Not only
is excessive inflammation linked to nearly all known physical maladies, but it
also contributes to decreased insulin sensitivity and endocrine dysfunction,
ultimately wreaking havoc on health, physique, and performance attributes.

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Proper eccentric isometric training not only teaches the person how to
train properly in the gym but more importantly it reprograms the body
how to move correctly so one can sprint, jump, throw, and simply move
more efficiently without having to think about it.

When performed properly, eccentric isometrics are more corrective than

actual "corrective exercises." In fact most movements should be
corrective in nature. However, when dysfunctional movement patterns
become the go-to movement strategy, physical activity begins to
generate more and more negative effects, gradually mitigating the
positive elements of the exercise. Eccentric isometrics get to the heart of
this vicious cycle and repair motor programs so as to restore the
therapeutic-enhancing benefits of movement.

Over the years I’ve noticed a direct correlation with jumping and squat
mechanics. The more an athlete uses ATG squats the worse their
jumping becomes. The more they learn how to perform a proper 90-
degree or parallel squat the better their jumping mechanics become. This
also translates into improved vertical jump height (i.e., power output) as
well as landing mechanics (i.e., landing in a perfect position when doing
high impact plyometrics). I’ve also noticed similar findings in regards to
sprint performance particularly in relation to all lower body exercises
including squats, lunges, and hinges. Faulty mechanics on these
movements degrades sprint performance while 90-degree eccentric
isometric mechanics outlined in this text improves them.

Movement, Form, and Body

Mechanics

Contrary to what is consistently being perpetuated in mainstream

fitness, there is in fact a wrong way to move as well as a correct and
proper way to move. In addition, there are practically an infinite number
of possible ways to move incorrectly but when it comes to moving
correctly the margins are very narrow.

Just because your body is capable of doing something doesn’t mean it’s
good for it. Many movements are possible but only a fraction of them
are beneficial.

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When it comes to basic the constructs of a movement pattern and

general biomechanics that are foundational to a movement, there is no
such thing as multiple correct movements as there is only one proper
method for performing a given movement pattern.

Movement is highly transferable be that good or bad. Simply, movement

has a gravitational pull in either a positive or negative fashion. The way
we squat, hinge, and lunge as well as perform upper body movements is
indicative to how we will move in daily living or on the playing filed.
With that said, make sure you perform strength movements with proper
form otherwise you’ll be impairing your overall quality of movement
during all aspects of life and performance.

It’s quite fascinating that the more you eliminate dysfunctional

mechanics from human movement, the more each movement pattern
ends up looking remarkably similar from person to person regardless of
individual differences. If you have a different experience it’s simply
because you’ve failed to properly apply proper movement.

If you have a room of 100 people with 100 “different” squats there are
only two potential explanations. Simply, 1) either all 100 of these
different squats are incorrect and involve some form of movement
aberration or 2) only one squat amongst the 100 is correct and all of the
others are wrong. In addition because each squat is different it is
impossible to have more than 1 possible correct squat amongst them.

Most people move by collapsing onto their tendons and ligaments. In

essence, they are performing passive movement instead of dynamic or
active movement. And when I say “passive,” I’m referring to passive in
two regards. First, it’s passive in terms of a lack of proper muscle
activation and motor unit recruitment. Secondly, it’s passive from a
standpoint of mental complacency, lack of focus, and an overall lazy
mentality and mindset.

Movement patterns represent both the cause and the cure. When
performed improperly they’re the very thing that will create dysfunction,
inflammation, pathology, sickness, and injury. Performed correctly,
they’re the very thing that will eliminate these maladies.

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Proper movement is critical to overall health and well being not to

mention physique appearance and athletic performance. As mentioned
throughout this book, the muscles are an endocrine organ capable of
producing both a positive and negative endocrine response. Similarly, fat
cells are also an endocrine organ that tend to produce a host of negative
endocrine effects such as the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Similarly, faulty mechanics can cause muscles to produce pro-
inflammatory cytokines. In essence fat storage and muscle function are
highly correlated.

Just because a movement is methodically and precisely executed with

slow and controlled form does not make it correct. In fact, it’s quite
possible to perform an incredibly flawed movement pattern (i.e., with
dysfunctional mechanics) with smooth technique and a controlled rep
cadence that uses a range of motion that’s visually pleasing to the naked
eyed (e.g., a slow and controlled ATG squat). However, unless the
movement is performed with mechanics based on foundational
principles of neurophysiology, biomechanics, and structural physiology
(i.e. 90 degree squat), no degree of smooth, crisp, or methodically
executed form can make up for the negative effects produced from
dysfunctional osteokinematics and joint positioning.

Proper movement, as previously noted, strongly influences overall health.

Taking this one step further, I’ve seen sound movement or the lack thereof
have a direct impact on eyesight. Indeed, I’ve noticed a strong correlation
in my own body regarding muscle function and visual acuity. For example,
when I experience pain or inflammation from faulty movement, my vision
is almost always immediately impacted - oftentimes becoming blurry to the
point that I feel as though I need glasses. However, as long as my
mechanics remain dialed in, my vision remains in tact and 20/20 without
the use of glasses or contacts. Much of this can most likely be explained by
the fact that there are numerous occipital muscles that function in tandem
with the rest of the musculoskeletal system.

Performing even one movement properly has a positive impact on all

other forms of movement. Performing it incorrectly, however,
negatively alters all other movements. Simply, there is a powerful ripple
effect call “movement transfer” whereby the body takes on the elements
of the movement function – either good or bad.
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If you want to teach someone how to sprint or jump, first fix their
lifting mechanics for the basic human movement patterns. Teaching
sprinting or jumping form without addressing basic movement patterns
rarely works.

Individual differences such as height, limb length, and weight, account

for only slight variability in movement mechanics. In reality, movement -
when performed properly - will look very similar and oftentimes identical
from person to person regardless of differences in anthropometrics.

When it comes to exercise technique and mechanics, there’s dozens of

ways to perform a movement. Usually only one of them is correct.

When performing movement, maximal range of motion rarely

represents optimal range of motion. Accordingly, stop trying to force
your body into contorted positions.

When you perform movements correctly, it's amazing what the human
body can tolerate even when it's injured. In contrast, faulty mechanics
can destroy even the most healthy body. It’s all about proper movement
mechanics and optimal muscle function.

Stop worrying so much about your breathing patterns when you're

training. Instead, by focusing on proper movement mechanics,
technique, and posture, breathing will inevitably take care of itself. Over-
focusing on breathing while training is a distraction that keeps you from
mastering your mechanics. This is ultimately what impairs posture and
body alignment, thereby degrading our natural breathing patterns.

Most corrective exercise is useless and actually incorporates unnatural

movement patterns that produce negative repercussions and
ramifications to overall movement and muscle function.

Where the human body should be “capable” of moving into during

assessment does not indicate where it “should” be moving into during
training, competition, performance, or everyday life.

Individual differences in anatomy and anthropometrics only indicate

differences in what we “can” do, not what we “should” do.
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Faulty training and flawed movement mechanics not only represent a

means by which an individual is short-changing their training results but
often represents a destructive and counterproductive stimulus that is in
fact, degrading performance and damaging the individual’s overall
physiology, physique, and health.

The goal with proper exercise execution is to enhance movement

patterns so much so that the body’s default strategies for movement
become the right ones. This is exactly what eccentric isometrics do.

Just because your body can tolerate something doesn’t mean it’s good for
it. It may take years to catch up but faulty movement always produces
undesirable consequences. Just because the athletes are seemingly able to
tolerate the stress at the time does not mean that negative long-term
repercussions are not accruing. It simply takes time for the issues to
manifest themselves. We’re currently witnessing a similar phenomena
with incidences of head trauma in the sport of football.

If you want to master an exercise simply practice that exercise over and
over with littler variety. On the other hand, if you want to master a
movement pattern perform and practice a number of variations of a
specific movement pattern.

Muscle Function and Health

A strong muscle is not necessarily a healthy muscle. In fact, a muscle that

is strengthened via improper methods is a sickly muscle that is prone to
injury and promotes sickness via a poisoned internal physiological
environment that was created from the inevitable ensuing inflammation.

Skeletal muscle is not only the largest endocrine organ in the human
body but it’s also the only endocrine organ we have direct and
immediate control over. Simply put, we can dictate how this endocrine
organ will function which will ultimately impact our entire physiology.

Regardless of how perfectly dialed in all other lifestyle factors are, health
will never be fully optimized unless muscle function and proper
movement mechanics are instilled into an individual’s body.
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If we waited for science to prove everything particularly in the field of

kinesiology and muscle function we would still be in the dark ages
as science is typically used to verify what we already know. It’s rarely
used to truly advance practical application of various training protocols
and procedures, particularly in regards to human movement.

When it comes to optimal performance, health, and physique

appearance, all we can do is maximize our genetic potential in terms of
physiological function. It won’t ever be perfect. It won’t ever be pain
free. And, it won’t ever be without some ailments. However, by
optimizing our muscle function we maximize our physiological function
and minimize the alignments and physical issues that each person is
genetically and environmentally predisposed to.

At least 90% of all pains, aches, and physical ailments are not merely
coincidental and happenstance. There is always a reason and this root
cause is almost always faulty muscle function.

Most exercise protocols do very little to improve muscle function. In

fact, when most individuals exercise they are merely re-instilling pre-
existing flawed movement patterns rather than correcting them. In
reality, they are making the issues worse because they are becoming
stronger in flawed patterns thus ingraining these patterns more firmly
into their central nervous system (CNS).

Faulty muscle function produces inflammation, hormonal imbalances,

digestive impairments, chemical imbalances, breathing abnormalities,
impaired immune function, and acceleration of the aging process. In
addition, faulty muscle function can be linked back either directly or
indirectly to most modern day health issues and ailments.

20 years ago we would have laughed and mocked at the idea that flossing
one's teeth could have such an impact on overall health. We now know it
to be true. If the teeth and mouth can have such a large impact on overall
health and markers of inflammation, how much more so can the skeletal
muscles of the human body given that they make up such a sizable
portion of our anatomical and physiological structure.

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The Big Seven

Even under fairly extreme circumstances with significant injury, most

individuals will be able to perform the “Big 7” (see Chapter 6)
movement patterns pain free provided their technique is perfect. In fact,
doing so is often the exact therapy they need to heal the injury.

If you want to teach someone how to run, walk, or move correctly, first
teach them how to squat, lunge, and hinge properly. It’s a lot easier to
teach someone how to squat, lunge, and hinge in a controlled scenario
than during high-speed activities where they have little time to make
adjustments.

The more an individual masters their form and mechanics on the “Big
7” movement patterns the less core-specific exercises they need to
include in their training (see Chapter 6). That’s because each movement
they perform will inevitably involve significant core activation that will
be requisite to performing the precisely executed movements.

You can perform all of the fancy dynamic speed and agility drills you want
but unless you’ve mastered the foundational “Big 7” human movement
patterns, your progress will be marginal at best (see Chapter 6).

When a physician makes the recommendation to avoid specific exercises

such as squats, what they really meant to say, whether they know it or
not, is “stop squatting with bad form.”

Learning to squat, hinge, lunge, push and pull correctly are the most
therapeutic forms of exercise one can do.

Most musculoskeletal issues and injuries can be eliminated and resolved

by performing properly executed eccentric isometric variations of the
“Big 7” foundational movement patterns (see Chapter 6). In addition,
most corrective exercises, modern day treatments, physical therapy, soft
tissue work, and various other forms of trendy therapeutic modalities do
little if anything to get to the root cause of the issue, namely faulty body
mechanics on basic movement patterns.

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One of the most effective movements for improving shoulder health is

the overhead press. However, one of the most damaging movements for
shoulder health also happens to be the overhead press. The difference
lies in the execution.

When it comes to developing unique exercise variations there’s a fine

line between innovative and idiotic. If the movement does not help to
correct dysfunction, enhance optimal activation patterns, or improve
body mechanics then it’s simply a useless exercise that may that look
cool. However, it’s either completely unnecessary or in many instances
counterproductive.

You must earn the right to perform unique and creative variations of
traditional movements by mastering the basics first.

Stop trying to fix butt wink on ATG squats. Instead, get rid of ATG
squats to eliminate butt wink. Parallel squats (i.e., 90 degree squats) are
best for the human body unless you hail from another planet.

Mobility, Stretching, and Range

of Motion

Just because you can do something does not mean that either you
should do it or that it is good for you. In other words, just because you
can squat deep with heavy weight or go excessively deep with a
dumbbell chest press does not mean that it is ideal or beneficial. We
have almost unlimited degrees of freedom and it has to be narrowed
down somewhere and that somewhere is at the most beneficial position
which is approximately 90 degrees. A well balanced training routine
performed with sloppy form and aberrant mechanics will produce far
more injuries and muscular imbalances than a lopsided training routine
performed with pristine technique. Simply put, pain and injury from
movement has little to do with exercise selection and exercise
programming but more to do with exercise execution.

The best warm-up and mobility drills are simply performing the basic
movement patterns with lighter loads and precisely executed mechanics.

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Spending greater time in the stretched position is one of the most

effective methods for enhancing mobility. All mobility gained from
eccentric isometrics is purely functional. In contrast, mobility gained
from other traditional therapeutic modalities can produce dysfunctional
mobility, hyper-mobility, or increased inflammation as the body has
oftentimes been overly treated or contorted into unnatural positions.

The best trick the devil ever played on the fitness industry was
convincing everyone that they needed endlessly increasing levels of
mobility, flexibility, and range of motion. This mindset has literally
ruined more bodies, created more dysfunctional movement, and
produced more injuries than any training misnomer in existence.

Consistently performing movements in excess of 90 degrees alters the

natural length tension relationship of our muscles. This negatively
impacts our movement mechanics and muscle function not to mention
our entire physiology and organism as a whole.

The key factor that dictates posterior chain activation during squats is
not depth but instead is ample hip hinge mechanics as well as the ability
to sit back. Learn to hinge and sit back during squats and watch your
backside grow.

The most beneficial thing an individual can do to for mobility is to

move correctly. Besides the fact that eccentric isometrics performed
properly improve mobility almost immediately, more importantly they
teach the body to move properly via neuromuscular re-education. This
thereby enhances mobility through the elimination of dysfunctional
movement patterns and muscular spasticity.

The goal during movement should not be to create “maximal mobility”

but to create “optimal mobility” with natural levels of range of motion
(ROM).

The worst thing you can do for optimizing muscle function is to

overstretch a muscle. This is because an overstretched muscle comes
back tighter and more spastic with a greater need for further stretching
in order to eliminate the sensation of tightness that the prior stretch
induced.
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I don’t have my athletes (or myself) perform foam rolling, soft tissue,
dry needling, massage, stretching, or corrective exercises as they simply
don’t need to. In fact, my clients honestly do very little warming up as
they harbor little if any musculoskeletal pain, stiffness and tightness.
That’s because they don’t use exaggerate motions but instead use
optimal 90 degree mechanics. In other words, their bodies are always
ready to perform whatever the situation or circumstance.

Injury, Rehab, and Tightness

A joint does not just “go bad” for no apparent reason or simply from
overuse issues. It goes bad because the muscles around that joint are not
doing their job and absorbing force as they were designed to do.

Every movement aberration almost always produces some type of

physical ailment although it’s nearly impossible to predict or trace each of
these issues. Indeed, over my 15 years of coaching experience I've noticed
that each time a client or myself suffers a tweak, muscle injury, or joint
paint pain, we can link it back to performing a movement incorrectly.
Additionally, these poor movement patterns dominos into small bodily
issue such as headaches, immune system dysfunction, digestive issues,
sleep impairments, and the list goes on. Simply put, every tweak or small
injury always correlates with some type of physical infirmity. However, the
opposite is also true. Simply, as soon as these issues are remedied the
physical ailments begin to improve almost immediately.

Most rehab movements (such as rotator cuff drills and hip isolation
movements) are useless and oftentimes counterproductive. Instead,
learn to perform the basic movement patterns including squat, hinge,
lunge, push, and pull with perfect form. These will provide infinitely
greater benefits than any rehab movements.

Even with significant injury, an individual should be able to perform all

of the basic movement patterns with significant load. In fact, this
represents the best form of rehab anyone can participate in. The key is
that the injured person will be forced to use perfect mechanics as
anything less will cause greater damage and discomfort.

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If you consistently have to perform soft tissue work, stretches, mobility

drills, breathing drills, and corrective exercises, your movement patterns
are flawed and your lifting technique is incorrect to varying degrees.
Don't accept tightness, aches, and pain as part of the training norm.
This is your body's way of telling you you're moving improperly as
movement should inevitably be therapeutic. Get to the root of the issue,
which are dysfunctional movement patterns. Simply, treat the cause, not
the symptoms.

Muscle stiffness gets a bad rap. In fact, optimal levels of stiffness are
essential for proper mobility. That’s because low levels of stiffness can
produce instability oftentimes causing the body to prevent or hinder
motion it can't safely stabilize. Eccentric isometrics allow the body to
find the ideal balance of stiffness, stability, and mobility.”

90% or more of the injuries we see, including most contact injuries,

could be avoided if the individual had been properly trained to eliminate
dysfunctional movement patterns. Even if the injuries were unavoidable,
they would have been significantly less severe had the individual
mastered their body mechanics and muscle function prior to the injury.

Many orthopedic surgeries including a number of severe injuries are

oftentimes unnecessary. Instead, proper training is the best form of
recovery from a significant injury. The key is that the quality of training
has to be exceptionally high, ensuring one focuses on eliminating
dysfunction and mastering the basic human movement patterns.

Foot and Ankle Health

Proper muscle activation begins with the feet. If the feet are unhealthy
then all movements will be negatively impacted.

Learn to stabilize your body and joints then watch your mobility and
quality of movement drastically improve.

Fixing your feet and ankles will do more for your squat, hinge, sprinting
mechanics, and overall gait than any corrective exercise you can do.
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Focusing on large muscles while neglecting to strengthen your feet and

ankles is like building a beautiful mansion on a shaky foundation. It may
look glorious for a short period of time but eventually it crumbles and
ends in disaster.

Performing glute bridges and glute isolation movements while doing

little to address your feet and ankles as well as your hip hinge mechanics
is essentially useless. Strengthen your feet and ankles, master your hip
hinge mechanics, and then periodically perform glute isolation exercises.
This will allow you to get the most out of your glute training.

If you have to rely on weightlifting shoes for squats then your squat
form, mobility, and motor control sucks, PERIOD!!!

Pain, Pain Science, and

Inflammation

I've rarely if ever run into a musculoskeletal pain issue that is not
technique and form related. Furthermore, I have yet to run into any
issue where fixing form did not eliminate or at least substantially reduce
the pain. If you're a coach or trainer and you have not experienced this,
then you have not implemented and performed movement properly.

Proper movement including strength training is meant to be therapeutic.

If it hurts (i.e. is painful) then you’re doing it wrong.

If you experience pain and inflammation from movement or exercise

this simply means you’re moving improperly and inefficiently. The worst
thing you can do is to blunt that response and dull the pain sensation
without addressing the root cause. In fact, if not for the psychological
and mental hardships associated with pain, it would actually be more
beneficial to increase the sensation of pain and discomfort associated
with faulty movement as this would only give greater sensory feedback
about that movement thereby aiding the neurophysiological process
involved in mastering body mechanics and eliminating dysfunction.

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Current guidelines and recommendations for exercise execution and resistance

training techniques are such that they unknowingly promote inflammation,
oxidative stress, and various pathologies. These ultimately lead to a host of
unwanted symptoms and side effects limited not only to the confines of the
musculoskeletal system but also, and more importantly, to the entire being.

Every type of movement aberration and muscle dysfunction produces

some form of inflammation or negative endocrine response from the
muscles. We may never know the exact relationship of how each unique
form of dysfunction impacts the rest of the body in terms of crosstalk to
other organs, inflammation, or overall ripple effect. The only thing we
can do is to minimize this ripple effect and inflammation as much as
possible via proper training, nutrition, and lifestyle factors. In turn, this
will maximize our genetic potential in terms of physiological function,
performance, physique appearance, and overall quality of life.

Heavy weight does not cause joint pain, but lousy form certainly does.
Learn to clean up your form and mechanics and watch your
musculoskeletal pain disappear.

Based on the research, it’s quite clear that poor posture contributes to
muscular dysfunction. In turn, muscular dysfunction produces
inflammation and pain. That inflammation and pain contributes to
depression, which ultimately is linked to dementia.

The research is quite clear. Excessive muscle damage, which is more

likely to occur in the presence of poor body mechanics, can lead to
increased arterial stiffness, which has significant negative repercussions
on cardiovascular health.

It’s ironic that the same individuals who downplay the relationship
between pain and body mechanics all seem to display numerous forms
of dysfunction and movement aberrations even with the most
foundational movement patterns. Perhaps, if they cleaned up their
technique they would be less inclined to blame their pain and that of
their clients on some unexplainable esoteric reasoning. Instead, they
would realize that most of their pain is related to their muscle
dysfunction.

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If you’re moving improperly, the best thing that can occur is for your body to
send pain signals as it’s notifying you that your mechanics are amiss. Then, it’s
your job to take that sensory feedback and continue to fine-tune and modify the
movement until there isn’t any pain. This is movement mastery in a nutshell.

High levels of pain and inflammation that result from improper

movement is always a blessing in disguise as it gives us more feedback
than any coach or trainer can give regarding the quality of our movement.
In essence, pain is your friend. To try and remove or mask these
symptoms by stretching, foam rolling, icing, massaging, incorporating
frequent chiropractic adjustments, prolonged warm-ups, dry needling, or
the latest and greatest soft tissue modality is simply putting a band aid on
a larger and continuous never-ending self-inducing wound.

Instead of masking pain symptoms, determine what’s causing the issue

and get to the root of the problem. In most cases, the root cause is
faulty movement patterns and muscular dysfunction. Accordingly, the
wound is the resulting inflammation and pain while the band aid is the
aforementioned therapeutic modalities (i.e. foam rolling, stretching,
massage, soft tissue work etc.). Instead of a band aid, resort to the cure-
all - proper movement mechanics.

Scientifically all of the underlying mechanisms and components of pain

may be incredibly complex but the practical solution usually is quite
simple; teach the individual to move properly and eliminate dysfunction.
If this approach has not worked for you in the past then it's simply
because you have yet to understand and apply what proper movement
is. Once you do, you'll never underestimate the power of proper
movement ever again. Try mastering your own movement as well as that
of your clients and athletes and your concept of this “pain” topic will
drastically change.

Just because something doesn't produce immediate pain or immediate

consequences doesn't mean it's optimal for the body. If it's going against
the body's natural physiology and laws of biomechanics then there will
be negative ramifications. It may take days, weeks, months, and for
some very resilient bodies maybe even years or decades. However,
eventually there will be negative ramifications.

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It’s ironic that nearly every “pain expert” who downplays the
relationship between pain and body mechanics all seem to have
numerous forms of dysfunction and movement aberrations. I guess
instead of fixing their mechanics they decided to contrive more esoteric
excuses for why their bodies as well as that of their clients continue to
hurt. In addition, many so-called pain gurus are experts at posing very
unique questions and statements about the complexity of pain but rarely
if ever provide practical advice, real-life application, or useful solutions
for treating pain and inflammation in the human body.

I've rarely if ever run into a musculoskeletal pain issue that does not deal
with technique, form, biomechanics, and activation patterns.
Furthermore, I have yet to run into an issue where fixing these factors
did not eliminate the pain or at least substantially reduce the pain. If
you're a coach or trainer and you have not experienced this, then you
have not implemented and performed movement properly.

If I could magically make one request regarding training it would be the

immediate onset of pain and discomfort for all of my athletes (as well as
myself) during any instance that mechanics were not perfectly dialed in.
This would provide immediate feedback regarding muscle function,
form and mechanics. In essence, we would be required to move with
perfect mechanics in order to avoid the onset of pain. This would instill
movement mastery to the highest level in the most efficient timeframe
possible as pain is one of the single most effective feedback and
coaching mechanisms we have regarding our body mechanics and
muscle function.

When an individual is suffering through pain, injury, or physical ailments

it is impossible to diagnose and trace all the factors and related
underlying issues involved - particularly at the neuromuscular level. The
one thing we can do is ensure the muscles involved (usually all of the
muscles of the body to some extent) are working properly via
neuromuscular re-education. In so doing, this will cure, heal, and
alleviate a majority of the treatable issues whatever they may be. Simply
put, by perfecting the basic human movement patterns, the muscles will
become re-programmed to function properly thereby providing healing
and restoration to the entire physiology of the human body.

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Most pain, particularly musculoskeletal pain, is directly related to body

mechanics. I’ve yet to run into a single scenario where this wasn’t the
case - although I’m sure there are rare exceptions that do exist.

90% or more of your aches and pains can be eliminated by learning to

move correctly and by mastering your body mechanics.

Programming, Exercise Intensity,

and Rep Range

Even with incredibly light loads (e.g., bodyweight or empty bar), the
level of intensity and overall effort should be similar to that used if an
individual were handling near max effort loads on that movement. A
majority of the effort and intensity (approximately 80%) lies in dialing in
the perfect mechanics and maintaining maximal intramuscular tightness,
spinal rigidity, and full body tension. The remainder of the intensity
(approximately 20%) will be dictated by the total load itself.

The more efficient your motor programs and overall lifting techniques
are, the less important exercise programming becomes. I'm not saying
programming isn't important. However, in comparison to using the
correct movement patterns and engraining the appropriate neural
blueprints, exercise programming places a distant second.

When it comes to training intensity most people make the mistake in

replacing quality of movement with quantity of exercise.

Some of the most brutally intense forms of training you’ll ever attempt
are precisely executed variations of the most basic movement patterns
performed with textbook mechanics (e.g., properly performed eccentric
isometrics). Until you’ve experienced this, you have no grasp of what
true exercise intensity is.

Light weight combined with faulty mechanics can cause exponentially

greater damage to the body than heavy loads combined with textbook
form.

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Use the “quality” of your repetitions to increase the intensity of your

training rather than relying on “quantity” of repetitions to increase the
intensity. Properly executed movements, with high levels of motor
control, are some of the most physically demanding forms of exercise
you'll ever attempt.

Increase intensity via “quality” of movement not “quantity” of movement.

Stop chasing reps but instead chase muscle stimulation. The concept
and overall perception of what a traditional strength training rep should
entail has become so bastardized, flawed, and distorted in mainstream
fitness that junk reps have become the norm while properly executed
reps with high levels of motor control have become the rare exception.

Unique exercise variations should be used wisely and sparingly. I often

showcase unique movements to demonstrate what’s possible once
you’ve mastered the basics. If you have not mastered the basics you
have not earned the right to perform these unique variations.

Increase workout intensity via “quality” not “quantity” of movement.

Use the quality of your repetitions to increase the intensity of your

training rather than relying on the quantity of repetitions to increase
your intensity. Properly executed movements with high levels of motor
control are some of the most physically demanding forms of exercise
you'll ever attempt.

There's no such thing as right or wrong reps and set schemes, only right
or wrong form. Similarly, there's no such thing as a right or wrong
program, only right or wrong mechanics.

Too often, individuals focus on how much they “can” lift, not on how
much they “should” lift.

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Strength Training and

Performance

Strength training reinforces and engrains one’s current levels of muscle

function, stability, posture, motor control, and mobility. Accordingly,
training with a muscular imbalance while concurrently not addressing
these discrepancies will only strengthen and cement these imbalances.

Whenever you develop a strength training injury, the movement that

caused it also represents the cure for eliminating the issue so long as the
steps are taken to perfect the technique and activation on that
movement.

When performed properly, strength training is the single healthiest

activity a person can participate in. When performed improperly
strength training is the single most destructive activity a person can
participate in. Accordingly, with proper technique, strength training is
the single most therapeutic modality there is for the human body. With
faulty mechanics, it’s one of the most damaging and contra-therapeutic
activities one can participate in. Simply, strength training, when
performed properly, is more powerful than any medicine known to
mankind. When performed improperly it’s more insidious than any
known disease as it truly can destroy the body.

Breathing patterns during lifting aren't necessarily meant to increase

oxygen intake but instead are meant to increase full body tension.

When it comes to improving performance, it’s not just about making a

muscle bigger, stronger, more explosive, and faster. Indeed, these
represent only small, obvious, yet overly emphasized aspects of
performance, fitness, and health. In reality, other more subtle biomotor
qualities such as muscle function, positioning, mechanics, technique,
alignment, fluidity of movement, and other measures are much more
critical to long term success. Ironically, by addressing these more
overlooked physiological and biomechanical properties, an individual
will in fact maximize strength, size, speed, and power as the body will be
operating efficiently and seamlessly rather than against itself.

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When it comes to strength training, becoming efficient at faulty

movement patterns is the worst thing one can do. Unfortunately, this
describes most lifters.

Strength training has both the power to heal the body or incapacitate it.
The difference lies in the technique, form, and execution of the
movements.

Lifting Form, Technique, and

Optimal ROM

There are hundreds of different ways to perform a specific exercise.

Usually only one of them is correct"

If you perform a squat, press, pull, or any other functional pattern and it
hurts, check your technique, it’s probably wrong.

When it comes to joint health and muscle function, you’re better off
using heavy weight with proper form than light weight with lousy form.

Heavy weight won’t injure you, but lousy form will. Ironically, most
lifters allow heavy weight to degrade their mechanics. A true master of
movement will never allow the load to change their mechanics and in
fact, will oftentimes produce better activation patterns as the weight
increases.

The best corrective exercise is performing exercise correctly. In fact, any

movement including any heavy lift if done properly should be corrective
in nature.

Perfect execution of the most basic human movement patterns is the

most corrective exercise you can perform.

Telling me that you can’t perform a movement because it hurts simply

tells me you’re doing it wrong.

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Stop looking to your training log, exercise program, coach, app, or

exercise prescription manual to tell you when and how you should
progress. Listen to your body instead. When you feel as though you can
increase the load or reps while still maintaining perfect form, it’s time to
progress. It’s not that complicated.

Lift by feel, not by sight. Stop looking in the mirror when you train, it’s
distracting you from your body’s kinesthetic sensory feedback and
proprioception. Better yet, try closing your eyes.

The total weight only plays a small role in the amount of effort required
for that movement. A majority of the effort on any lift should be driven
towards proper execution and technique regardless of the load.

When it comes to body mechanics, the strongest position is always the safest
position and visa versa. It also happens to be the most stable and structurally
sound position. In addition, these positions happen to represent the most
natural mechanics for the human body which almost always involve 90-
degree joint angles, parallel joint segments, and perpendicular body
positions of which properly performed eccentric isometrics help ingrain.

“Maximal” range of motion and “optimal” range of motion are two

entirely different things. Unfortunately, most fitness experts and lifters
fail to see the difference.

Individual differences in anthropometrics only indicates “maximal”

range of motion during assessment, not “optimal” range of motion
during movement, performance, and training.

Individual differences manifest themselves primarily when movement is

performed incorrectly as there are endless variations of what faulty
mechanics can look like. In contrast, proper mechanics on any
movement produces a very similar biomechanical outcome from person
to person.

Heavy weight doesn't cause injuries but sloppy form does. It just so
happens most lifters allow heavy weight to deteriorate their form.
Remember, you control the weight – don’t let the weight control you.

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Use strength training to consciously improve your body mechanics so

that you can unconsciously apply them in everyday life.

The more we clean up body mechanics the more everyone's form starts
looking the same.

When it comes to body mechanics, if it’s not broken but still needs
fixing then you better fix it anyways otherwise eventually it will break.

Just because your body can do something does not mean that it should.
Every movement is permissible but not every movement is beneficial.

Many individuals will resort to unique or advanced training tools,

instruments, gadgets, and protocols to help clean up mechanics. While
devices such as unstable training surfaces, specialty bars, suspension
training systems (e.g., TRX and rings), and many other trendy fitness
tools may provide very subtle improvements to technique, none of them
represent the fix or solution to mastering body mechanics. In fact,
unless proper technique is mastered on more basic variations, these
unique training instruments merely represent cool and novel methods
for performing the same movements with aberrant mechanics and faulty
form. Simply, they are only reinforcing poor technique in a somewhat
cool looking manner while concurrently covering up the root problem –
faulty movement.

Coaching and Training Advice

To become an expert in kinesiology you literally have to ignore and

disregard everything you’ve ever learned or read in the field of exercise
science and begin to think for yourself. It’s your prior education that
stands in the way of your learning.

There’s a disturbing new trend in the fitness industry. When a trainer,

coach, or lifter, gets called out for poor form, instead of taking ownership
for his or her flawed mechanics and admitting that he or she needs to make
improvements, they simply state that there’s no such thing as right or wrong
mechanics. This is simply a poor excuse for flawed exercise execution.

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As a coach, you should be able to take any individual and get them to
have a solid and pain-free squat within 5 minutes. In fact, the same is
true of just about any movement pattern, particularly when eccentric
isometrics are employed. If you’re unable to do this then it’s time to
evaluate your skills as a coach and trainer. If teaching someone how to
perform a movement such as a squat requires months or even weeks of
corrective exercise and soft tissue work, this only highlights your
inability to coach the movement properly.

When it comes to exercise science I don’t care how much you know; I
care more about what you know. I run into countless people in the field
with far more knowledge than I’ll ever have. Unfortunately, most of
their knowledge is useless as they’ve studied endless hours of
unimportant material that has absolutely no practical application to the
field. Even if your knowledge is relatively limited but you have grasped
and thoroughly comprehended the most important tenants and
principles of movement, neuromuscular physiology, and biomechanics,
you provide infinitely greater value to the field than a so called expert
who has volumes of knowledge stored in his or her brain but has failed
to differentiate between that which is minutia and that which is of value.

After seeing the improper way most trainers, coaches, and therapists
teach movement, I don’t blame them for trying to overcomplicate the
origins and cause of pain.

Most coaches and trainees have never moved or trained movement

correctly. As a result, they never fully comprehend the power of proper
movement nor understand how therapeutic it is on the body. If you
never experienced this phenomena you’ll likely have no understanding
of how improper movement can be so damaging. Simply, you have to
understand the value of proper movement by first experiencing it
yourself before you can comprehend the potential hazards of faulty
movement.

The idea that there's no such thing as "right or wrong form" is simply a
way for incompetent trainers to rationalize their inability to properly
coach foundational movement patterns as well as their failure to eliminate
pain and dysfunction in their own body and that of their clients.

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As a coach or trainer, if you're unable to eliminate a majority of your

clients' pain and inflammation then you're not coaching movement
properly. If you disagree with this statement then that in and of itself
delegitimizes you as a competent coach and practitioner in this field.

Recovery Time and Overtraining

There's an inverse correlation between technique and recovery. The

better your technique, the less recovery time your body needs as the
exercises will essentially be therapeutic and corrective. Poor technique
demands greater recovery time to handle the negative ramifications of
dysfunctional movement patterns.

Many people confuse “overtraining" with "improper training" with the

latter being much more common. In fact, true overtraining is quite rare.
When you train correctly with proper mechanics, it’s actually very
difficult to overtrain as each movement is therapeutic. In contrast, lousy
mechanics produce inflammation and a host of negative ramifications
making the chance of overtraining much more likely.

What’s oftentimes diagnosed as overtraining and over-use can more

accurately be defined as improper training, improper use, and faulty
mechanics. Eliminate your dysfunctional patterns and the chance of
overtraining exponentially decreases because now the movements you
perform become therapeutic rather than contra-therapeutic.

Overtraining is often misdiagnosed and confused with improper

training, with the latter being much more common.

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Closing Thoughts
When it comes to any field including exercise science, the truth is always
inconvenient as it forces us to change our approach, habits, methods,
and overall mindset.

While I could give an almost endless number of examples, literature,

research, scientific data, and personal accounts supporting the views
expressed in this text, what I’ve laid out in prior pages should suffice.
For those who believe, no further evidence is necessary. For those who
refuse to believe, no amount of evidence will suffice.

Many individuals who read this text will be angry and infuriated. Denial
of truth almost always results in extreme anger, rage, and frustration.

Much of what I’m espousing in this text is in many ways a re-creation of

the wheel. While some would consider this unnecessary, it’s in fact
exactly what the fitness industry is in dire need of as indicated by the
alarming number of unexplainable and frequently occurring physical
issues, injuries, inflammation, and physical ailments. So yes, the wheel,
being the fitness industry in this case, is in fact largely broken and
therefore does need to be re-created or at least refined. What I’ve laid
out in this text is an attempt at just that.

Many individuals suggest that my training methods and the principles

discussed in this book are close-minded. However, any form of truth is
inherently and by its nature close-minded because a simple truth typically
suggests any alternative explanations or approaches are false. Therefore,
the idea of numerous approaches and multiple correct ways to train is
utterly impossible. Either, the methods outlined in this text are the
accurate truth or they are an outlandish fallacy, there is no in-between.

Live Well – Train Hard

DR. JOEL SEEDMAN

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Bonus

Comparison of

Resistance
Training
Doctor Seedman’s
PhD Dissertation

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BONUS
Comparison of

Resistance
Training
Protocols & their Transient Effects
on Muscle Function & Performance

A b s tr a c t

ost-activation-potentiation (PAP) has become an

P
increasingly popular method for inducing temporary
increases in torque using heavy resistance training
movements. In this study we evaluated two
different training protocols and their impact on
power, symmetry, and stability for both lower and
upper-body. Fifty healthy resistance-trained men
between 18-29 years of age were randomly assigned
to one of three groups, control (1C), traditional
(2T), or experimental (3E). Subjects were tested on 6 assessments of muscle
function, before performing 2 sets of 2-3 near-maximal repetitions on the barbell
squat and bench press, followed by post-testing on the same 6 assessments. The
control group (1C) performed no resistance training between the pre and post-
testing. Group 2T and 3E performed identical protocols with the exception of
the style in which repetitions were performed with 2T performing standard
repetitions (controlled-eccentric followed by forceful-concentric) while 3E
performed all repetitions using a novel eccentric-isometric approach (3s-
eccentric, 4s-isometric at bottom/stretched position, and maximal-speed
concentric phase). It was hypothesized that there would be a significant
difference between the groups for each of the 6 tests and that 2T would improve

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more so than 1C while group 3E would improve more so than both 1C and 2T.
Statistical analysis using individual Mixed-Design/Split-Plot-Repeated-Measures-
ANOVA’s demonstrated that five of the six outcome measures showed a
significant effect. Similar results were witnessed for the Vertical Jump and Power
Pushup both demonstrating a significant effect with 2T having significantly
greater improvements in measures of power than 1C while 3E had significantly
greater improvements than both 2T and 1C. Results for upper-body symmetry
(bodyweight-pushup) and lower-body symmetry tests (bodyweight-squat)
mirrored each other both demonstrating a significant effect with 3E showing
superior symmetry compared to both 1C and 2T. The Bosu ball squat assessing
lower-body stability was the only test of the six that showed no significant effect.
The Bosu ball pushup assessing upper-body stability showed a significant effect
with 3E showing significant improvements in upper-body stability compared to
2T. In summary it appears that eccentric isometrics were superior to traditional
training protocols for inducing temporary improvements in upper and lower-
body measures for five of the six assessments.

Index Words: Resistance Training, Post Activation Potentiation, Muscle

Function, Eccentric Isometric, Movement Patterns, Stability,
Symmetry, Muscle Spindle, Motor Control, Motor Unit
Recruitment

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Comparison of Resistance Training Protocols and their Transient Effects on

Muscle Function and Performance

by

Joel Seedman

B.S., Indiana University, 2006

M.S., Indiana University, 2007

A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia

in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

University of Georgia

© 2014

Joel David Seedman

All Rights Reserved

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Comparison of Resistance Training Protocols and their Transient Effects on

Muscle Function and Performance

by

Joel Seedman

Major Professor: Michael Horvat

Committee: Phillip Tomporowski

Kevin McCully

Electronic Version Approved:

Julie Coffield
Interim Dean of the Graduate School
University of Georgia
August 2014

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A c k n o w led g m en ts

I would like to thank my major professor Dr. Michael Horvat for the continued
assistance and positive feedback he gave throughout this process. I would also
like to thank Dr. Kevin McCully and Dr. Phillip Tomporowski for their guidance
and support. I also owe a great debt of gratitude to Dr. Seock-ho Kim who gave
me excellent advice on my statistical analysis and methods. I would also like to
thank my parents and brother for their continual encouragement, support,
assistance, and prayers they gave me continuously during this time. I would also
like to thank all of my professors and instructors as well as anyone else
instrumental in the completion of this final dissertation. Finally I would like to
thank my Heavenly Father who I prayed to constantly throughout this process
for discernment, wisdom, guidance, faith, and patience that He gave me.

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Chapter One
In tr o d u c tio n

Over the last several decades, resistance training has gained considerable
popularity as a safe and effective form of exercise for many populations
(Ratamess, 2012). Whether the goal is improved body composition, increased
strength, improved health and well being, or advancements in one’s athletic
performance capabilities, strength training appears to be a modality of exercise
well suited for many physiological and lifestyle objectives. Findings in strength
and conditioning research have also produced trends promoting use of resistance
training in nearly all populations ranging from children to the elderly as well as
those with moderate to severe health and physical conditions (ACSM, 2006).

Advancements in the field of kinesiology have led to various advanced training

strategies and protocols with the sole purpose of increasing one or more factors
associated with performance. Some of these include concurrent activation
potentiation, eccentric-accentuated training, and post activation potentiation
(Zatsiorsky & Kraemer, 2006). Post activation potentiation (PAP) is predicated
on the idea of producing short term changes in synaptic plasticity induced from a
previous series of intense muscular contractions thereby temporarily increasing
force and power output on subsequent contractions (Tillin & Bishop, 2009).

Recently much attention has been placed on the theory of Post Activation
Potentiation (PAP) as a means of temporarily increasing power and force
production so as to positively influence long-term training and performance
(Hodgson, Docherty, & Robbins, 2005). Numerous studies have demonstrated
the effectiveness of PAP by performing some form of heavy strength training
exercise such as a loaded squat several minutes prior to an explosive activity in
which case increased power, speed, and force seem to temporarily improve for
that explosive movement (Chatzopoulos et al., 2007; Kilduff et al., 2008; Lowery
et al., 2012; Rixon, Lamont, & Bemben, 2007; Weber, Brown, Coburn, &
Zinder, 2008). Many of these investigations have found significant increases in
power and torque ranging from 3-5% with a typical effect size of .38 (Mitchell &
Sale, 2011; Weber et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2013).

The idea of temporarily increasing power and force production during training
or competition is particularly appealing to high-level trainees and athletes as a
means of improving long-term performance. Furthermore numerous strength
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coaches and performance institutes have incorporated PAP into their training
regimes as a means of increasing long-term power and strength (Contreras, 2010;
Cressey, 2011; Waterbury, 2006). However different bodies of literature and
research would suggest that although the use of heavy loads and traditional style
repetitions induces PAP, this may not represent the most effective method for
maximizing this physiological phenomenon. Key examples of this can be
witnessed in studies, which compared the effectiveness of isometrics
contractions to traditional isotonic movements in which case the isometric
conditions appear to be a superior stimulus for eliciting a PAP response possibly
due to aspects related to temporal summation (Esformes, Keenan, Moody, &
Bampouras, 2011; Rixon et al., 2007). However all investigations examining
isometric contractions have only utilized a specific form of isometric training
known as overcoming isometrics. Overcoming isometrics are performed against
an immovable object (pushing against a wall) where the trainee pushes or pulls
with maximal effort for a given duration. In contrast, yielding isometrics are
typically performed in a stretched position in which case the individual lowers a
load to a specific point then attempts to hold this stretched position for a given
duration (i.e. pausing at the bottom of a squat).

Research based on muscle spindles, stretch overload, eccentric accentuated

training, length tension relationship, and various aspects of motor programming
would indicate that such a method may in fact be superior to traditional
repetitions particularly for enhancing sensory feedback from the muscles
(Edman, Radzyukevich, & Kronborg, 2002; Guilhem, Cornu, & Guevel, 2010;
Kistemaker, Van Soest, Wong, Kurtzer, & Gribble, 2012; LaStayo et al., 2003).
In essence the author believes rather than performing traditional repetitions or
standard overcoming isometrics, slower eccentrics combined with eccentric
isometrics (modified yielding isometrics) may optimize PAP and proprioceptive
feedback. Unfortunately there appears to be little if any research performed on
this form of isometric training particularly in relation to PAP, therefore this
investigation aimed to explore this ideology.

Furthermore, few studies have examined other aspects of muscle function (not
directly related to power) such as balance, stability, mobility, and symmetrical
loading. Power, force production, and speed are often the target of training
regimes however researchers and strength coaches alike understand the
importance of addressing other bio-motor qualities such as stability and
symmetry (Voight, Hoogenboom, & Prentice, 2007). The fact that transient
increases in force production and power occur shortly after bursts of heavy

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resistance training, may suggest that other performance measures would be

similarly affected although there is no current evidence for such claims. Because
strength is the foundational quality that most other bio-motor capabilities are
built on such as stability, balance, and symmetry (Giandonato & Bryant, 2012),
these factors may be impacted similarly to how PAP affects force and power
production although no evidence exists to substantiate such claims. Therefore,
this research study directly investigated such rationale.

In summary standard strength training protocols using heavy isotonic

movements such as the barbell back squat appear to induce temporary increases
in power and torque. Furthermore this temporary increase in force-related
characteristics of muscle function known as post activation potentiation may be
greater when isometric activities are utilized. Unfortunately little research has
been performed addressing other forms of isometric contractions such as
yielding/eccentric isometrics. Finally little if any investigation has been
performed examining other bio-motor qualities such as balance, stability, and
symmetrical loading to determine whether or not such performance markers
would be impacted in a similar manner as power and force. This research study
was performed in order to explore these topics.

S ta tem en t o f th e Pr o b lem

Only traditional forms of resistance training have been applied to the theory of
post activation potentiation. Various aspects of research in the field of
kinesiology indicate that other forms of resistance training (involving eccentric
isometrics) may be more effective not only in terms of short term changes
(short-term synaptic plasticity) but also superior for long-term improvements in
function and performance. If this is true then such a novel and unique form of
training could alter guidelines for recommendations on resistance training.

Finally, at the time of this investigation and to the best of the authors’
knowledge, current research has only explored the impact short-term resistance
training induces on power and force production (PAP). No research has been
performed examining other bio-motor qualities that are arguable just as critical
to muscle function such as stability, balance, and symmetrical loading.

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R es ea r c h Q u es tio n s

The aim of this study was to measure changes in power, symmetry, and stability
with two different PAP protocols. Therefore the following questions were posed
prior to the initiation of the investigation.

Question 1: Will traditional strength training protocols and the experimental

training protocols produce similar results in regards to short-term changes in
power (post activation potentiation)?

Question 2: Are other factors related to performance and function such as

stability, balance, and symmetrical loading affected similarly by strength training
as witnessed in the case of post activation potentiation (short term increases in
power and force production)? In essence will stability, balance, and symmetrical
loading improve similarly to power and force when measured after a short and
heavy bout of resistance training or are these bio-motor qualities less sensitive to
short-term changes when examining the impact of strength training on
physiological adaptations?

Question 3: If other performance related qualities such as stability, balance, and

symmetrical loading are directly impacted by strength training similarly to power
and force, are the traditional training protocols and experimental protocols
equally as effective or is one superior to the other.

Summary of Questions 1-3: What are the short-term effects on power, stability, and
symmetrical loading when comparing two different types of resistance training protocols
(traditional vs. experimental)?

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S pec ific A im ’s a n d Pu r po s e o f th e
In v es tig a tio n

The aim of this investigation was to examine how an experimental form of

resistance training compared to traditional strength training protocols in regards
to post activation potentiation (PAP). Furthermore this study explored the
transient effects that traditional and experimental strength training protocols
have on stability, balance, and symmetrical loading. Finally this study employed
several novel assessment techniques as a means of measuring muscle function
and performance with the ultimate purpose of comparing the various training
protocols’ effect on, power, stability, and symmetrical loading.

S ig n ific a n c e o f th e To pic

Post activation potentiation is a valuable training technique for achieving short-

term improvements in power and force production with implications suggesting
long-term improvements in performance (Hodgson et al., 2005). Nearly all
studies involving strength training and PAP have employed traditional strength
training protocols. Researchers and kinesiologists have avoided experimenting
with other techniques and unique approaches to strength training. The primary
investigator believes that he has developed a superior form of strength training
that produces greater PAP effects when compared to traditional methods.
Because strong implications have been made suggesting long-term benefits from
PAP, a training technique that produces greater short-term synaptic plasticity
may be a more suitable form of resistance training not only for occasional
implementation but also for everyday strength training practice. In essence the
author postulates that whatever form of training produces the greatest short-
term potentiation may in fact be the desired form of training in general.

Another area of great significance this investigation examined involves other bio-
motor qualities such as stability, balance, and symmetrical loading. Although
many kinesiologists would agree that such foundational qualities are paramount
for achieving optimal performance and function, these factors have been largely
neglected by kinesiologists relative to the attention given to more glamorous
performance attributes such as force and power output. If properly applied
training techniques can produce a similar response to stability, balance, and
symmetrical loading as that witnessed in force and power production involving
current PAP research, such findings would provide highly valuable methods for
maximizing performance and muscle function not only in athletes but in all
populations.
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H ypo th es es

Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant difference between the three conditions

(control, traditional training, and experimental training) when examining
outcome measures related to power output. This will be apparent when
analyzing lower and upper body power individually as well as when examining
power as a category/composite value.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant difference between the three conditions

(control, traditional training, and experimental training) when examining
outcome measures related to symmetry. This will be apparent when analyzing
lower and upper body symmetry individually as well as when examining
symmetry as a category/composite value.

Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant difference between the three conditions

(control, traditional training, and experimental training) when examining
outcome measures related to stability. This will be apparent when analyzing
lower and upper body stability individually as well as when examining stability as
a category/composite value.

Sub-hypothesis: If there is a difference between the three groups in any of the previous scenarios,
further statistical analysis will be performed to determine where those differences occurred. The
primary investigator believes that for each of the scenarios the traditional training group’s
outcome measures will be superior to the control group and that the experimental training
group’s outcome measures will be superior to both the traditional group and control group (when
examining differences from pre to post test).

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D elim ita tio n s

1. Subjects voluntarily chose to participate in this study with no

compensation except the free training and instruction they would
receive during the study.
2. Subjects were limited to students, faculty, staff, or alumni of the
University of Georgia.
3. All subjects were between the ages of 18-29 with no significant health
issues or physical limitations.
4. Subjects chose to participate in the study only because they were
interested in the free training and instruction.
5. Although participants had to meet a criteria of “currently involved in a
consistent strength training program” There was still moderate to large
variability between skill, strength, and experience levels.

Lim ita tio n s

1. Variations in level of initial functioning across participants may have

produced ceiling and floor effects.
2. Some participants may have been familiar with the scientific principle of
PAP and understood what was supposed to occur physiologically during
the training and testing sessions, which may have affected results.
3. The investigator performed this study in an un-blinded fashion.

A s s u m ptio n s

1. Participants gave full effort and focus during the data collection and
testing sessions.
2. Participants gave full attention and were mentally engaged during both
testing and training session.
3. Participants were not familiar with the experimental training procedures.
4. Participants were not familiar with the testing procedures or had any
prior experience with using the dependent measures.
5. Time under tension during resistance training was the most important
factor to normalize across the two interventions with each training
intervention requiring different repetition speeds and therefore different
number of total repetition per set.
6. Participants had the ability to properly perform the desired training
protocols and techniques.
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D efin itio n s

Post Activation (Tetanic) Potentiation (PAP): a physiological phenomenon in which a

short and intense series of voluntary muscular contractions, typically performed
using squats or other isotonic movements produces temporary increases in peak
force and power during subsequent explosive activities.

Overcoming Isometric: a unique form of isometric training in which an individual is

applying force against an immovable object or load

Yielding Isometric: a unique form of isometric training in which an individual

lowers a load to a certain position and maintains that position for a given period
of time.

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R efer en c es

ACSM. (2006). ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription:

Seventh Edition.

Baechle, T. R., & Earle, R. W. (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning NSCA.

Chatzopoulos, D. E., Michailidis, C. J., Giannakos, A. K., Alexiou, K.

C., Patikas, D. A., Antonopoulos, C. B., & Kotzamanidis, C. M. (2007).
Postactivation potentiation effects after heavy resistance exercise on
running speed. J Strength Cond Res, 21(4), 1278-1281.

Contreras, Bret. (2010). Post-Activation Potentiation: Theory and

Application. from http://bretcontreras.com/post-activation-
potentiation-theory-and-application/

Cressey, Eric. (2011). Weight Training Programs: 7 Ways to Get

Strong(er) Now. from http://www.ericcressey.com/weight-training-
programs-get-strong-now

Edman, K. A., Radzyukevich, T., & Kronborg, B. (2002). Contractile

properties of isolated muscle spindles of the frog. J Physiol, 541(Pt 3),
905-916.

Esformes, J. I., Keenan, M., Moody, J., & Bampouras, T. M. (2011).

Effect of different types of conditioning contraction on upper body
postactivation potentiation. J Strength Cond Res, 25(1), 143-148.

Giandonato, Joe, & Bryant, Josh. (2012). Maximal Strenth Training for
Muscle Mass. from http://www.t-
nation.com/free_online_article/most_recent/maximal_strength_training
_for_muscle_mass

Guilhem, G., Cornu, C., & Guevel, A. (2010). Neuromuscular and

muscle-tendon system adaptations to isotonic and isokinetic eccentric
exercise. Ann Phys Rehabil Med, 53(5), 319-341.

Hodgson, M., Docherty, D., & Robbins, D. (2005). Post-activation

potentiation: underlying physiology and implications for motor
performance. Sports Med, 35(7), 585-595.
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Kilduff, L. P., Owen, N., Bevan, H., Bennett, M., Kingsley, M. I., &
Cunningham, D. (2008). Influence of recovery time on post-activation
potentiation in professional rugby players. J Sports Sci, 26(8), 795-802.

Kistemaker, DA, Van Soest, AJ, Wong, JD, Kurtzer, I, & Gribble, PL.
(2012). Control of position and movement is simplified by combined
muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ feedback. Journal of
Neurophysiology, 109: 1126–1139, 2013.

LaStayo, P. C., Woolf, J. M., Lewek, M. D., Snyder-Mackler, L., Reich,

T., & Lindstedt, S. L. (2003). Eccentric muscle contractions: their
contribution to injury, prevention, rehabilitation, and sport. J Orthop
Sports Phys Ther, 33(10), 557-571.

Lowery, R. P., Duncan, N. M., Loenneke, J. P., Sikorski, E. M., Naimo,

M. A., Brown, L. E., . . . Wilson, J. M. (2012). The effects of potentiating
stimuli intensity under varying rest periods on vertical jump
performance and power. J Strength Cond Res, 26(12), 3320-3325.

Mitchell, C. J., & Sale, D. G. (2011). Enhancement of jump performance

after a 5-RM squat is associated with postactivation potentiation. Eur J
Appl Physiol, 111(8), 1957-1963.

Ratamess, Nicholas. (2012). ACSM's Foundations of Strength Training and

Conditioning.

Rixon, K. P., Lamont, H. S., & Bemben, M. G. (2007). Influence of type

of muscle contraction, gender, and lifting experience on postactivation
potentiation performance. J Strength Cond Res, 21(2), 500-505.

Tillin, N. A., & Bishop, D. (2009). Factors modulating post-activation

potentiation and its effect on performance of subsequent explosive
activities. Sports Med, 39(2), 147-166.

Voight, Michael, Hoogenboom, Barbara, & Prentice, William. (2007).

Musculoskeletal Interventions: Techniques for Therapeutic Exercise.

Waterbury, Chad. (2006). Nervous Muscle: Understanding the Nervous

System. from www.t-
nation.com/free_online_article/sports_body_training_performance/ner
vous_muscl

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Weber, K. R., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., & Zinder, S. M. (2008).

Acute effects of heavy-load squats on consecutive squat jump
performance. J Strength Cond Res, 22(3), 726-730.

Wilson, J. M., Duncan, N. M., Marin, P. J., Brown, L. E., Loenneke, J.

P., Wilson, S. M., Ugrinowitsch, C. (2013). Meta-analysis of
postactivation potentiation and power: effects of conditioning activity,
volume, gender, rest periods, and training status. J Strength Cond Res,
27(3), 854-859.

Zatsiorsky, V.M., & Kraemer, W.J. (2006). Science And Practice of Strength
Training: Human Kinetics.

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Chapter Two
R ev iew o f R ela ted Liter a tu r e

Over the last several decades, resistance training has become an increasingly
popular mode of exercise among many populations (Ratamess, 2012). Various
advanced strength-training techniques have been employed by strength coaches,
trainers, therapists, and researchers alike in order to maximize performance and
function of athletes and trainees. Some of these strategies include reciprocal
inhibition, concurrent activation potentiation, agonist-antagonist co-activation,
eccentric accentuated training, concentric-only training, and post activation
potentiation (Baechle & Earle, 2008; Cressey, 2012; Ebben, 2006; Zatsiorsky &
Kraemer, 2006). Recently much attention has been placed on the theory of Post
Activation Potentiation (PAP) as a means of temporarily increasing power and
force production so as to positively influence long-term training and
performance (Hodgson, Docherty, & Robbins, 2005).

Although post activation potentiation has been used for several decades by
strength coaches and trainers to enhance power, only recently has this
phenomenon been more closely examined in controlled research settings
(Contreras, 2010). PAP has been described as a physiological phenomenon in
which intense series of voluntary muscular contractions typically performed
using heavy isotonic movements (barbell back squat) produces temporary
increases in peak force and power during subsequent explosive activities
(Lesinski, Muehlbauer, Busch, & Granacher, 2013). Although the exact
physiological components that could contribute to this response are still debated
there are several proposed mechanisms that could be attributed to this form of
short-term synaptic plasticity all of which relate to increased CNS stimulation.
First it would appear that intense muscular contractions produce
phosphorylation of myosin light chains thus increasing the sensitivity of actin
and myosin filaments to calcium (Tillin & Bishop, 2009). This in turn creates
stronger contractions, as there is a greater response to the calcium released
during the contraction process.

A second proposed mechanism that may be involved in the potentiation process

is based on the idea that intense muscular contractions induce greater amount of
calcium released per action potential thereby increasing force and torque of
subsequent contractions (Hodgson et al., 2005; Rassier & Macintosh, 2000).

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Another theory associated with PAP is based on increased motor unit

recruitment induced from heavy loads or high intensity movements. As a result
of the short-term contractile history there would be an increase in the number or
motor units recruited (higher threshold motor units) as well as an increase in the
firing rate of those motor units (Tillin & Bishop, 2009).

Finally a theory predicated proprioceptive mechanisms involving the Hoffmann

Reflex (H-Reflex), suggests that prior heavy loading may increase muscle spindle
activation, leading to increased discharge of type 1a sensory fibers (Hodgson et
al., 2005). This would lead to increased excitability of alpha motor neurons and
ultimately lead to increased innervation of extrafusal muscle fibers (increased
alpha gamma-co-activation). Researchers postulate that PAP may enhance the
H-reflex, thereby increasing the firing rate and efficiency of the nerve impulse to
the muscle (Horwathe & Kravitz, 2007).

PA P R es ea r c h

Although PAP is a relatively new training technique, numerous studies have

investigated its effectiveness as well as explored training variations and protocols
that could maximize this form of short-term synaptic plasticity.

One of the first studies to examine PAP in strength training was performed by
French et al. (2003) during which maximal voluntary contractions (MVC’s) were
used to produce a potentiation effect. Results demonstrated that performing 3
repetitions of maximal isometric contractions for 3 seconds on a knee extension
device induced a significant improvement in drop jump performance with an
increase in jump height, maximal force, and acceleration impulse. Similarly, a
study performed by Requena et al. (2011) showed that a single 10-second MVC
using a knee extension isometric produced significant improvements in vertical
jump height as well as sprint time performance in professional soccer players.

Although the above examples of PAP utilized MVC isometrics most studies
have employed isotonic lower body exercises specifically the barbell back squat
to induce potentiation. A study by Chatzopoulos et al. (2007) demonstrated that
heavy back squats performed as multiple sets of singles using 90% of 1RM
improved sprint time in college-age athletes when performed 5 minutes prior to
the sprint trial. A similar study found that performing a single set of back squats
with a 3 repetition maximum (3RM) load increased vertical jump height when
performed 4-8 minutes prior to the vertical jump assessment (Crewther et al.,

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2011). Kilduff et al. (2008) also observed that several sets of heavy barbell back
squats (87% 1RM) produced improvements in vertical jump height and power
output when performed 8 minutes prior to the jump test.

Because many studies such as those previously mentioned suggest that heavy
strength training may produce a potentiation effect immediately prior to an
explosive movement, multiple investigations have been attempted to reproduce
similar effects via less extreme techniques such as dynamic warmups, low
intensity plyometrics, and explosive strength training using lighter loads.
However, most of the research demonstrates that these alternative forms of
potentiation and attempts of short-term performance enhancement are either
counterproductive or less effective than their heavy strength-training
counterpart.

A study conducted by Lowery et al. (2012) examined the effect of different back
squat loading parameters on jump performance in fit college age males. Results
indicated that moderate (70% 1RM) as well as (93% 1RM) when performed 4
minutes prior to a vertical jump test produced a significant enhancement in
vertical jump performance and power. However when using the same protocol
with light loading parameters (55% 1RM) there was no change in vertical jump
performance.

Weber et al. (2008) found similar results when comparing bodyweight squat
jumps, a commonly performed (a movement included in many plyometric and
dynamic warm-up programs) to heavy barbell back squats (85% 1RM). Results
demonstrated that heavy back squats when performed 3 minutes prior to a
consecutive squat jump assessment significantly increased vertical jump height
and ground reaction forces. However the opposite occurred in the group
performing squats jumps 3 minutes prior to assessing jump performance with
vertical jump height and ground reaction forces significantly decreasing.

Other similar techniques such as bodyweight exercises, low intensity isometrics,

and vibration training appear to be just as ineffective for producing short-term
changes in power and force development. Research performed by Jordan et al.
(2010) examined the effects of whole body vibration training combined with
bodyweight partial-squat isometrics on producing a PAP effect. This protocol
failed to elicit any enhancement in measures of performance with no significant
change in voluntary muscle activation or peak torque measurements. However,
it should be noted that several other factors may have contributed to lack of

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potentiation in this investigation including the use of fatigue-inducing isometrics

(60 seconds) and partial squats rather than full squats.

Not all studies have concluded that light loads and explosive movements are
detrimental or inferior to heavy loads for producing PAP. In fact several studies
exist suggesting comparable potentiation effects. However there appear to be
no current studies demonstrating light loads and explosive movement as
producing superior PAP benefits to heavy resistance. At best they may be
equivalent.

A study by West et al. (2013) examined the effects of various upper body loading
parameters for increasing the ballistic bench press throw. Results showed that
performing heavy bench press repetitions (3 sets of 3 repetitions with 87% 1RM)
produced comparable results to light-explosive bench press repetitions (3 sets of
3 repetitions with 30% 1RM). After 8 minutes of rest both conditions produced
significant improvements in peak power output with the heavy loading condition
producing a slightly greater improvement in performance than the light
condition although this difference was not significant.

Gilbert et al. (2005) drew similar results from their investigation concluding that
power exercises (explosive movements with lighter loads) may produce similar
PAP as high force movements (heavy loads). However the potentiation effect
appears to dissipate more quickly in power exercises than with heavy loads.
Gilbert et al. (2005) also emphasized that lighter power exercises may not induce
the significant and immediate onset of fatigue experience directly after (0-3
minutes) heavy resistance protocols which may make it more suitable for certain
training scenarios in which fatigue must be more closely monitored.

M o d e o f Ex er c is e

Much of the research on PAP such as that performed by Seitz et al. (2013)
Mitchel et al. (2011) Esformes et al. (2013) Jo et al. (2010) as well as many others
has been focused on the use of heavy barbell back squats as an effective means
for inducing lower body potentiation. In fact relatively little emphasis has been
placed on upper body PAP or other modes of potentiation. However, a small
body of research exists demonstrating the use of less traditional training
protocols for inducing PAP some of which appear to be equally if not more
effective than typical approaches previously mentioned. Some of these non-
traditional approaches that have been investigated include upper body PAP using

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traditional free weights, lower body isometrics utilizing maximal voluntary

contractions (MVC’s), upper body isometrics utilizing MVC’s, partial range of
motion repetitions, vibration training, isokinetic exercise, eccentric-only
movements, and concentric-only movements.

U pper B o d y PA P

Relatively few studies have examined the effects of PAP on upper body
performance. However most of these demonstrate that upper body results
mirror those of lower body potentiation. An investigation by Ferreira et al.
(2012) indicated that traditional heavy 1 RM bench press when performed
roughly seven minutes prior to an explosive movement increased upper body
concentric power output. Similarly West et al. (West et al., 2013) found the
bench press to be an effective tool for inducing a PAP response when
performed with heavy or light loads prior to an explosive upper body exercise.

Is o m etr ic Tr a in in g

Although a majority of studies implement isotonic exercise via the use of

traditional free weight movements, several studies have explored the use of
isometric exercise for producing a PAP effect in both upper and lower body. A
study performed by Feros et al. (2012) demonstrated the effectiveness of
implementing maximal isometric contractions on a rowing machine for
improving rowing time in elite level rowers. Another related study performed by
Esformes et al. (2011) may give greater insight into the use of isometric
contractions for producing a short-term potentiating effect. Several types of
upper body training techniques were examined in this investigation including
traditional dynamic bench press (eccentric and concentric combined) repetitions,
eccentric-only bench press, concentric-only bench press, and isometric bench
press. The results of this study were surprising as all forms of training failed to
induce any significant improvement in the ballistic bench press throw except for
the isometric training condition in which there was a significant improvement in
peak power. The researchers concluded that isometric bench press was best for
causing a potentiation effect in the upper body although there was no conclusive
explanation for this. It should be noted that longer than normal resting
conditions of 12 minutes (time begins from completion of the last training
repetition to assessment of dependent variables) was used in this investigation.

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This could explain why other forms of the bench press movement which have
typically shown to be effective in prior research, did not produce PAP.

Although the previous findings appear somewhat confounding, other research

has drawn similar conclusions demonstrating the superiority of isometric training
protocols to more traditional forms of training. A unique study conducted by
Rixon et al. (2007) compared the effects of performing a traditional back squat
to a maximal isometric (MVC) back squat prior to a vertical jump assessment.
Although both forms of the back squat were effective for creating a PAP
response, the isometric group had significantly greater improvements in vertical
jump height and vertical jump power output. Other related literature including
research by Pearson et al. (2013) Requena et al. (2011) and French et al. (2003)
showed similar results demonstrating the effectiveness of utilizing isometric
contractions (MVC’s on knee extension device) for producing PAP although
these studies did not compare isometrics to dynamic free weight exercises or
closed chain isometrics (isometric squat).

R a n g e o f M o tio n

Few studies have examined the relationship between range of motion (ROM)
and PAP. However one study performed by Esformes et al. (2013)
demonstrates critical findings regarding this topic. This investigation compared
the potentiation of partial back squats (quarter squats) to parallel squats.
Although both conditions induced a PAP response, the parallel squat condition
produced the greatest improvements in jump performance. The researchers
suggested that because full squats activate the gluteus maximus more effectively
than partial squats, this may have been responsible for the difference in the
potentiation response witnessed among the two conditions.

V ib r a tio n Tr a in in g

Multiple studies have explored the effect of vibration training on PAP. Because
vibration training has been hypothesized to increase intrafusal muscle fiber
activation (Rauch, 2009), attempts have been made to demonstrate its
potentiation effect on performance. However current research such as that
performed by Jordan et al. (2010) indicates that whole body vibration training in
conjunction with a static squat produced no significant potentiation effect on
torque or force production. Similarly, Niclario et al. (2013) found that whole
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body vibration created no additional potentiation effects on performance beyond

that already witnessed from heavy barbell back squats.

Is o k in etic Ex er c is e

Most research investigating PAP has utilized more traditional forms of resistance
training including free weights, isometrics, and variable resistance machines.
However a unique study conducted by Bautista et al. (2007) successfully
demonstrated that PAP can be produced by performing a series of isokinetic
knee extension similar to that witnessed in other studies incorporating traditional
free weights. Unfortunately isokinetic exercise may not be as practical as other
more traditional forms of training due to equipment size, cost, and convenience.

Tr a in in g in ten s ity a n d Lo a d in g
Pa r a m eter s

Research surrounding post activation potentiation demonstrates a large range of

training intensities and loading parameters that have successfully been used to
elicit short-term improvements in performance. However most meta-analysis
and reviews have concluded that moderate to heavier loads of 60-84% of 1RM
may be most effective for producing PAP (Lesinski et al., 2013; Wilson, Duncan,
Marin, Brown, & Loenneke, 2013). Other studies such those conducted by
Lowery et al. (2012) demonstrated the effectiveness of slightly higher intensities
(70-93% 1RM). Interestingly this same investigation also found lower intensities
(55% 1RM) to be ineffective for producing potentiation compared to moderate
or higher training loads. Similarly Weber et al. (2008) found low intensity
plyometric jumps inferior to heavy back squats (87% 1RM) for producing PAP
in jump performance. In essence it appears training load should to be relatively
heavy and intense (60-93% 1RM) to achieve a maximal post activation response
although other intensities (30-55%) may be warranted depending on other
training factors and conditions.

R es t a n d Fa tig u e: Th e Per fec t B a la n c e

The idea of post activation potentiation has been a topic of great interest to
researchers not only because of its seeming effectiveness for improving
performance but also because of the challenge involved in balancing fatigue and

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rest. Researchers have concluded most forms of muscular contractions produce

both fatigue and potentiation to varying degrees. Because PAP relies on a form
of short term synaptic plasticity to induce rather immediate effects on
physiological performance there appears to be a specific time-frame for
maximizing the potentiation response. Unfortunately this window may be
smaller than previously thought as too much rest may cause the heightened
response of the CNS to diminish relatively quick yet insufficient rest will not
allow fatigue to adequately dissipate. Therefore the contractile history plays a
significant role for determining the net balance between fatigue and potentiation
with higher intensities inducing more fatigue yet greater potentiation and lower
intensities producing less potentiation and less fatigue. It is for these reasons
that many researchers and strength coaches have found balancing these factors
to be the true art associated with producing post activation potentiation from
strength training.

The rest period used between the PAP-inducing activity and the assessment of
the PAP response appears to be one of the most commonly manipulated and
investigated variables by researchers. Chatzopoulos et al. (2007), and Esformes
et al. (2013) found 5 minutes to be effective for producing PAP with heavy
barbell squats. Similarly Crewther et al. (2011) and Lowery et al. (2012) found 4-
8 minutes as being the desirable rest period following heavy squats for producing
improvements in jump performance although 8-12 minutes produced similar
improvements. Finally other investigations have concluded that longer rest
periods (5-20 minutes) may be equally or more effective for producing PAP
(Ferreira et al., 2012) (Jo et al., 2010).

Finally shorter rest periods such as 0-3 minutes has in most cases shown to be
ineffective or inferior for producing PAP when compared to longer durations of
rest (Gouvea, Fernandes, Cesar, Silva, & Gomes, 2013; Naclerio et al., 2013). In
essence much of the literature suggests that 4-8 minutes is sufficient and ideal for
most training conditions (Crewther et al., 2011; Lowery et al., 2012; Mitchell &
Sale, 2011). Lastly it should be noted that other factors and training variables
such as mode of exercise, upper vs. lower body movements, volume of exercise,
training experience, strength levels, and intensity of exercise may each play a
substantial role when determining the ideal duration of rest for PAP protocols.
Future research will hopefully shed further light on this topic and give better
insight into how these variables interact with each other as well as clarify optimal
conditions for maximizing the balance between rest and fatigue.

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R epetitio n Pr o to c o l

The appropriate repetition range is directly related to training intensity and

loading parameters. Furthermore repetition protocol may have a similar effect on
rest and fatigue as that previously described with training intensity. In order to
maximize the potentiation response and minimize the degree of fatigue most
research points to the fact that a lower repetition range may be more suitable for
producing PAP. A majority of investigators such as West et al. (2013) Lim et al.
(2013) and Kilduff et al. (2008) have utilized 3 repetitions for their research.
However multiple studies such as those performed by Weber et al. (2008) and
Mitchel et al. (2011) have successfully used 5 repetitions to induce a PAP
response. Finally other investigations have discovered that using heavy singles (1
repetition) with heavy loads has been an effective PAP protocol (Chatzopoulos
et al., 2007). Lastly it should be re-emphasized that many of the repetition
protocols used in these studies were a direct result of the load being used. In
other words lower repetitions (1-3) were usually a result of heavy loads (87-93%
1RM) whereas higher repetitions (4-5) were typically a result of lighter loads (60-
85%).

In regards to isometric training conditions, repetition protocols were similar to

those involving isotonic movements although there were distinct differences.
Most notably, the time under tension for each repetition or the duration of MVC
varied amongst the studies. Requena et al. (2011) used the longest MVC’s
inducing a significant improvement in jump performance with a single 10-second
maximal isometric contraction. Similarly Esformes et al. (2011) produced PAP
using a single 7-second isometrics. Other researchers such as Rixon et al. (2007)
and French et al. (2003) have utilized moderate volume (3 sets) combined with
shorter duration isometrics (3 seconds) to create a potentiation response. Finally
results from a study performed by Pearson et al. (2013) suggest that 5-second
isometrics may be superior to 3 and 7-second isometrics.

Tr a in in g V o lu m e

Overall volume may play a critical role when trying to elicit the strongest post
activation potentiation response. Although varying degrees of training volume
have been employed by researchers, current literature appears to have semi-
conclusive information pertaining to this topic. Numerous studies have
demonstrated the effectiveness of utilizing a single set for PAP protocols
(Crewther et al., 2011; Jo et al., 2010; Mitchell & Sale, 2011; Seitz et al., 2013).
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However multiple studies have also produced significant PAP using three sets
rather than one (Kilduff et al., 2008; Rixon et al., 2007; West et al., 2013).
Although most researchers have used a low to moderate volume of training (1-3
sets) a unique study by Chatzopoulos et al. (2007) signifies that larger volumes
(10 sets of 1 rep at 90% 1RM) can serve as an effective means for producing
significant potentiation. Finally it should be noted that some research indicates
lower volume (1-2 sets) may be superior to higher (4-10 sets) or moderate
volume (3 sets) (Naclerio et al., 2013).

Per fo r m a n c e O u tc o m e M ea s u r es a n d
D epen d en t V a r ia b les

The theory of post activation potentiation has been examined solely on its
effectiveness to elicit temporary increases in factors associated with force
production. Many if not all outcome measures that have been investigated
include, speed, power, explosiveness, force, torque and other related variables all
of which are directly related to force development. A majority of these
performance-related factors have been measured using some form of vertical
jump assessment (Lowery et al., 2012; Seitz et al., 2013) or sprint test variation
(Chatzopoulos et al., 2007; Lim & Kong, 2013). Other studies have utilized
more controlled tests such as maximal twitch peak torque (Pearson & Hussain,
2013; Requena et al., 2011) to determine PAP, a common laboratory assessment
of potentiation. Yet several studies particularly those involving upper body PAP
have appropriated more unique assessments such as a ballistic bench press throw
to measure maximal launch distance, peak power, peak force, and rate of force
development (Esformes et al., 2011; West et al., 2013).

Although there appears to be moderate variety in outcome measures used to

assess PAP, current research has only investigated factors directly linked to force
production while altogether ignoring more complex bio-motor abilities such as
balance, stability, symmetry, and mobility. However many kinesiologists have
hypothesized that these performance markers are likely linked to strength and
force production in a similar yet more indirect manner as power and rate of
force production (Giandonato & Bryant, 2012). If this is true then it is not
irrational to conclude that if specific training protocols can induce temporary
improvements in force production, power, and torque, then other factors such as
stability, symmetrical loading, sway, and mobility may be similarly enhanced.
However future research is needed to validate such assumptions.

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S ta tic S tr etc h in g a n d Its A n ti-

Po ten tia tio n Effec t

For some, the idea of post activation potentiation can be difficult theory to accept.
However research examining the short-term effects of static stretching on force
production may give greater credibility to the idea of PAP. Numerous
investigations such as those by Kay et al. (2012), Samuel et al. (2008), and Simic et al.
(2013) have demonstrated the deleterious effects of short-term long duration static
stretching on various markers of performance associated with power and force
production. Various explanations have been constructed to support these findings
with rationale similar to that used for explaining PAP. It appears that stretching may
have a similar yet opposite effect on recruitment and neural drive as witnessed for
PAP with long duration static stretching causing acute neural inhibition, muscular
relaxation, and overall decreased motor unit recruitment (Ratamess, 2012; Simic et
al., 2013). While strength training may have a potentiating effect on the nervous
system that appears to be witnessed almost immediately post activation, static
stretching may have an inhibiting effect immediately after. In essence long duration
static stretching may have an inverse or antagonistic PAP effect.

Summary

Post activation potentiation induced by heavy resistance training appears to be an

effective method for temporarily increasing markers of force and power output.
Isotonic resistance in the form of barbell back squats or barbell bench press using
60-93% of 1RM appear to be the most common modes and intensities of exercise
used to create a PAP effect on explosive movements such as jumping, throwing, and
sprinting. Furthermore studies indicate that full-range of motion activities may be a
more effective method for creating potentiation than partial-range of motion
movements. Although findings are somewhat conflicting in regards to optimal rest
between the PAP-inducing protocol and the assessment period, 4-8 minutes appears
to be ideal although longer durations may be effective. The PAP response appears to
be similar for both upper and lower body although relatively little research has been
performed on upper body performance compared to lower body. Low to moderate
volume in the form of 1-3 sets of 1-5 repetitions should be incorporated in order to
achieve optimal potentiation while avoiding unnecessary fatigue. Finally, in regards
to other performance-related markers such as stability, balance, symmetrical loading,
and mobility, it appears that no research has been performed to determine if these
bio-motor qualities react in a similar fashion as power and torque do to an intense
training stimulus. Therefor further investigation on this topic is warranted.
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Jordan, M., Norris, S., Smith, D., & Herzog, W. (2010). Acute effects of
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Kay, A. D., & Blazevich, A. J. (2012). Effect of acute static stretch on

maximal muscle performance: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc,
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Kilduff, L. P., Owen, N., Bevan, H., Bennett, M., Kingsley, M. I., &
Cunningham, D. (2008). Influence of recovery time on post-activation
potentiation in professional rugby players. J Sports Sci, 26(8), 795-802.

Lesinski, M., Muehlbauer, T., Busch, D., & Granacher, U. (2013). [Acute
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Lieber, R.L. (2009). Skeletal Muscle Structure, Function, and Plasticity:

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Post-activation Potentiation Protocols on Maximal Sprint Performance.
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Lowery, R. P., Duncan, N. M., Loenneke, J. P., Sikorski, E. M., Naimo,

M. A., Brown, L. E., . . . Wilson, J. M. (2012). The effects of potentiating
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performance and power. J Strength Cond Res, 26(12), 3320-3325.

McCully, K. K. (2012). Neuromuscular Mechanisms of Exercise

Physiology, KINS 6690, Spring Semester 2012, Lecture Material.

Mitchell, C. J., & Sale, D. G. (2011). Enhancement of jump performance

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Naclerio, F., Faigenbaum, A. D., Larumbe-Zabala, E., Ratamess, N. A.,

Kang, J., Friedman, P., & Ross, R. E. (2013). Effectiveness of Different
Post Activation Potentation Protocols With and Without Whole Body
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Pearson, S. J., & Hussain, S. R. (2013). Lack of association between

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Ratamess, Nicholas. (2012). ACSM's Foundations of Strength Training and

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166-168.

Requena, B., Saez-Saez de Villarreal, E., Gapeyeva, H., Ereline, J.,

Garcia, I., & Paasuke, M. (2011). Relationship between postactivation
potentiation of knee extensor muscles, sprinting and vertical jumping
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Samuel, M. N., Holcomb, W. R., Guadagnoli, M. A., Rubley, M. D., &

Wallmann, H. (2008). Acute effects of static and ballistic stretching on
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Strength Cond Res.

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Acute effects of heavy-load squats on consecutive squat jump
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Wilson, J. M., Duncan, N. M., Marin, P. J., Brown, L. E., Loenneke, J.

P., Wilson, S. M., Ugrinowitsch, C. (2013). Meta-analysis of
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Zatsiorsky, V.M., & Kraemer, W.J. (2006). Science And Practice of Strength
Training: Human Kinetics.

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Chapter Three
M etho d s

The following section describes the design and setup of this research study. Key factors including
participant eligibility, research setting, outcome measures, experimental design, instrumentation,
example graphical illustrations, independent variables, and statistical analysis are outlined in detail.

Pa r tic ipa n ts

A total of 50 active and apparently healthy male subjects between 18-29 years of
age were recruited from the total group of participants choosing to volunteer for
the study. Upon successful IRB completion and approval, announcements via
email and flyers were sent throughout the UGA campus detailing conditions and
general specifications of the study for prospective volunteer participants.
Participant incentive involved subjects receiving a free one-on-one personal
training session. Participants wishing to partake in this study needed to be
actively participating in some form of resistance training at least twice per week
for a minimum of eight weeks leading up to their involvement in the study.
Furthermore all participants had to be familiar with barbell back squat and
barbell bench press and had to have been performing these at least once per
week for a minimum of 8 weeks leading up to the initiation of the study.

IRB approval was obtained and all subjects provided informed consent. Any
participants found to be at moderate or high risk or individuals dealing with any
significant medical issue as indicated on the previously mentioned forms were
not included in this study. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
considers individuals under the age of 45 with no medical issues to be low risk
participants with no medical clearance required therefore physician approval
prior to the study was not necessary.

S ettin g

All strength training was implemented in the Strength and Conditioning facilities
of UGA’s Ramsey Student Recreational Sports Facility. Testing sessions
involving data collection of the dependent variables were carried out in the

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Motor Skills Laboratory (Room 210) in the Ramsey Building of UGA’s

Kinesiology department.

O u tc o m e M ea s u r e

There were a total of six outcome measures resulting from six different tests
assessing three individual aspects of muscle function including power,
symmetrical balance/loading, and stability. For lower body assessment of
muscle function the three tests and outcome measures included the vertical jump
(power), bodyweight squat (symmetrical balance), and BOSU squat (stability).
For upper body assessment of muscle function the three outcome measures
included power pushup (power), traditional pushup (symmetrical balance), and
BOSU Pushup (stability).

Tes tin g In s tr u m en ta tio n

NeuroCom Force Platform Tests

The force platform device that was used is a NeuroCom Balance Manager
System EquiTest/Balance Master (8.4.0) 2008, USA model. This device was
used for four of the six tests and primarily assessed stability, balance, and
symmetrical balance/loading (left vs. right side weight distribution). This iso-
lateral (measures each side individually) platform which was designed for
assessing movement quality of dynamic activities was approximately 20 inches
wide, 60 inches long, and elevated 2 inches above ground height.

Myotest Pro Performance Tester

The other two tests were performed using a Myotest SPORT Pro performance
measuring device (AA0A00090, Switzerland, 2009). The Myotest is a portable
assessment tool that is 54.2 x 102.5 x 10.7 mm (W x L X H) roughly the size of
small cellular phone or ipod. It weighs approximately 58 g. This device measures
vertical displacement as well as power, force, and velocity of movement using a
3-dimensional accelerometer system (3-axis accelerometers). The measurement
and algorithms of the device use a range of measurement ±8g with an
acquisition frequency of 200-500 Hz according to the type of test used. The
Myotest directly measures acceleration produced during movement. It has shown

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to be reliable assessment tool of lower and upper body power output as

demonstrated in several studies including those by Casartelli et al. (2010) and
Nuzzo et al. (2011) in which case ICC values ranged from .88 to .98.

Tes tin g Pr o c ed u r es

All subjects were instructed to notify the tester of any pain or discomfort at any
point during the testing process in which case any test or movement causing
discomfort was eliminated for that particular individual.

It should also be noted that the following tests did not involve any dangerous or
potentially hazardous positions. For tests involving placing another unstable
object on top of the force platform this presented no unnecessary risks for
participants as the force platform was elevated only one inch from the floor.
Therefore during instances in which a participant would lose balance, he or she
would simply step down to the floor (a common and safe strategy used for
coping with instability during balance training). All tests used in this study
represent typical movements that might be seen in a balance and strength
training program. Finally for each assessment all participants were given 2
practice trials (familiarization period) before pre-test recorded attempts in order
to allow the participants to become comfortable with the test and to eliminate as
much of a “practice effect” as possible on outcome measures.

List of Tests/Assessments
W eig h t B ea r in g S q u a t

Subjects stood on the NeuroCom Force Platform and were prompted by the
tester to squat down to roughly 90 degrees (bottom position) and hold for 2-3
seconds (the amount of time needed for the computer program to analyze the
assessment in which case specified when completed). The NeuroCom computer
system calculated and analyzed percent body weight supported by left and right
side (% weight bearing right vs left) all of which was displayed and stored in the
computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed three consecutive
trials (repetitions) with 5-10 seconds of rest in between each trial. The average
of those trials was used for further analysis and discussion.

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Pu s h u p H o ld

Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a pushup with their feet on the
floor and their hands on the NeuroCom Force Platform. When prompted by
the tester the subject lowered into the bottom of a pushup position (roughly a 90
degree position) and hold for 2-3 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system
calculated and analyzed percent body weight supported by left and right side (%
weight bearing right arm vs left arm) all of which was displayed and stored in the
computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed three consecutive
trials with 5-10 seconds of rest in between in trial. The average of the trials was
used for further analysis and discussion.

B o s u B a ll S q u a t.

A Bosu ball was placed directly on the center of the NeuroCom force platform.
A Bosu Ball is a balance device roughly 7 inches high with a diameter of 22
inches in the shape of a half-exercise ball, which participants stand, anchor, or
kneel onto. This requires the individual to stabilize the unstable environment
produced from the half-ball shape of the object thereby challenging the body’s
balance and proprioception. Subjects stood on the Bosu ball and were prompted
by the tester to squat down to roughly 90 degrees (bottom position) and hold for
10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and analyzed
sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second) all of
which was displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name.
Each subject performed two trials with 60 seconds of rest between trials and the
average of the trials was used for further analysis and discussion.

B o s u B a ll Pu s h u p H o ld

A Bosu ball was placed directly on the center of the NeuroCom force platform.
Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a pushup with their feet on the
floor and their hands on the Bosu ball. When prompted by the tester the subject
lowered into the bottom of a pushup position (roughly a 90 degree position) and
held this for 10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and
analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second)
all of which was displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name.
Each subject performed two trials with 60 seconds of rest between trials and the
average of the trials was used for further analysis and discussion.
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V er tic a l Ju m p

The subject placed the Myotest belt onto his/her lower waist. The Myotest
SPORT Pro would then be attached to the belt near the participants outer right
hip. The subject was told to wait for the pre-programmed beep from the
Myotest and once the beep was heard to jump straight up as high as possible for
one repetition. Participants were told to avoid any countermovement such as
stepping or pivoting into the jump but rather to stand stationary immediately
before jumping. Vertical jump height in inches (to the nearest tenth of an inch)
was calculated by the Myotest unit and results were recorded in Excel.
Participants performed two vertical jump trials with 60 seconds between each
trial and the average of those values was used for further analysis.

Po w er Pu s h u p

The subject placed the Myotest belt onto his/her upper waist. The Myotest
SPORT Pro was then attached to the belt slightly above the right hip. The
subject was told to assume the start of a pushup position (top position, arms
extended, body straight), and wait until the sound of the beep to perform one
pushup. Participants were told to perform the pushup with maximal speed and
power on both the lowering and lifting phase. Power output in watts was
calculated by the Myotest unit and results were recorded in Excel. Participants
performed two pushup repetitions with 60 seconds between each repetition and
the average of those values was used for further analysis.

Experimental Design
The research design was variation of a mixed model repeated measures design.
This study involved comparing three different groups (each having a minimum
of 16 participants with minimum of 48 total participants), with one group
receiving no treatment (control group), one group performing traditional
resistance training and one performing an experimental resistance training
technique developed by the primary investigator. Each subject performed each
of the 6 tests of muscle function both before and after the intervention/training
routine.

Prior to the initiation of the study, all participants engaged in a brief orientation
for the investigation. The first 10 minutes of the session involve this orientation
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procedure explaining to the participant what was to be required from him and
addressing basic information mentioned in the recruitment material (emails,
flyers, and person to person script). During this portion the participants also
filled out three forms including the PAR-Q health questionnaire, informed
consent, and participant screening form. The remainder of the 60-minute
session was devoted to assessment and intervention components of the
experiment. This involved both a lower and upper body phase with 20-25
minutes devoted to lower body assessment and training and the second 20-25-
minute portion involving upper body assessment and training.

The lower body phase began with pre-testing using the three assessments of
lower body muscle function including vertical jump, bodyweight squat, and
BOSU ball squat which assess lower body power, symmetrical loading and
stability respectively. This took approximately five minutes. After assessment
the participant underwent one the three experimental conditions depending on
which group they were randomly assigned to (control, traditional, or
experimental).

The first group was the control group (inactivity) in which subjects were asked to
stay standing and walk around the lab or the Ramsey building lightly with little
energy expenditure. After 15 minutes of limited physical activity subjects were
retested on the previously mentioned three assessments

The second group “traditional group” involved the same tests of lower body
function however instead following the pre-testing with a period of inactivity,
subjects performed a modified lower body strength training routine using
traditional training methods. After completion of the traditional lower body
strength training protocol, subjects were given five minutes of rest and were then
re-tested on each of the three assessments of lower body muscle function.

The third group “experimental group” was nearly identical to the “traditional
group” however the lower body strength training component involved an
experimental protocol designed by the primary investigator. All pre and post-
test assessments were identical in each of the groups, with the only difference
being the type of intervention (control, traditional, or experimental).

After completion of the lower body component of the session, which took
approximately 20-25 minutes, subjects began the upper body portion of the
study. This was nearly identical to the lower body portion only with upper body

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assessments and the appropriate corresponding intervention depending on the

individual’s randomly assigned group.

The upper body phase began with pre-testing using the three assessments of
upper body muscle function including the power pushup, bodyweight pushup,
and BOSU ball pushup, which assessed upper body power, symmetrical loading
and stability respectively. This took approximately five minutes. After
assessment the participant underwent one of the three experimental conditions
depending on which group they were randomly assigned to (control, traditional
or experimental).

The first group was a control group in which subjects were asked to walk lightly
around the lab or building (remain standing for a period of 15 minutes of
inactivity). After 15 minutes of limited physical activity subjects were retested on
the previously mentioned three upper body assessments

The second group “traditional group” involved the same tests of lower body
function however instead following the pre-testing with a period of inactivity,
subjects performed a modified lower body strength training routine using
traditional training methods. After completion of the traditional lower body
strength training protocol, subjects were given five minutes of rest and were then
re-tested on each of the three assessments of lower body muscle function.

The third group “experimental group” was nearly identical to the “traditional
group” however the upper body strength training component involved an
experimental protocol designed by the primary investigator. All pre and post-
test assessments were identical in each of the groups, with the only difference
being the type of intervention (control, traditional, or experimental).

The upper body phase took approximately 20-25 minutes thus completing the
one-hour session. After completing this portion of the test, participants were
not needed for additional testing or participation in this study other than utilizing
their free personal training session as compensation for their time.

In summary all subjects participated in a one-hour session. Half of the session

was allotted to lower body function and the other half to upper body function.
Each phase involved a pre-testing (5 minutes), intervention (15 minutes), and
post-testing 5 (minutes). The form of intervention was determined by the
subjects’ randomly assigned group in which case the subject was either assigned
to a control group (inactivity/low energy expenditure), traditional group
(traditional strength training techniques), or an experimental group (experimental
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strength training techniques). The assessments as well as the training programs

were based on research discussed in the literature review section of this
investigation.

In d epen d en t V a r ia b le

The independent variable was the type of training that will be performed by the
participants. One group partook in no training (control group), one in
traditional strength training (traditional group), and another in an experimental
strength training technique (experimental group) involving eccentric isometrics.

Tr a in in g Pr o g r a m a n d Pr o to c o ls

The training program involved one lower body movement and one upper body
movement. The lower body movement was the barbell back squat and the
upper body movement was the barbell flat bench press. Similar protocols were
followed for both exercises during the training session. For the control group,
no training program or protocols were utilized as there was no intervention
between pre and post data collections. Participants assigned to this group
remained inactive for 15 minutes. For the other two groups (traditional and
experimental) the training program for lower body was placed between lower
body pre and post-testing data collection. Similarly, the upper body program
was placed between the upper body pre and post-testing data collection.

Immediately after completing the pre-test phase for lower body, the traditional
group underwent a 15 minute squat training program involving standard
protocols used for training the barbell back squat as described by the National
Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) (Baechle & Earle, 2008).
During this training period participants warm-up by performing the barbell back
squat with a light load for 5 repetitions. Weight was increased by roughly 10-15%
for 2-5 more sets of 3 repetitions with 60 seconds of rest in between each set
until the participant reached a load that he could only complete three maximal
repetitions with perfect and safe form.

After this the participant rested 2 minutes and performed one more set of 3
repetitions with the same load (2 total work sets). The participant was then
given an additional five minutes of rest before being re-tested on the various
tests lower body muscle function (post-test data collection). All repetitions
during the squat were performed using a controlled tempo during the lowering

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phase with no bouncing of the weight at the bottom. Therefore the participant
was instructed to control the weight during the decent until he reached at least a
parallel squat position (thighs parallel to the floor), then forcefully drive the
weight back to the top position.

The experimental group underwent a similar procedure with the exception of the
manner in which he performed the repetitions. Instead of performing traditional
repetitions as described above, participants performed eccentric isometrics for all
repetitions using a very controlled and deliberate protocol. The lowering phase
consisted of a three-second slowly controlled decent, a four-second pause at the
bottom position, a maximal speed lifting phase, and a two-second pause in the
top position before repeating this sequence for subsequent repetitions. Subjects
were instructed to follow a deliberate three-second verbal count (primary
investigator would count out loud) for the lowering phase. They were then
instructed to pause at a roughly parallel position (thighs parallel to floor). This
was the position that the eccentric isometric (pause at bottom of squat) was
performed for 4 seconds. Finally all sets for the experimental group involved 2
repetitions rather than 3 repetitions used in the control group in order to adjust
for greater time under tension the experimental group encountered with reach
repetition.

After completing the lower body portion of the session both the traditional and
experimental group moved onto the upper body phase. This involved using
nearly identical protocols to the lower body training phase only using the barbell
bench press as the primary movement as well as the appropriate corresponding
upper body tests of muscle function.

Immediately after completing the pre-test phase for upper body, the traditional
group underwent a 15 minute bench press training program involving standard
protocols used for training the flat barbell bench press as described by the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) (Baechle & Earle,
2008). During this training period participants warmed-up by performing the
barbell bench press with a light load for 5 repetitions. Weight was then increased
by roughly 10-15% for 2-5 more sets of 3 repetitions with 60 seconds of rest in
between each set until the participant reached a load that he could only complete
3 maximal repetitions with perfect and safe form. After this the participant
rested 2 minutes and performed another additional set of 3 repetitions with the
same load. The participant was then given an additional five minutes of rest
before being re-tested on the various tests of upper body muscle function (post-
test data collection). All repetitions during the bench press were performed using
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a controlled tempo during the lowering phase with no bouncing of the weight at
the bottom. Therefore the participant was instructed to control the weight
during the decent, touch his or her chest momentarily without bouncing the
load, and forcefully drive the weight back to the top position.

The experimental group underwent a similar procedure with the exception of the
manner in which they performed the repetitions. Instead of performing
traditional repetitions as described above, participants performed eccentric
isometrics for all repetitions using a very controlled and deliberate protocol. The
lowering phase consisted of a three-second slowly controlled decent, a four-
second pause at the bottom position, a maximal speed lifting phase, and a two-
second pause in the top position before repeating this sequence for subsequent
repetitions. Subjects were then instructed to follow a deliberate three-second
verbal count (primary investigator counted out loud) for the lowering phase.
They were then instructed to pause at chest level without the bar resting or
sinking into the chest. This was the position that the eccentric isometric (pause
at bottom of bench press) was performed for 4 seconds. Finally all sets for the
experimental group involved 2 repetitions rather than 3 repetitions as used in the
traditional group in order to adjust for greater time under tension the
experimental encountered with each repetition.

In summary two of the three groups (traditional and experimental) performed a

15-minute squat program and 15-minute bench press program in between their
appropriate assessments of muscle function. The main difference between the
groups was the manner in which the repetitions were performed with the
traditional group performing all repetitions using standard (NSCA) protocols
while the experimental group performed a novel form of eccentric isometrics
unique to this study. Participants partook in a single training session with no
outside involvement beyond that involved in the single one-hour session. The
control group performed no training program in between pre and post
assessment with a 15-minute period of inactivity separating pre and post data
collection.

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Statistical Analysis
For calculating main effects for time, individual repeated measures ANOVA’s
were calculated separately for each group for each separate assessment in order
to determine a if there was a significant change from pre to post test (looking at
each group individually). Main effect for group was calculated similarly using
univariate repeated measures ANOVA. This was used to determine differences
in baseline (pre-testing) levels across each group as well as post testing levels
across each group. Descriptive statistics for the main effect for time as well as
the main effect from group included means and standard deviations.

In order to calculate the interaction of group and time, individual Mixed

Design/Split Plot repeated measures ANOVA’s (3x2 models) were used to
determine if there were any differences between any of the groups (from pre to
post test) for each of the six assessments. If differences were found (p < .05)
Post Hoc analysis using LSD was used to determine where those differences
occurred. However if Post Hoc analysis failed to produce any significant
differences in scenarios where there was a significant interaction, further analysis
using individual Mixed Design/Split Plot ANOVA’s (2x2 models) were analyzed
in order to identify specifically where those differences occurred. This would
allow individual comparisons (group 1vs. 2, 1 vs. 3, and 2 vs. 3). Although this
method slightly inflates the chance for type 1 error, it provides a specific
procedure for isolating where differences occurred amongst the groups (using p
< .05). This allows for more specific implications and conclusions in the results
and analysis of the data. Descriptive statistics for the interaction of group and
time included means and standard deviations as well as standard error of the
means in graphical illustrations and percentages and percent difference in tables
and charts.

Categorical analysis followed similar procedures used for finding interactions in

individual assessments (described above). First, individual raw scores for pre
and post-test for each participant for each assessment were converted into Z-
scores using the SPSS “Descriptive” model. This was performed in order to
have the same units for all data which is a necessary step for combining scores
into a composite value. Z-scores for each basic assessment within a category (i.e.
lower body power assessment and upper body power assessment) were
converted into a basic composite score (power category). Finally a Mixed
Design/Split Plot Repeated Measures ANOVA (3x2) was utilized to determine if
interactions (group and time) occurred in each individual category (Power,

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Symmetry, Stability). Similar procedures (involving the conversion of raw scores

into Z-scores for the purpose of producing composite values) have been
followed in various studies including those by Steene-Johannessen et al., (2009),
Poonawalla et al., (2010), and Austin et al., (2014).

If differences (significant effect/interaction) were found (using p < .05), Post

Hoc analysis using LSD (Least Significant Difference) was used to determine
where those differences occurred. However if Post Hoc analysis failed to
produce any significant differences in scenarios where there was significant
interaction, further analysis using individual Mixed Design/Split Plot ANOVA’s
(2x2 models) were analyzed in order to identify specifically where those
differences occurred. This allowed for individual comparisons (group 1vs. 2, 1
vs. 3, and 2 vs. 3). Although this method slightly inflated the chance for type 1
error, it provided a specific procedure for isolating where differences occurred
amongst the groups. This allowed for more specific implications and
conclusions in the results and analysis of the data rather than estimating or
speculating where possible differences may have occurred.

In terms of calculating power and determining sample size two methods were
used both of which reported similar findings. The first method employed used
an SAS program known as SAS Macro Program 1.2: fpower (Friendly, 2012)
which used power of 80% (effect size for which power is calculated = .80), with
a significance criteria (error level) of alpha = .05. The results indicated that a
minimum of 36 participants should be used for this study.

The other more common method used to approximate adequate sample size
involved running a full-scale mock data scheme for all values. In this case
hypothetical raw data values were placed into an SPSS spreadsheet representing
example data that would be collected during the study. Several similar
investigations specifically those analyzing vertical jump were examined in order
to estimate and predict hypothetical data including those by Kilduff et al. (2008),
McCann et al. (2010) Seedman et al. (2013), and Weber et al. (2008). From these
investigations an effect size between 5-6%, a standard deviation equivalent to
10% of the mean, data values for vertical jump height ranging from 16-20 inches,
and a minimum power of .8 showed that a total sample size of 48 (16
participants in each of the three groups) would produce an observed power of
.805 for this investigation. Therefore 48 will be the sample size used for this
study as this meets the current guidelines for statistical power using the typical
value of .80 (Keppel & Wickens, 2004).

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For specific statistical analysis, SPSS PASW Statistics 18.0 software as well as
Microsoft Excel Version 14.3.6 was used to organize and analyze the data. Raw
values were placed into an Excel spreadsheet with 12 total columns (every two
columns representing the pre and post test values for a single assessment). The
first two columns (LPw) represented pre and post values for lower body power
produced from the vertical jump test (height in inches). The next two columns
(LSy) represented pre and post test values for lower body symmetrical loading
(% difference between left and right side) produced from the bodyweight squat.
The next two columns (LSt) represented pre and post values for lower body
stability (sway in degrees per second) produced from the BOSU squat. The next
two columns (UPw) represented pre and post values for upper body power
produced from the power pushup (Watts). The next two columns (USy)
represented pre and post test values for upper body symmetrical loading (%
difference between left and right side) produced from the bodyweight pushup.
Finally the last two columns (USt) represented pre and post values for upper
body stability (sway in degrees per second) produced from the BOSU pushup.
Once raw data values are collected and organized, another similar table was
produced using the difference between the pre and post-test values for each of
the six assessments.

Besides recording the necessary data previously mentioned for calculating

statistical analysis, other useful information including the load used for each
participant, and the duration of each set were recorded.

In ter pr eta tio n a n d C o m pa r is o n

Various steps were performed for interpretation of data. For individual

assessments examining interactions (group and time), p ≤ .05 for that specific
repeated-measures-ANOVA would indicate a significant effect existed (a
difference somewhere amongst the groups for that assessment). Therefore, the
specific hypothesis regarding that assessment would be accepted. However,
further analysis would indicate whether or not the sub-hypothesis was correct
(which groups performed best) as well as provide clarity and insight regarding
specific findings. However, if p ≥ .05 occurred for that specific assessment then
the hypothesis regarding that individual assessment would be rejected (no
significant difference between the groups). See Chapter 1 - Hypothesis 1-6, for
individual predictions regarding each assessment.

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Similar steps were performed for the comparison and interpretation of individual
categories. However, because a composite score was created for each category
this allowed for more general interpretations and broad conclusions regarding
the results. In essence this required more conclusive findings regarding a specific
category. Therefore if one specific assessment (lower body symmetry) for a
given category (symmetry) produced a significant effect and the other
corresponding assessment (upper body symmetry) did not, this would most likely
(depending on the results of the categorical statistical analysis) produce results
demonstrating no significant effect for that specific category. Therefore the
specific hypothesis regarding that assessment would be rejected. However, if an
interaction (significant effect was found) occurred for that individual category
then the specific hypothesis regarding that category would be accepted. Similar
to the individual assessment, if the hypothesis was accepted, further analysis
would indicate whether or not the sub-hypothesis was correct (which groups
performed best) as well as provide clarity and detail regarding more specific
findings. See Chapter 1 - Hypothesis 6-9, for individual predictions regarding
each category.

Finally, bar charts, tables, and graphs were created to illustrate comparisons
between groups in regards to the difference in pre and post-test values.

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R efer en c es

Austin, J. M., D'Andrea, G., Birkmeyer, J. D., Leape, L. L., Milstein, A.,
Pronovost, P. J., . . . Wachter, R. M. (2014). Safety in numbers: the
development of Leapfrog's composite patient safety score for U.S.
hospitals. J Patient Saf, 10(1), 64-71.

Baechle, T. R., & Earle, R. W. (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning NSCA.

Baumgartner, T.A., Jackson, A.S., Mahar, M.T., & Row, D.A. (2007).
Measurement for Evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise Science (8th
Edition ed.).

Casartelli, N., Muller, R., & Maffiuletti, N. A. (2010). Validity and

reliability of the Myotest accelerometric system for the assessment of
vertical jump height. J Strength Cond Res, 24(11), 3186-3193.

Friendly, Michael. (2012). Power Computations for Anova Designs: SAS

Macro Programs: fpower. 2012, from
http://www.datavis.ca/sasmac/fpower.html

http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Online/power/

http://www.datavis.ca/sas/macros/fpower.sas

How2stats. (2011). MANOVA - SPSS. from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3pzCa4Whv74

Keppel, G., & Wickens, T. (2004). Design and Analysis: A Researchers

Handbook (Fourth Edition ed.).

Kilduff, L. P., Owen, N., Bevan, H., Bennett, M., Kingsley, M. I., &
Cunningham, D. (2008). Influence of recovery time on post-activation
potentiation in professional rugby players. J Sports Sci, 26(8), 795-802.

McCann, M. R., & Flanagan, S. P. (2010). The effects of exercise

selection and rest interval on postactivation potentiation of vertical jump
performance. J Strength Cond Res, 24(5), 1285-1291.

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Nuzzo, J. L., Anning, J. H., & Scharfenberg, J. M. (2011). The reliability

of three devices used for measuring vertical jump height. J Strength Cond
Res, 25(9), 2580-2590.

Pedhazur, Elazar. (1997). Multiple Regression in Behavorial Research:

Explanation and Prediction.

Poonawalla, A. H., Datta, S., Juneja, V., Nelson, F., Wolinsky, J. S.,
Cutter, G., & Narayana, P. A. (2010). Composite MRI scores improve
correlation with EDSS in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler, 16(9), 1117-1125.

Steene-Johannessen, J., Anderssen, S. A., Kolle, E., & Andersen, L. B.

(2009). Low muscle fitness is associated with metabolic risk in youth.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 41(7), 1361-1367.

Weber, K. R., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., & Zinder, S. M. (2008).

Acute effects of heavy-load squats on consecutive squat jump
performance. J Strength Cond Res, 22(3), 726-730.

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Chapter Four
R es u lts

Table One
TRAINING LOADS AND TIME UNDER TENSION FOR
LOWER AND UPPER BODY MOVEMENTS
Barbell Back Squat Time Bench Press Bench Press
Group Squat Load Under Tension Load Time Under
(lbs) (TUT) (lbs) Tension (TUT)
Duration (sec) Duration (sec)
Control
No Training No Training No Training No Training
(1C) Mean

SD (±) N/A

Traditional
285.78 10.97 225.94 8.47
(2T) Mean

SD (±) 44.31 2.31 37.11 1.42

Experimental
215.63 17.19 184.06 16.13
(3T) Mean

SD (±) 48.19 1.15 39.33 1.69

Note: Training loads and Time Under Tension were directly influenced by the group that
participants were randomly placed into with the Traditional Group allowed to perform
movements using standard lifting procedures thus maximizing the relative load each participant
could handle whereas the Experimental Group had to use relatively lighter loads to compensate
for the increased difficulty of the method in which the movement was performed. Therefor
Training Loads and TUT were not dependent variables or outcome measures assessed in this
study but only observed values.

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Power Output Results

Po w er C o m po s ite R es u lts (Lo w er a n d
U pper B o d y Po w er c o m b in ed )

Analysis of the Power Composite showed a significant effect (difference between

the three groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 37.80, p <.001. The effect
size was .617. Group 2T had significantly higher values (greater improvements)
than Group 1C, F(1, 32) = 26.10, p <.001 with an effect size of .449. Group 3E
also had significantly higher values (greater improvements) than Group 1C, F(1,
32) = 82.700, p <.001 with an effect size of .721. Finally Group 3E had
significantly higher values (greater improvements) than Group 2T, F(1, 30) =
11.929, p = .002 with an effect size of .285. In summary for the Power
Composite category, Group 2T had significantly higher values (greater
improvements) than 1C but Group 3E had significantly higher values (greater
improvements) than both 2T and 1C.

Lo w er B o d y Po w er (V er tic a l Ju m p
Tes t)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

Pre test values for vertical jump height in Group 1C (Control) were significantly
higher (M = 19.93 inches, SD = 4.01) compared to post test values (M = 19.61
inches, SD = 3.90), F(1,17) = 10.28, p = .005 (Table 2 and Figure 1). The effect
size (Partial Eta Squared) was .377. There was a significant improvement in
vertical jump height in Group 2T (Traditional) from pre test (M = 20.19 inches,
SD = 2.45) to post test (M = 20.52 inches, SD = 2.29), F(1,15) = 7.26, p = .017
(Table 2 and Figure 1). The effect size was .326. Finally for Group 3E
(Experimental), there was significant improvement in vertical jump height from
pre test (M = 19.55 inches, SD = 2.82) to post test (M = 20.50 inches, SD =
3.22), F(1,15) = 22.87, p < .001 (Table 2 and Figure 1). The effect size was .604.

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Table Two
LOWER BODY MEAN VALUES AND STANDARDS DEVIATIONS

PRE-TEST POST-TEST

Power Symmetry Stability Power Symmetry Stability

Group Bosu Bosu
Vertical Bodyweight Squat Vertical Bodyweight Squat
Jump Squat (% Sway Jump Squat (% Sway
(in) diff L vs R) (d/s) (in) diff L vs R) (d/s)

Control
19.93* 4.76 1.14 19.61 4.91 1.08
(1C) Mean

SD (±) 4.01 2.31 0.20 3.90 2.07 0.24

Traditional
20.19 5.10 1.30 20.52** 5.44 1.13**
(2T) Mean

SD (±) 2.45 4.53 0.46 2.28 4.15 0.30

Experimental
19.55 4.98 1.13 20.50** 3.15** 0.98**
(3T) Mean

SD (±) 2.82 2.85 0.25 3.22 1.49 0.26

* p < 0.05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < 0.05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

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Fig u r e 1

Pre and Post Test Mean Values

for Vertical Jump Test
21.5
**
VERTICAL JUMP HEIGHT (INCHES)

21 **

20.5 *

20

19.5
Pre
19 Post
18.5

18

17.5

17
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

* p < .05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < .05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C),
Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E) for pre-test values in the vertical jump,
F(2,47) = .16, p = .852. The effect size was .007. There was no significant
difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional (2T), or
Experimental (3E) for post-test values in the vertical jump, F(2,47) = .44, p =
.644. The effect size was .019.

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In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Vertical jump assessing lower body power showed a significant effect (difference
between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 19.89, p <.001 (Figure 1).
The effect size was .458. Group 2T had significantly higher values than Group 1C,
F(1, 32) = 17.22, p <.001 (Tables 4 and 5) with an effect size of .350. Group 3E
also had significantly higher values for vertical jump height than Group 1C, F(1, 32)
= 34.93, p <.001 (Tables 4 and 5) with an effect size of .522. Finally Group 3E had
significantly higher vertical jump values than Group 2T, F(1, 30) = 6.91, p = .013
(Tables 4 and 5) with an effect size of .187. In summary Group 2T had significantly
higher values (improvements in vertical jump height) than 1C but Group 3E had
significantly higher values (improvements) than both 2T and 1C (Figure 1).

Table Three
MEAN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE & POST TEST ASSESSMENT VALUES

Lower Body Upper Body

Body- Body-
Bosu Bosu
Group # Vertical weight Power weight
Squat Pushup
Jump Squat
Sway
Pushup Pushup
(in) (% diff L (watts) Sway
(d/s) (% diff L
vs R) (d/s)
vs R)
Control
-0.32 0.15 -0.07 -47.08 0.52 0.00
(1C) Mean

Traditional
0.33* 0.33 -0.17 54.84* 1.69 0.05
(2T) Mean

Experimental 139.03*
0.95*** -1.83*** -0.14
**
-1.19*** -0.04**
(3T) Mean

*p < 0.05 compared with 1C (values are significantly superior to 1C)

** p < 0.05 compared with 2T (values are significantly superior to 2T)

***p < 0.05 compared with 1C and 2T (values are significantly superior to 1C and 2T)

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Table Four
MEAN % DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRE & POST TEST ASSESSMENT VALUES

Lower Body Upper Body

Bosu
Bosu
Group # Bodyweight Squat Power Bodyweight
Vertical Pushup
Squat (% Sway Pushup Pushup (%
Jump Sway
diff) (% (% diff) diff)
(% diff) (% diff)
diff)
Control
-1.61 10.56 -6.68 -4.36 11.14 -0.09
(1C) Mean
Traditional -
1.76* 9.11 5.34* 37.31 11.36
(2T) Mean 12.07
Experimenta - 12.80**
4.55*** -36.85*** -27.42*** -9.49**
l (3T) Mean 14.07 *

*p < 0.05 compared with 1C (values are significantly superior to 1C)

** p < 0.05 compared with 2T (values are significantly superior to 2T)

***p < 0.05 compared with 1C and 2T (values are significantly superior to 1C
and 2T)

U pper B o d y Po w er (Po w er Pu s h u p
A s s es s m en t)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

Pre test values for power output during the power pushup for Group 1C were
significantly higher (M = 1126.97 watts, SD = 297.45) compared to post test values
(M = 1079.89 watts, SD = 290.64), F(1,17) = 11.63, p = .003 (Table 3 and Figure 2).
The effect size was .406. There was a significant improvement for power output in
Group 2T during the power pushup test from pre (M = 1030.00 watts, SD = 242.42)
to post test values (M = 1084.84 watts, SD = 246.13), F(1,15) = 5.12, p = .039 (Table
3 and Figure 2). The effect size was .254. Finally for Group 3E, there was a
significant improvement for power output in during the power pushup test from pre
(M = 1027.69 watts, SD = 223.87) to post test values (M = 1166.72 watts, SD =
246.52), F(1,15) = 24.32, p < .001 (Table 3 and Figure 2). The effect size was .619.

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Table Five
UPPER BODY MEAN VALUES AND STANDARDS DEVIATIONS

Pre Test Post Test

Power Symmetry Stability Power Symmetry Stability

Group
Body- Body-
Bosu Bosu
Power weight Power weight
Pushup Pushup
Pushup Pushup Pushup Pushup
Sway Sway
(watts) (% diff L (watts) (% diff L
(d/s) (d/s)
vs R) vs R)

Control
(1C) Mean 1126.97* 3.07 0.41 1079.89 3.59 0.41

SD (±) 297.45 2.28 0.09 290.64 2.49 0.10

Traditional
1030.00 3.90 0.39 1084.84** 5.58 0.44
(2T) Mean

SD (±) 242.42 3.63 0.12 246.13 3.67 0.14

Experimental 1027.69 5.25 0.41 1166.71** 4.06** 0.36

(3T) Mean

SD (±) 223.87 2.43 0.16 246.52 2.18 0.12

* p < 0.05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < 0.05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

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Fig u r e 2.

Pre and Post Mean Values for

Power Pushup Test
1250
**
1200
POWER OUTPUT (WATTS)

1150 * **
1100

1050
Pre
1000
Post
950

900

850

800
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

* p < .05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < .05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control

(1C), Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E)) for pre-test values in the Power
Pushup assessment, F(2,47) = .83, p = .442. The effect size was .034. There was
no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional
(2T), or Experimental (3E)) for post-test values in the Power Pushup
assessment, F(2,47) = .562, p = .574. The effect size was .023.

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In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Power pushup assessing upper body power showed a significant effect (difference
between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 17.81, p <.001 (Figure 2).
The effect size was .431. Group 2T had significantly higher power outputs
compared to 1C, F(1, 32) = 14.13, p =.001 with an effect size of .306 (Tables 4
and 5). Group 3E also had significantly higher power outputs compared to 1C,
F(1, 32) = 37.69, p <.001 with an effect size of .541 (Tables 4 and 5) . Finally
Group 3E had significantly higher power outputs compared to 2T, F(1, 30) =
5.13, p =.031 with an effect size of .146 (Tables 4 and 5). In summary Group 2T
had significantly higher power output compared to 1C, however group 3E had
significantly higher power outputs compared to both 2T and 1C (Figure 2).

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Results For
Symmetry Measures
S ym m etr y C o m po s ite R es u lts (Lo w er
a n d U pper B o d y S ym m etr y c o m b in ed )

Analysis of the Symmetry Composite showed a significant effect (difference

between the three groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 12.24, p <.001. The
effect size was .342. There was no significant difference between Group 1C and 2T,
F(1, 32) = 1.86, p =.182 with an effect size of .055. Group 3E showed significant
superior symmetrical loading patterns compared to Group 1C, F(1, 32) = 16.98, p
<.001 with an effect size of .347. Group 3E also showed superior symmetrical
loading patterns compared to Group 2T F(1, 30) = 17.78, p <.001 with an effect
size of .372. In summary Group 3E showed superior symmetrical loading patterns
compared to both 1C and 2T with groups 1C and 2T being statistically similar.

Lo w er B o d y S ym m etr ic a l Lo a d in g
(B o d yw eig h t S q u a t)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

In Group 1C, symmetrical loading values during the bodyweight squat showed
no significant difference between pre (M = 4.76%, SD = 2.31) and post test (M
= 4.91% inches, SD = 2.07), F(1,17) = .15, p = .707 (Table 2 and Figure 3). The
effect size was .009. In Group 2T, symmetrical loading values during the
bodyweight squat showed no significant difference between pre (M = 5.10%, SD
= 4.53) and post test (M = 5.44% inches, SD = 4.15), F(1,15) = .55, p = .468
(Table 2 and Figure 3). Finally, in Group 3E, there was a significant
improvement in symmetrical loading values during the bodyweight squat from
pre (M = 4.98%, SD = 2.84) to post test (M = 3.15% inches, SD = 1.49), F(1,15)
= 8.34, p = .011 Table 2 and Figure 3). The effect size was .357.

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Fig u r e 3.

Pre and Post Mean Values for

Symmetrical Loading in the
7 Bodyweight Squat

6
PERCENT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
LEFT AND RIGHT LIMB LOADING

5 Pre
Post
4
**
3

0
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

* p < .05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < .05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C),
Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E)) for pre-test values in the Bodyweight Squat
assessment, F(2,47) = .05, p = .954. The effect size was .002. There was no
significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional (2T), or
Experimental (3E) for post-test values in the Bodyweight Squat assessment,
F(2,47) = 2.99, p = .06. The effect size was .113. However post hoc testing
utilizing LSD demonstrated that group 3E had significantly higher values than 2T,

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with a mean difference of 2.92, p = .024. Group 3E also had higher values than
1C with a mean difference of 1.76, p = .072 although this was not quite significant.

In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Bodyweight squat assessing lower body symmetrical loading showed a significant

effect (difference between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 5.78, p =
.006 (Figure 3). The effect size was .197. There was no significant difference
between Group 1C and 2T, F(1, 32) = .10, p =.755 with an effect size of .003
(Tables 4 and 5). Group 3E showed significant superior symmetrical loading
patterns compared to Group 1C, F(1, 32) = 7.57, p =.010 with an effect size of
.189 (Tables 4 and 5). Group 3E also showed superior symmetrical loading
patterns compared to Group 2T F(1, 30) = 7.78, p =.009 with an effect size of
.206 (Tables 4 and 5). In summary Group 3E showed superior symmetrical
loading patterns compared to both 1C and 2T with groups 1C and 2T being
statistically similar (Figure 3).

U pper B o d y S y m m etr ic a l Lo a d in g
(B o d yw eig h t Pu s h u p)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

In Group 1C, symmetrical loading values during the bodyweight pushup showed
no significant difference between pre (M = 3.07%, SD = 2.28) and post test (M
= 3.59%, SD = 2.49), F(1,17) = 1.85, p = .191 (Table 3 and Figure 4). The effect
size was .098. However, there was non-significant movement towards decreased
levels of symmetrical loading (increased asymmetry) during post-test (Figure 4).
In Group 2T, symmetrical loading values during the bodyweight pushup showed
no significant difference between pre (M = 3.90%, SD = 3.63) and post test (M
= 5.58%, SD = 3.67), F(1,15) = 2.76, p = .117 (Table 3 and Figure 4). The effect
size was .155.

However, there was non-significant movement of the data towards decreased

levels of symmetrical loading (increased asymmetry) after the training protocol.
Finally, in Group 3E, symmetrical loading values during the bodyweight pushup
showed a significant difference between pre (M = 5.25%, SD = 2.43) and post
test (M = 4.06%, SD = 2.18), F(1,15) = 5.57, p = .032 (Table 3 and Figure 4).
The effect size was .271.

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Fig u r e 4 .

Pre and Post Test Mean Values

for Symmetrical Loading in
the Bodyweight Pushup
% DIFF. BETWEEN LEFT AND RIGHT LIMB LOADING

7.00

6.00 Pre
Post
5.00 **

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

* p < .05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < .05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C),
Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E)) for pre-test values in the Bodyweight
Pushup assessment, F(2,47) = 2.55, p = .089. The effect size was .098. There
was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional
(2T), or Experimental (3E)) for post-test values in the Bodyweight Pushup
assessment, F(2,47) = 2.24, p = .119. The effect size was .087. However post hoc
testing utilizing LSD demonstrated that group 2T had significantly higher values
of asymmetry (less symmetry) than 1C, with a mean difference of 1.99, p = .047.

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In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Bodyweight pushup assessing upper body symmetrical loading showed a

significant effect (difference between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47)
= 4.46, p = .017 (Figure 4). The effect size was .160. There was no significant
difference between Group 1C and Group 2T however 2T had slightly reduced
levels of symmetrical loading patterns (more asymmetrical) compared to 1C, F(1,
32) = 1.27, p =.268 with an effect size of .038 (Table 4 and 5). Group 3E had
significantly superior levels of symmetrical loading patterns (more symmetrical)
compared to 1C, F(1, 32) = 7.50, p =.010 with an effect size of .190 (Tables 4
and 5). Finally, Group 3E showed significant improvements in levels of
symmetrical loading compared to Group 2T, F(1, 30) = 6.43, p =.017 with an
effect size of .177 (Tables 4 and 5). In summary there was no significant
difference between groups 1C and 2T for the bodyweight pushups assessment.
However, Group 3E was significantly superior to both 1C and 2T (significant
improvements in upper body symmetrical loading patterns compared to 1C and
2T) (Figure 4).

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Results for
Stability Measures

S ta b ility C o m p o s ite R es u lts (Lo w er

a n d U pper B o d y S ta b ility c o m b in ed )

Analysis of the Stability Composite showed a small but non-significant effect

(difference between the three groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 1.99, p =
.148. The effect size was .078. There was no significant difference between
Group 1C and Group 2T, F(1, 32) = .06, p =.82 with an effect size of .002.
Similarly there was no significant difference between Group 1C and 3E, however
group 3E showed a slight (non-significant) increase in stability compared to 1C,
F(1, 32) = 2.64, p =.114 with an effect size of .076. Finally, Group 3E showed a
slight non-significant improvement in levels of stability compared to Group 2T,
F(1, 30) = 3.15, p =.086 with an effect size of .095. In summary there was no
significant difference between any of the three groups however, Group 3E
showed slight non-significant increased levels of stability compared Groups 1C
and 2T.

R es u lts fo r Lo w er B o d y S ta b ility
(B o s u B a ll S q u a t)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

Stability values for the Bosu ball squat in Group 1C showed no significant
difference between pre (M = 1.14 degrees of sway/second, SD = .20) and post
test (M = 1.08 deg sway/second, SD = .24), F(1,17) = 2.11, p = .165 (Table 2
and Figure 5). The effect size was .110. Stability values for the Bosu ball squat in
Group 2T showed a significant improvement in stability between pre (M = 1.30
degrees of sway/second, SD = .46) and post test (M = 1.12 deg sway/second,
SD = .30), F(1,15) = 5.03, p = .040 (Table 2 and Figure 5). The effect size was
.251. Finally, stability values for the Bosu ball squat in Group 3E showed a
significant improvement in stability between pre (M = 1.13 degrees of
sway/second, SD = .25) and post test (M = .98 deg sway/second, SD = .26),
F(1,15) = 10.29, p = .006 (Table 2 and Figure 5). The effect size was .407.

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Fig u r e 5.

Pre and Post Mean Values

for Bosu Ball Squat
1.5
CENTER OF GRAVITY SWAY (DEGRES/SECOND)

**
1.4

1.3 Pre

1.2 Post
**
1.1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

* p < .05 compared with post test values (scores worsened from pre to post test)

** p < .05 compared with pre test values (scores improved from pre to post test)

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C),
Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E)) for pre-test values in the Bosu Ball Squat
assessment, F(2,47) = 1.47, p = .225. The effect size was .059. There was no
significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional (2T),
or Experimental (3E)) for post-test values in the Bosu Ball Squat assessment,
F(2,47) = 1.18, p = .316. The effect size was .048.
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In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Bosu squat assessing lower body stability showed no significant effect

(no difference between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = .94, p = .399
(Tables 4 and 5). The effect size was .038. However there were several
noticeable tendencies in the data. First Group 2T was slightly superior to Group
1C in terms of stability, F(1, 32) = 1.46, p =.236 with an effect size of .040
however none of this was significant (Figure 5). Group 3E was also superior to
1C, F(1, 32) = 1.34, p =.256 with an effect size of .040 although this was not
significant. (Figure 5) Finally there was no significant difference between Group
3E and 2T, F(1, 30) = .13, p =.726 with an effect size of .004 (Table 4).

R es u lts fo r U pper B o d y S ta b ility

(B o s u B a ll Pu s h u p)

Within Subjects Main Effect for Time

Stability values for the Bosu ball pushup in Group 1C showed no significant
difference between pre (M = .41 degrees of sway/second, SD = .09) and post
test (M = .41 deg sway/second, SD = .10), F(1,17) = 0.00, p = 1.00 (Table 3 and
Figure 6). The effect size was 0.00. Stability values for the Bosu ball pushup in
Group 2T showed no significant difference between pre (M = .39 degrees of
sway/second, SD = .12) and post test (M = .44 deg sway/second, SD = .14),
F(1,15) = 3.06, p = .101 (Table 3). The effect size was .169.

However, there was non-significant movement of the data towards decreased

levels of stability (increased sway) after the training protocol (Figure 6). Stability
values for the Bosu ball pushup in Group 3E showed no significant difference
between pre (M = .41 degrees of sway/second, SD = .16) and post test (M = .36
deg sway/second, SD = .12), F(1,15) = 2.88, p = .110. The effect size was .161.
However, there was a non-significant trend towards increased levels of stability
(less sway) after the training protocol (Table 3 and Figure 6).

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Fig u r e 6.

Pre and Post Test Mean

Values for Bosu Ball Pushup
0.5
CENTER OF GRAVITY SWAY (DEGRES/SECOND)

0.45
Pre
0.4 Post

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
Control Traditional Experimental

Error bars based on standard error of the mean (SEM).

M a in Effec t fo r G r o u p R es u lts

There was no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C),
Traditional (2T), or Experimental (3E)) for pre-test values in the Bosu Ball
Pushup assessment, F(2,47) = .06, p = .938. The effect size was .003. There was
no significant difference between the three groups (Control (1C), Traditional
(2T), or Experimental (3E)) for post-test values in the Bosu Ball Pushup
assessment, F(2,47) = 1.66, p = .202. The effect size was .066. However post
hoc testing utilizing LSD demonstrated that group 3E had slightly superior levels
of stability than 2T with a mean difference of .078, p = .077 although this was
not statistically significant.
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In ter a c tio n (G r o u p x Tim e) a n d

In d iv id u a l C o m pa r is o n s

Bosu pushup assessing upper body stability showed a significant effect (difference
between the groups) from pre to post test, F(2, 47) = 3.38, p = .042 (Tables 4 and
5). The effect size was .126. There was no significant difference between Group
1C and Group 2T however 2T had slightly reduced levels of stability (more
unstable) compared to 1C, F(1, 32) = 2.00, p =.167 with an effect size of .059
(Figure 6). Similarly there was no significant difference between Group 1C and
3E, however group 3E showed a slight increase in stability compared to 1C, F(1,
32) = 1.82, p =.186 with an effect size of .054 (Figure 6). Finally, Group 3E
showed a significant improvement in levels of stability for upper body compared
to Group 2T, F(1, 30) = 5.94, p =.021 with an effect size of .165 (Tables 4 and 5).
In summary the only significant effect that took place for the Bosu ball pushup
assessment was between groups 2T and 3E with 3E showing significant
improvements in levels of upper body stability compared to 2T (Table 4).

Po s t H o c A d d en d u m

Although many of the assessments for interaction between group and time showed a
significant effect (there was a significant difference somewhere amongst the groups
for five of the six assessments and two of the three categorical analyses), post hoc
assessment utilizing LSD (Least Significant Differences) was unable to produce a
significant difference among any of the groups for any of the tests/categories.
However individual ANOVA’s (using raw data values) looking at the interaction
between two groups at one time rather than all three, produced results indicating
specific differences amongst the groups. Therefore individual comparisons are
based on multiple 2x2 repeated measures ANOVA’s rather than the 3x2 model.
Although performing a subset analysis slightly amplifies the chance for type 1
error (false positive; i.e. saying there was a significant effect when it fact none
existed), it provided a specific procedure for isolating where differences occurred
amongst the groups (Keppel & Wickens, 2004). This allowed for more specific
implications and conclusions in the results and analysis of the data rather than
estimating or speculating where possible differences may have occurred.
Therefor the reader should take note that although the chance of inaccuracy is
only slightly increased (approximately 4.5% greater chance of type 1 error) the
results and analysis presented in this section may not be as impervious to error as
if the alpha level were slightly more stringent (.04 rather than .05) or if standard
post hoc procedures were followed (Keppel & Wickens, 2004).
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R efer en c es

Keppel, G., & Wickens, T. (2004). Design and Analysis: A Researchers

Handbook (Fourth Edition ed.).

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Chapter Five
D is c u s s io n

Po w er

Lower and Upper Body Power

The most significant findings of our study relate to how power output (in both
upper and lower body) was effected by the different training protocols
(traditional and experimental training). Significant improvements in vertical jump
height were apparent in the traditional training group compared to the control
group (Figure 1) with a small to moderate effect size of .350. Related literature
supports these findings as heavy barbell back squats have consistently shown to
improve vertical jump height through potentiation and has been replicated in
numerous studies (Kilduff et al., 2008; McCann & Flanagan, 2010; Mitchell &
Sale, 2011). In contrast, the experimental group, which performed eccentric
isometrics had more robust results in vertical jump height that were
approximately three times the level of improvement compared to the traditional
group (Tables 4 and 5).

It should also be noted that the effect size of vertical jump height improvements
when comparing the experimental treatment (3E) to the control (1C) was .522,
which was slightly larger than previous studies (Kilduff et al., 2008; McCann &
Flanagan, 2010; Mitchell & Sale, 2011). For example, a recent meta-analysis on
PAP performed by Wilson et al. (2013) reported primary studies on PAP and
found the average effect size to be .38, while other investigations have reported a
typical effect size of .3-.49. (Gouvea, Fernandes, Cesar, Silva, & Gomes, 2013).

Several studies have witnessed similar findings demonstrating superior effects of

isometric contractions compared to standard isotonic protocols for eliciting a
PAP response. (Esformes, Keenan, Moody, & Bampouras, 2011; Feros, Young,
Rice, & Talpey, 2012; Rixon et al., 2007). Effect size and % increase in power
measures (4-6%) in these investigations were also similar to our findings (Table
5). However, none of the aforementioned studies demonstrated the
effectiveness of eccentric/yielding isometrics (isometrics held in the stretched
position) for eliciting short-term improvements in power and torque. This is an

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important concept and warrants consideration for training in order to elicit a

powerful PAP response.

Power development was also indicated in the upper body using the power
pushup (Figure 2). Although relatively few studies have been performed on
upper body PAP, similar findings have demonstrated the effectiveness of upper
body isotonic movements (typically in the form of a horizontal pressing
movement) for inducing PAP (Ferreira, Panissa, Miarka, & Franchini, 2012;
West, Cunningham, Crewther, Cook, & Kilduff, 2013). These findings are
similar to the lower body assessment with the experimental group,
demonstrating nearly three times the level of improvement compared to the
traditional group (54.84 watts vs. 139.08 watts) (Table 4).

Furthermore when comparing the interaction for the experimental treatment vs.
the control group the effect size was .541 which is higher than what was found
for the traditional group (.306) and greater tan the average witnessed in most
PAP studies (Wilson et al, 2013). It appears that experimental training condition
has a more significant impact on power output than the traditional training
conditions although the effects appear to be similar (4-6% increase) to
overcoming isometric training procedures (Table 5) (Rixon et al., 2007; Esformes
et al., 2011. Therefore upper body eccentric isometrics may be a useful training
protocol for inducing positive changes in upper body power and torque. This
was a preliminary investigation to examine the effects of isometrics on
temporary increases in power and should be replicated in areas of long-term
functional development.

S ym m etr ic a l Lo a d in g

Lower and Upper Body Symmetrical Loading

The importance of symmetrical development was demonstrated in the

experimental training group using the body weight squats. These findings were
as expected as the movement protocol for the experimental group elicited
muscular contractions more equally throughout the movement on both sides of
the body. It appears that the control and traditional groups maintained their
baseline levels of symmetry while the experimental group indicated significant
improvements, and was effective for temporarily increasing symmetrical loading
patterns (Figure 3 and Table 4).

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These findings could enable therapists and coaches/trainers to overcome lower

body asymmetry and muscle imbalances that may predispose individuals to lower
body injuries and over-use structural trauma from developing the body evenly
without dominating segments and enable the body to overcome muscle
imbalances (Chorba, Chorba, Bouillon, Overmyer, & Landis, 2010). This is
especially important for performance athletes and elderly populations seeking to
develop proper movement patterns. This is also a trend in evaluating individual
movement performances with movement screening tests that are used by
universities and professional sports teams to detect imbalances that may
predispose an athlete to injury (Kiesel, Plisky, & Voight, 2007).

Similar results were also apparent in upper body symmetry using the bodyweight
pushup assessment (Table 4 and Figure 4). In this context, the experimental
group demonstrated more robust changes in symmetry as the traditional group
appeared to have slight decrements in symmetrical loading patterns (Figure 4).

It is apparent that eccentric isometrics may be able to correct muscular

imbalances generated from continuous upper body unilateral-dominant activities.
This allows the individual to tolerate additional loads efficiently. This procedure
focuses on the movement technique and quality of movements that best
facilitate utilizing both sides of the body equally when generating a movement
response (Goss, Christopher, Faulk, & Moore, 2009; Kiesel et al., 2007). To the
best of the authors knowledge this is the first study to investigate short-term
changes in symmetry patterns therefore comparisons to related literature cannot
be conducted at this time.

S ta b ility

Lower and Upper Body Stability

Lower body stability utilizing the Bosu ball squat did not produce significant
differences between the groups (Table 4 and Figure 5). One factor that may
have affected performance was the degree of difficulty of the assessment. For
example, the Bosu Ball squat required individuals to hold an isometric squat
position (bottom position) for 10-15 seconds, which made the maneuver more
difficult to sustain and produce the desired response. It is recommended that an
alternative assessment using a more stable training surface could be utilized as
well as providing additional training (on the Bosu ball) prior to the testing for
future studies on stabilization.
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In contrast to the lack of significance for lower body stabilization a significant

effect was indicated for upper body stabilization in the experimental and
traditional groups (Figure 6 and Table 4). These findings support the premise
that stability and balance are considered critical components of proper muscle
function and human performance (Laudner, 2012).

Similarly any form of physical activity where proper movement patterns are not
emphasized should be avoided to prevent decrements in stabilization and
balance (Goss et al., 2009; Saeterbakken, van den Tillaar, & Fimland, 2011).
Likewise, training protocols that elicit improvements in upper body stability can
be used to enhance balance and stabilization as well as eliminate sway that may
detract from movement performance. Similar to symmetry measures, little
comparisons to related literature can be made at the present time as training
programs that emphasize enhancement of stability and sway appear to be a
relatively novel area of research.

PA P

There are several possible explanations for the potentiation phenomenon

experienced in both training conditions (Figures 2 and 3). First it would appear
that intense muscular contractions produce phosphorylation of myosin light
chains thus increasing the sensitivity of actin and myosin filaments to calcium
(Tillin & Bishop, 2009). This in turn creates stronger subsequent contractions,
as there is a greater response to the calcium released during the contraction
process.

A second proposed mechanism that may be involved in the potentiation process

is based on the idea that intense muscular contractions induce a greater amount
of calcium released per action potential thereby increasing force and torque of
subsequent contractions (Lieber, 2009; Rassier & Macintosh, 2000). Another
theory associated with PAP is based on increased motor unit recruitment
induced from heavy loads or high intensity movements. As a result of the short-
term contractile history there would be an increase in the number or motor units
recruited (higher threshold motor units) as well as an increase in the firing rate of
those motor units (Tillin & Bishop, 2009).

Finally a theory predicated on proprioceptive mechanisms involving the

Hoffmann Reflex (H-Reflex), suggests that prior heavy loading may increase
muscle spindle activation, leading to increased discharge of type 1a sensory fibers
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(Hodgson, Docherty, & Robbins, 2005). Researchers postulate that PAP may
enhance the H-reflex, thereby increasing the firing rate and efficiency of the
nerve impulse to the muscle (Horwathe & Kravitz, 2007).

All of these above mechanisms may have played a role in the potentiation
produced from the two training conditions. However, because they were not
measured, further research is needed to determine which of the mechanisms is
most responsible for PAP.

R a tio n a le o f Fin d in g s

Although there are some limitations to our findings, it is apparent that the
experimental group performed similar and in many cases statistically significant
to the traditional training group in regards to improvements in power, symmetry,
and upper body stability (no significant effect for lower body stability).

Individuals in the traditional group completed all repetitions using standard

lifting protocols (controlled eccentric followed by a forceful concentric with no
additional parameters for movement speed. Those involved in the experiential
group performed all repetitions using a unique eccentric isometric protocol in
which the load was lowered using a 4 second count, paused at the stretched
position for 3 seconds, then followed by a powerful concentric lifting phase.
Therefore the slow eccentric and isometric at the stretched position
implemented for the experimental group as opposed to more standard lifting
procedures utilized by the traditional group were the distinguishing factors
separating the two training conditions (group 3E vs. 2T).

In summary, the slow eccentric phase followed by the eccentric isometric appear
to be the factors largely responsible for the superior results achieved by the
experimental group. Therefore it is important to closely examine potential
underlying neurophysiological mechanisms involved in the eccentric isometric
protocols and is an area of research that should be expanded. Recommendations
for future study should examine PAP after training intervals to determine if gains
can be accrued and sustained with training.

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C o n c lu s io n a n d Fu tu r e R es ea r c h

The findings of this investigation demonstrate the effectiveness of using

eccentric isometrics for enhancing markers of performance including power,
force, stability, balance, and symmetry in both upper and lower body and
support the hypotheses in 5 out of 6 movements. Based on the results of this
preliminary work on PAP, several components stand out which may be useful in
selecting training. First, power can be generated at a higher level in upper and
lower body movements as a result of PAP. Second, symmetry of the upper and
lower extremities can be facilitated with PAP training interactions that eliminate
muscle imbalance and allow the individual to generate power by synchronizing
movement patterns from both sides of the body. Third, stability and balance are
essential to stabilizing the body and executing movements precisely and are
concurrent with overall development.

Recommendations for further research should be expanded on this preliminary

study to determine if temporary gains during PAP training interventions can be
accrued and sustained for long-term improvements. Finally a multitude of
physiological factors may have played a role in our findings and should be
considered in future studies. Therefore the synthesis of training applications that
facilitate power, symmetry, and balance should be developed to promote
movement efficacy. In this manner the ability to develop proper movement
pattern will be enhanced by integrating each component to the efficiency of the
movement. It appears that PAP training may be suitable to promote this type of
development and should be considered for training or rehabilitation.

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R efer en c es

Chorba, R. S., Chorba, D. J., Bouillon, L. E., Overmyer, C. A., & Landis,
J. A. (2010). Use of a functional movement screening tool to determine
injury risk in female collegiate athletes. N Am J Sports Phys Ther, 5(2), 47-
54.

Esformes, J. I., Keenan, M., Moody, J., & Bampouras, T. M. (2011).

Effect of different types of conditioning contraction on upper body
postactivation potentiation. J Strength Cond Res, 25(1), 143-148.

Feros, S. A., Young, W. B., Rice, A. J., & Talpey, S. W. (2012). The
effect of including a series of isometric conditioning contractions to the
rowing warm-up on 1,000-m rowing ergometer time trial performance. J
Strength Cond Res, 26(12), 3326-3334.

Ferreira, S. L., Panissa, V. L., Miarka, B., & Franchini, E. (2012).

Postactivation potentiation: effect of various recovery intervals on
bench press power performance. J Strength Cond Res, 26(3), 739-744.

Goss, D. L., Christopher, G. E., Faulk, R. T., & Moore, J. (2009).

Functional training program bridges rehabilitation and return to duty. J
Spec Oper Med, 9(2), 29-48.

Gouvea, A. L., Fernandes, I. A., Cesar, E. P., Silva, W. A., & Gomes, P. S.
(2013). The effects of rest intervals on jumping performance: a meta-
analysis on post-activation potentiation studies. J Sports Sci, 31(5), 459-467.

Hodgson, M., Docherty, D., & Robbins, D. (2005). Post-activation

potentiation: underlying physiology and implications for motor
performance. Sports Med, 35(7), 585-595.

Horwathe, Roxannee, & Kravitz, Len. (2007). Postactivation Potentiation:

A Brief Review. from http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article
folder/postactivationUNM.html

Kiesel, K., Plisky, P. J., & Voight, M. L. (2007). Can Serious Injury in
Professional Football be Predicted by a Preseason Functional
Movement Screen? N Am J Sports Phys Ther, 2(3), 147-158.

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Kilduff, L. P., Owen, N., Bevan, H., Bennett, M., Kingsley, M. I., &
Cunningham, D. (2008). Influence of recovery time on post-activation
potentiation in professional rugby players. J Sports Sci, 26(8), 795-802.

Laudner, Kevin G. (2012). Upper Extremity Sensorimotor Control

Among Collegiate Football Players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning
Research, 26(3), 672-676

Lieber, R.L. (2009). Skeletal Muscle Structure, Function, and Plasticity:

Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

McCann, M. R., & Flanagan, S. P. (2010). The effects of exercise

selection and rest interval on postactivation potentiation of vertical jump
performance. J Strength Cond Res, 24(5), 1285-1291.

Mitchell, C. J., & Sale, D. G. (2011). Enhancement of jump performance

after a 5-RM squat is associated with postactivation potentiation. Eur J
Appl Physiol, 111(8), 1957-1963.

Rassier, D. E., & Macintosh, B. R. (2000). Coexistence of potentiation

and fatigue in skeletal muscle. Braz J Med Biol Res, 33(5), 499-508.

Rixon, K. P., Lamont, H. S., & Bemben, M. G. (2007). Influence of type

of muscle contraction, gender, and lifting experience on postactivation
potentiation performance. J Strength Cond Res, 21(2), 500-505.

Saeterbakken, A. H., van den Tillaar, R., & Fimland, M. S. (2011). A

comparison of muscle activity and 1-RM strength of three chest-press
exercises with different stability requirements. J Sports Sci, 29(5), 533-538.

Tillin, N. A., & Bishop, D. (2009). Factors modulating post-activation

potentiation and its effect on performance of subsequent explosive
activities. Sports Med, 39(2), 147-166.

West, D. J., Cunningham, D. J., Crewther, B. T., Cook, C. J., & Kilduff,
L. P. (2013). Influence of ballistic bench press on upper body power
output in professional rugby players. J Strength Cond Res, 27(8), 2282-2287.

Wilson, J. M., Duncan, N. M., Marin, P. J., Brown, L. E., & Loenneke, J.
P. (2013). Meta-analysis of postactivation potentiation and power:
effects of conditioning activity, volume, gender, rest periods, and
training status. J Strength Cond Res, 27(3), 854-859.

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In fo r m ed C o n s en t

I, _________________________________, agree to participate in a research

study titled " Comparison of Resistance Training Protocols and their Transient
Effects on Muscle Function and Performance " conducted by Joel Seedman from
the Department of Kinesiology at the University of Georgia (812-219-6978)
under the direction of Dr. Horvat, University of Georgia (706-542-4455). I
understand that my participation is voluntary. I can refuse to participate or stop
taking part at anytime without giving any reason, and without penalty or loss of
benefits to which I am otherwise entitled. My decision about participation will
have no bearing on my grades or class standing. I understand that if I wish to
withdraw from this study at any point, my individual data will be immediately
removed from the data records and destroyed. I also understand that I am free
to ask any questions that may arise at any time and will have those questions
answered to my satisfaction. Should any issue or emergency arise during the
study, I understand that I may contact Dr. Horvat at 706-542-4455 with my
concerns.

This study will compare the transient effects of a traditional resistance training
protocol to an experimental protocol developed by the investigators.
Participants will take part in a one-hour session only. Half of the session will be
allotted to lower body function and the other half to upper body function. Each
phase will involve a pre-testing (5 minutes), intervention (15 minutes), and post-
testing 5 (minutes). Factors related to various components of muscle function
including, power, stability, and symmetrical loading will be assessed before and
after the training protocol and comparisons of the protocols will be examined
using statistical measures. There are few risks associated with these procedures
and tests beyond those associated with exercise.

I have been told that I will be asked to fill out several forms prior to the study
including this informed consent, a Participant Screening Form, and a PAR-Q
form. These forms involve no risk as they are pen and paper tests. All forms
will be kept in a secured file. Researchers will not release identifiable results of
the study to anyone other than individuals working on the project without
written consent unless required by law.

Although strength training and exercise testing have little reported risks, physical
exertion and effort will be required for most of the activities involved in this
study. The PAR-Q as well as Health History Questionnaire have been shown to
screen out most potential complications for these activities. The most likely
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event to occur during this study will be mild to moderate levels of muscle
soreness and fatigue, a normal response from strength training and exercise. I
understand that I will report any and all signs and symptoms that I may have
during this study to the primary investigator.

Although there are no direct benefits associated with participating in this study,
society will benefit from the results of the investigation and the knowledge
obtained will help to advance the field of exercise science.

As compensation and incentive, all eligible participants (those who complete the
study) will be entitled to receive a free one-on-one personal training session at
the Ramsey UGA Rec Sports Facility. This will be arranged with the co-
principal investigator (Joel Seedman) after participation in the study.

The researchers will exercise all reasonable care to protect me from harm as a
result of my participation. In the event that any research-related activities result
in an injury, the sole responsibility of the researchers will be to arrange for my
transportation to an appropriate health care facility. If I think that I have
suffered a research-related injury, I should seek immediate medical attention and
then contact Dr. Horvat right away at 706-542-4455. In the event that I suffer a
research-related injury, my medical expenses will be my responsibility or that of
my third-party payer, although I am not precluded from seeking to collect
compensation for injury related to malpractice, fault, or blame on the part of
those involved in the research.

The investigator will answer any further questions about the research, now or
during the course of the project. I am volunteering for this study and I
understand what will be expected of me. I have read this form and understand
both the form and explanations given to me.

I understand that I am agreeing by my signature on this form to take part in this

research project and understand that I will receive a signed copy of this consent
form for my records.

________________________ ____________________ ___________

NAME OF RESEARCHER SIGNATURE DATE

Telephone: ________________

Email: ____________________________

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________________________ ____________________ ___________

NAME OF PARTICIPANT SIGNATURE DATE

Telephone: ________________

Email: ____________________________

Please sign both copies, keep one and return one to the researcher.

Additional questions or problems regarding your rights as a research participant

should be addressed to The Chairperson, Institutional Review Board, University
of Georgia, 629 Boyd Graduate Studies Research Center, Athens, Georgia
30602; Telephone (706) 542-3199; E-Mail Address IRB@uga.edu.

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Pa r tic ipa n t S c r een in g Fo r m

Name:_________________________________________________________

Date of Birth:____________________________________________________

E-mail:_________________________________________________________

Emergency Contact Person:_________________________________________

Emergency Contact Phone Number:__________________________________

Have you actively been participating in some form of structured resistance

training at least twice per week for a minimum of eight weeks leading up to this
study (today’s date)? Yes/No_______________________________________

For this research study it is important participants are familiar with the barbell
back squat and barbell bench press. Have you been performing these (back squat
and bench press) at least once per week for a minimum of 8 weeks leading up to
the initiation of the study?

Yes/No____________________

___________________________

Name

___________________________ _____________

Signature Date

___________________________ _____________

Witness Date

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Pa r -Q Fo r m

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Chapter Six
A Pilo t Study Ex am ining the Reliability o f
Various M easures of M uscle Fun ction

A b s tr a c t

Although various assessments for examining muscle function such as the

Functional Movement Screen and Star Excursion Balance Test have become
popularized in both research and strength and conditioning settings relatively
few tests have been developed that accurately assess stability, sway, symmetrical
loading, and power. Furthermore reliability of specific tasks such as performing
variations of squats, pushups, lunges, single leg squats, and unstable plank holds
have little scientific literature demonstrating their usefulness in research settings.
Therefor the goal of this study was to examine the reliability of various measures
of muscle function many of which were novel tasks. Characteristics of muscle
function that were examined include, balance, sway, stability, symmetrical
loading, and power as related to both upper and lower body. The goal was also
to demonstrate how more advanced instrumentation such as a force platform
could be used under such conditions.

A total of 10 subjects (8 males and 2 females) between 20-41 years of age were
tested in two separate sessions separated 4-8 days apart. There were a total of 14
assessments of muscle function including variations of squats, lunges, pushups,
and plank holds. Reliability analysis demonstrated 9 of the 14 tests as having
high reliability (ICC>.80). Furthermore tasks involving unilateral stabilization
such as single leg squats, lunges, and single arm plank holds demonstrated more
moderate levels of reliability (.4-.79) while nearly all bilateral tests produced high
reliability values. In conclusion utilizing functional movement patterns along
with a force platform for assessing stability, balance, symmetrical loading, and
other related characteristics, may hold value for researchers and strength coaches
alike for assessing various measures of muscle function and performance.

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In tr o d u c tio n a n d B r ief R ev iew o f

Liter a tu r e

The ability to assess various markers of muscle function and related components
is essential for measuring baseline levels of fitness-related qualities and evaluating
an individual’s training progress (Baechle & Earle, 2008). Many tests that
evaluate functional performance often focus on factors related to strength,
speed, and power, with relatively few tests available for measuring other markers
of function such as balance and symmetrical loading (percentage of total load
each limb is bearing) (Voight, Hoogenboom, & Prentice, 2007). Fortunately
advancements in assessment related knowledge over the last decade have
resulted in such tests as the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and Star
Excursion Balance Test becoming increasingly popular (Goss, Christopher,
Faulk, & Moore, 2009; Kivlan & Martin, 2012). Although these tests are useful
for addressing mobility, balance, stability, and quality of movement, it becomes
difficult to accurately assess more precise levels of balance and stability without
the use of more advanced equipment. For addressing stability, balance, and
quality of movement, the naked eye is only so accurate and often times
examining more subtle intricacies of functional movement can become nearly
impossible to detect without the aid of more advanced instrumentation.

Measuring symmetrical loading as well as levels of stability in terms of sway, center

of pressure, and center of gravity can be accurately measured using more advanced
equipment such as a force platform (Couture & Simoneau, 2013). Rather than
simply evaluating the length of time an individual can balance or stating whether or
not the individual is capable of maintaining balance during a movement, using a
force platform for examining more intricate markers of balance and sway could
offer greater insight regarding more precise levels of muscle function.

Without the ability to stabilize the lower body, core, and upper body, balance
and ultimately performance will be compromised leading to decrements in
functional performance and increased risk for injury (Gray Cook & Burton,
2007). Most kinesiologists agree on the importance of assessing and training
factors related to balance, stability, and symmetrical loading however few tests
have been developed that measure such specific outcome measures at a more
precise level. Furthermore assessments utilizing basic movement patterns such
as lunges, pushups, squats, and variations of these movements has mainly been
limited to the FMS in which case a simple numerical score of 0-3 is used to rate

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the quality of movement as determined by specific pre-determined movement

criteria (G. Cook, 2011).

Such a rating scale as seen with the FMS although practical for larger populations
particularly in sport specific settings is not precise enough to measure less apparent
yet just as critical changes in muscle function. An athlete may become more stable
and improve his or her balance during a squatting motion all of which would be
identified if a force platform were used to measure sway. Unfortunately improved
stability and balance will not necessarily be assessed during the FMS as such
adaptations often times go unnoticed by the FMS practitioner. Furthermore when
it comes to the role of the examiner in various assessments such as the FMS, the
tests do not call for attending subtle intricacies of movement.

In research related scenarios practical tests such as the FMS may not be precise
enough to measure fine changes or subtle differences in muscle function. Under
such laboratory-based conditions the ability to examine even the smallest
changes in various components related to functional performance is of the
utmost importance for determining baseline measures of function as well as for
determining effectiveness of an exercise intervention. Therefore precise
measurements of sway, stability, symmetrical loading, and power, specifically
when applied to basic movement patterns such as those seen when using a highly
calibrated force platform may be a more appropriate venue for providing
researchers with the best tools for examining performance. Specifically,
measuring an individual’s balance or symmetrical loading patterns during
movements such as squats, lunges, planks, pushups, or any variation of these by
examining levels of sway and shifts in center of gravity (only possible when using
more advanced instrumentation such as a force platform) may be a more
research-appropriate assessment of performance than simply assigning a
numerical grade based on a 0-3 point system as seen with other assessments.

Few scientific publications have been performed examining “calculated” levels

of sway and stability during variations of functional performance related
movements. However one study in particular examined core and upper
extremity stability using a force platform to measure sway during single arm
plank holds on an unstable surface (Laudner, 2012). In this instance the test was
very similar to several proposed our study as a force platform was used to
measure sway during a complex unilateral core stabilization isometric exercise.
Another similar study examined stability and sway of the bodyweight squat in
order to assess fatigue induced from submaximal aerobic bicycling on lower
extremity muscle function (Mel'nikov, Savin, Emel'ianova, & Vikulov, 2012).
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Several studies have also examined symmetrical loading patterns during the squat
movement (Hakim, Davies, Jaworski, Tufano, & Unterstein, 2012; Rossi et al.,
2013). However only one study has looked closely at the reliability of such a task
although measurements of symmetry incorporating a force platform were not
used (Loudon, Wiesner, Goist-Foley, Asjes, & Loudon, 2002). Furthermore no
current literature appears to exist on reliability of symmetrical loading patterns
for upper body functional performance tasks such as pushup variations.

Although there is ample support demonstrating the reliability of force platforms

for assessing markers of performance such as force and power during vertical
jump tests (Moir, Sanders, Button, & Glaister, 2005) (Impellizzeri, Rampinini,
Maffiuletti, & Marcora, 2007) there appears to be few if any publications which
have examined the reliability of force platforms for other more novel tasks such
as variations of squats, pushups, lunges, and planks, particularly when sway and
symmetrical loading were the primary outcome measures. When addressing
reliability of tests involving stability and balance a study by Kivlan et al. (2012)
examined reliability of assessing stability and balance of basic movement patterns
for the lower extremity using the single leg stand, and single leg squat. However
“time before loss of balance” rather than a force platform was employed in this
study therefore making direct application to the present topic is difficult.

Due to the limited information regarding reliability of novel tasks of muscle

function, the goal of this study was determine if various tests and outcome
measures of muscle function were reliable in order that such tests could be used
for future research in the area of human performance. Many of these tests and
outcome measures are unique to this study and have yet to be examined by other
researchers. Their contributions to the field could be highly significant. Any
tests that are reliable will have great value for allowing researchers, strength
coaches, physical therapists and other kinesiologists to closely examine specific
qualities of muscle function that have yet to be investigated to the same level
demonstrated in this present study.

M etho d s

The following section will examine the design and setup of this reliability study. Key factors
including participant eligibility, research setting, outcome measures, experimental design,
instrumentation, example graphical illustrations, and statistical analysis will be outlined in
detail so as to ensure precise implementation of methods and procedures were followed.

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S u b jec ts /Pa r tic ipa n ts

A total of 10 healthy subjects (8 males and 2 females) between 20-41 years of age
were recruited for the study. This study was approved by the IRB at UGA. All
participants provided written informed consent. In order to be eligible for this study
individual’s had to be involved (at least once per week) in some form of strength
training program for the previous six months leading up to the study. Participant
incentive was a free one-hour personal training session for those involved in the
study. Any participants found to be at moderate or high risk or individuals dealing
with any significant medical issue as indicated on the required paperwork were not
included in this study. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) considers
individuals under the age of 45 with no medical issues to be low risk participants
with no medical clearance required therefore physician approval prior to the study
was not necessary. See Table 1 for more information on participants.

Table One
DEMOGRAPHICS FOR PARTICIPANTS
Subject Weight Level of Strength
Age Gender
Number (lbs.) Training Experience
1 25 221 Male Advanced

2 21 130 Female Intermediate

3 22 147 Male Advanced

4 21 132 Male Intermediate

5 32 164 Male Intermediate

6 30 186 Male Intermediate

7 22 178 Male Advanced

8 31 210 Female Advanced

9 24 140 Male Advanced

10 41 195 Male Intermediate

Note: All subjects were apparently healthy based on PAR-Q and Health Screening Form.
Level of Strength Training Experience was determined based on criteria of two years training
experience. More than two years training experience was considered advanced while less than
two years but greater than 6 months was considered intermediate.
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S ettin g

Testing sessions involving data collection of the dependent variables were

carried out in the Motor Skills Laboratory (Room 210) in the Ramsey Building of
UGA’s Kinesiology department.

O u tc o m e M ea s u r es

There were a total of 14 tests, which amounted to 26 outcome measures all of

which assessed various aspects of muscle function. The various tests measured
sway, balance, weight distribution, force production, and power. Of the 14 tests
12 of these were evaluated with the NeuroCom force platform and included
weight bearing squat, single leg stand and hold, pushup hold, lunge hold, stability
ball plank hold (feet), forward lunge, single arm plank pushup hold, single arm
stability plank hold, single leg squat, stability ball pushup plank hold (hands),
BOSU squat, and BOSU pushup. The other two tests were performed with a
Myotest power device which included a power pushup and a vertical jump test.
All tests were performed in the order listed above.

Ex per im en ta l D es ig n

This research study examined stability-reliability of the various markers of

muscle function listed above. The goal was to determine which of the 14 tests
of muscle function were most reliable as well as to determine if there were any
measures that had poor reliability.

This study used a classic test-retest methodology, a common approach used for
examining stability-reliability (Baumgartner, Jackson, Mahar, & Row, 2007). Each
subject was required to allot a maximum of 2 hours of total participation time
spread over the course of 2 separate sessions separated 4-8 days apart.
Participants performed all 14 tests at both sessions. During the first session
subjects met individually with the tester (primary investigator) at which time the
first 15 minutes of the session were spent familiarizing the participant with the
various tests and explaining what he or she would need to do for both sessions.
After the subject expressed agreement to understanding what he or she would be
doing during the session the data collection process began.

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Each of the 14 tests of muscle function were tested individually and all trials
were performed for that test before moving on to any of the other tests. The
primary investigator was the tester for all trials. Before each test the subject was
allotted one practice repetition in order to gain familiarity with the positioning
and movement patterns required for each test.

During the second session procedures were the same as described above in the
first session with the exception of the familiarization phase. This familiarization
process was eliminated, as the subjects were already acclimated to the testing
conditions performed during session 1. Subjects performed the same 14 tests
under the same order and conditions as they performed in session 1 which took
approximately 45 minutes.

In summary all ten subjects performed 14 tests examining muscle function in

two different sessions separated 4-8 days apart in order to examine reliability of
the tests. General procedures followed basic principles outlined in the text by
Baumgartner et al, (2007) Measurement for Evaluation.

Testing Procedures and

Instrumentation
N eu r o C o m Fo r c e Pla tfo r m Tes ts

The force platform device that was used was a NeuroCom Balance Manager System
EquiTest/Balance Master (8.4.0) 2008, USA model. Of the 14 tests, 12 involved
the NeuroCom which primarily assessed stability, balance, force, power, and side to
side comparison (left to right) of weight distribution (symmetrical balance/loading)
all of which are considered vital aspects of proper muscle function (Voight et al.,
2007). All subjects were instructed to notify the tester of any pain or discomfort at
any point during the testing process in which case any test or movement causing
discomfort was to be eliminated for that particular individual.

It should also be noted that the following tests did not involve any dangerous or
potentially hazardous positions. For tests involving placing another unstable
object on top of the force platform this presented no unnecessary risks for
participants as the force platform was elevated only one inch from the floor.
Therefore during instances in which a participant lost balance, he or she simply
stepped down to the floor (a common and safe strategy used for coping with

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instability during balance training). All tests used in this study represent typical
movements that might be seen in a balance and strength training program.

M yo tes t P r o P erfo rm a n c e Tes ter

The other two tests were performed using a Myotest SPORT Pro performance
measuring device (AA0A00090, Switzerland, 2009). This device measures
vertical displacement as well as power, force, and velocity of movement.

W eig h t B ea r in g S q u a t

Subjects stood on the NeuroCom Force Platform and were prompted by the
tester to squat down to roughly 90 degrees (bottom position) and hold for 5-10
seconds (long enough for the system to perform full analysis but no longer).
The NeuroCom computer system calculated and analyzed sway/stability (mean
center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second) and percent body weight
supported by left and right side (% weight bearing right or left) all of which were
displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name. Each subject
performed 2 trials with 30 seconds of rest between trials and the average of the
trials was used for further analysis and discussion.

S in g le Leg S ta n d a n d H o ld

Subjects stood on the NeuroCom Force Platform with a single leg and held an
upright posture position for 5-10 seconds while maintaining balance on one leg.
The NeuroCom computer system calculated and analyzed sway/stability (mean
center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second) which was displayed and
stored in the computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed 2
trials on each leg with 30 seconds of rest between trials and the average of the
trials for each side was used for further analysis and discussion.

S in g le Leg S q u a t

Subjects stood on the NeuroCom Force Platform with a single leg and were
prompted by the tester to squat down with proper squatting technique and hold
for 5-10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and analyzed
sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second) which was

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displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name. Each subject
performed 2 trials on each leg with 30 seconds of rest between trials and the
average of the trials for each side was used for further analysis and discussion.

Lu n g e H o ld

Subjects stood on the NeuroCom Force Platform and when prompted by the
tester assumed a full lunge position (bottom of a full lunge) for 5-10 seconds
while maintaining balance. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and
analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second)
which was displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name.
Each subject performed 2 trials on each leg (left leg in front and right leg in
front) with 30 seconds of rest between trials and the average of the trials for each
side was used for further analysis and discussion.

Pu s h u p H o ld

Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a pushup with their feet on the floor
and their hands on the NeuroCom Force Platform. When prompted by the tester
the subject lowered themselves into the bottom of a pushup position (roughly a 90
degree position) and held for 5-10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system
calculated and analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in
degrees/second) and percent body weight supported by left and right side (%
weight bearing right arm or left arm) all of which were displayed and stored in the
computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed 2 trials with 60
seconds of rest between trials and the average of was used for further analysis and
discussion. If the subject was unable to properly perform a standard pushup due to
strength limitations, a modified pushup position in which the subjects perform the
movement from their knees instead of their feet was used for this test. The pushup
version used from the first testing session continued to be used for all further
testing sessions during the study in order to keep all variables constant.

Pu s h u p S ta b ility B a ll Pla n k H o ld
(feet)

Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a pushup with the balls of their
feet on a 65 cm Power-Systems stability ball and their hands on the NeuroCom
Force Platform. Subjects were instructed to hold this position (arms straight)
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with as little movement as possible. The NeuroCom computer system

calculated and analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in
degrees/second) and percent body weight supported by left and right side (%
weight bearing right or left) all of which were displayed and stored in the
computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed 2 trials with 60
seconds of rest between trials and the average of the trials was used for further
analysis and discussion. If the subject was unable to properly perform a standard
pushup plank position due to strength limitations, a modified pushup position in
which the subjects performed the movement with their knees on the ball instead
of their feet was used for this test. The pushup plank hold version used from
the first testing session continue to be used for all further testing sessions during
the study in order to keep all variables constant.

S in g le A r m Pu s h u p Pla n k H o ld

Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a one arm pushup with the balls
of their feet on the floor, the hand of the testing arm on the NeuroCom Force
Platform and the opposite arm placed to the side of their body. Subjects were
instructed to hold this position (arm straight) for 5-10 seconds with as little
movement as possible. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and
analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second)
which was displayed and stored in the computer under that subject’s name.
Each subject performed 2 trials on each side with 60 seconds of rest between
trials and the average of the trials was used for further analysis and discussion. If
the subject was unable to properly perform a standard one arm pushup plank
position due to strength limitations, a modified pushup position in which the
subjects performed the movement with their knees on the floor instead of their
feet was used for this test. The pushup plank hold version used from the first
testing session continued to be used for all further testing sessions during the
study in order to keep all variables constant.

S ta b ility B a ll Pu s h u p Pla n k H o ld
(h a n d s )

A 65 cm Power-Systems stability ball was placed directly on the center of the

NeuroCom force platform. Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a
pushup with their hands on the ball and their feet on the floor. Subjects were
instructed to hold this position (arms straight) with as little movement as
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possible for 5-10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system calculated and
analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second)
and percent body weight supported by left and right side (% weight bearing right
or left) all of which was displayed and stored in the computer under that
subject’s name. Each subject performed 2 trials with 60 seconds of rest between
trials and the average of the trials was used for further analysis and discussion. If
the subject was unable to properly perform a standard pushup plank position
due to strength limitations, a modified pushup position in which the subjects
perform the movement with their knees on the floor instead of their feet was
used for this test. The pushup plank hold version used from the first testing
session continued to be used for all further testing sessions during the study in
order to keep all variables constant.

B O S U B a ll Pu s h u p H o ld

A BOSU ball was placed directly on the center of the NeuroCom force platform.
Subjects assumed the starting position (top) of a pushup with their feet on the
floor and their hands on the BOSU ball. When prompted by the tester the
subject lowered themselves into the bottom of a pushup position (roughly a 90
degree position) and held for 5-10 seconds. The NeuroCom computer system
calculated and analyzed sway/stability (mean center of gravity sway velocity in
degrees/second) and percent body weight supported by left and right side (%
weight bearing right arm or left arm) all of which were displayed and stored in
the computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed 2 trials with 60
seconds of rest between trials and the average of the trials was used for further
analysis and discussion. If the subject was unable to properly perform a standard
pushup due to strength limitations, a modified pushup position in which the
subjects performed the movement from their knees instead of their feet was
used for this test. The pushup version used from the first testing session
continued to be used for all further testing sessions during the study in order to
keep all variables constant.

B O S U B a ll S q u a t.

A BOSU ball was placed directly on the center of the NeuroCom force platform.
Subjects stood stand on the BOSU ball and were prompted by the tester to squat
down to roughly 90 degrees (bottom position) and hold for 5-10. The
NeuroCom computer system will calculate and analyze sway/stability (mean
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center of gravity sway velocity in degrees/second) which was displayed and

stored in the computer under that subject’s name. Each subject performed 2
trials with 60 seconds of rest between trials and the average of the trials was used
for further analysis and discussion.

Po w er Pu s h u p

The subject placed the Myotest belt onto his/her waist. The Myotest SPORT
Pro was then attached to the belt near the participants outer right hip. The
subject was told to assume the start of a pushup position (top position, arms
extended, body straight), and wait until the sound of the beep to perform one
pushup. Participants were told to perform the pushup with maximal speed and
power on both the lowering and lifting phase. Any subject not able to perform a
traditional pushup due to strength limitations was allowed to perform a modified
pushup (hands and knees) using the same protocols. Power in watts was
calculated by the Myotest unit and results were recorded in Microsoft Excel.
Participants performed 3 pushup repetitions with 60 seconds between each
repetition and the average of those values was used for further analysis.

V er tic a l Ju m p

The subject placed the Myotest belt onto his/her waist. The Myotest SPORT
Pro was then attached to the belt near the participants outer right hip. The
subject was told to wait for the pre-programmed beep from the Myotest and
jump straight up as high as possible for one repetition. Participants were
instructed to avoid any counter-movements such as stepping or pivoting into the
jump but rather to stand stationary immediately before jumping. Vertical jump
height in inches (to the nearest tenth of an inch) was calculated by the Myotest
unit and results were recorded in Excel. Participants performed 3 vertical jump
trials with 60 seconds between each trial and the average of those values used for
further analysis.

S ta tis tic a l A n a lys is a n d

In ter pr eta tio n

Data for each of the 12 NeuroCom tests for each participant (N=10) was
collected and stored in the computer system connected to the NeuroCom
instrument. Values were then transferred to Microsoft Excel and SPSS PASW
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Statistics 18.0 software for further analysis. For the two tests involving the
Myotest, results were stored on the Myotest unit and transferred to Microsoft
Excel and SPSS for further analysis. Average values for each of the tests were
used for each participant’s scores. Therefore each participant had a total of 28
different raw values (14 tests performed over 2 different sessions). Each of the
14 tests had an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) value attached to it
produced from the SPSS analysis procedure as well as the mean, standard
deviation and coefficient of variation (SD/mean).

To perform a reliability analysis producing an ICC on SPSS, data was assigned to

2 columns with the first column representing session 1 average value and the
second column session 2 average value. Each column had 10 values
representing scores from each of the 10 participants. Once values were entered
an analysis was performed by selecting “Reliability Analysis” and performing an
ICC using a two way ANOVA model. SPSS then provide Cronbach’s Alpha
which is the ICC for that test. This procedure was performed 14 times, one
analysis and ICC value for each test.

Although there are different criteria for determining levels of acceptable

reliability, it is generally considered that anything below an ICC value of .70 is
unreliable (Baumgartner et al., 2007). However Baumgartner et al. (2007) also
state that values between .70 and .79 are typically considered below-average
levels of acceptability and that .80 or greater constitutes as average (.80-.89) or
above-average (.90-1.0) acceptability levels of reliability. Therefore for the
purpose of making this study more stringent in its guidelines for acceptability
levels as well as ensuring that obtaining reliable values is not unrealistic, the
minimum level of reliability that was used was .80. Anything below this was
considered an unreliable test and anything at or above this value was considered
to be a reliable test.

For all unilateral tests (assessments in which each side of the body is tested
separately) such as the single leg stand, single leg squat, lunge, and single arm
pushup plank hold, each of these had 4 outcome measures associated with them.
For example all the of these tests were separated into right side, left side, total
(left and right combined), and difference between left and right. If any of the 4
associated outcome measures was unreliable for that specific test then that test
was considered unreliable. Therefore for any unilateral test to be considered
reliable, each of its 4 associated outcome measures had to also be reliable.

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Results
All subjects successfully completed the study according to the aforementioned
methodology. Depending on the tests, ICC values ranged from low reliability
(.11) to high reliability (.99). Of the 14 different tests, 9 of them proved to be
reliable with ICC values ranging from .80-99 depending on the test. When the
14 tests were subdivided into their individual counterparts (unilateral tests each
had 4 associated outcome measures), there were a total of 26 outcome measures
with only 10 of them demonstrating high reliability. All unilateral tests such as
the single leg stand, single leg squat, lunge hold, and single arm pushup plank
hold showed moderate (.40-.79) to poor (<.40) reliability. All but one of the
bilateral tests specifically the stability ball pushup plank with hands on ball
(ICC=.75) demonstrated high reliability. The two assessments involving the
Myotest SPORT Pro showed the highest reliability with the vertical jump test
producing an ICC value of .99 and the power pushup producing an ICC value of
.98. Examples of the reliability analysis for each of the outcome measures can be
seen in table 2 and figure 1 showing individual averages for the assessment of
sway on the bodyweight squat. All coefficient of variation values were <1.0
demonstrating low variance. Values for each of the 26 outcome measures
including ICC, mean, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation are
displayed in table 3 and table 4.

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Table Two
SWAY VELOCITY FOR BODYWEIGHT SQUAT HOLD (DEGREES/SECOND)

Session 1 Average Sway Session 2 Average Sway

Participant
(deg/sec)) (deg/sec)

1 0.6 0.5

2 0.45 0.6

3 0.55 0.6

4 0.65 0.5

5 0.7 0.75

6 0.95 0.95

7 0.65 0.6

8 0.5 0.45

9 0.4 0.45

10 0.5 0.6

Mean 0.6 0.6

SD 0.16 0.15

Note: This table represents one of 14 tests examined in this study and is an example of how
each test’s data was collected, organized, and analyzed. Session 1 and 2 were separated by 4-8
days apart for each participant. This specific test produced an ICC value of .90 therefore it was
considered to be a reliable assessment of lower body muscle function.

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Fig u r e 1.

Example Illustration for a Reliable Test of Lower Body Muscle Function

Sway Velocity for

Bodyweight Squat Hold
(degrees/second)
1.1

1
AVERAGE VALUES FOR SESSION 2

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1
Average Values for Session One

Note: This graph represents each individual’s value for session 1 and 2 separately. The results
for this test (Bodyweight Squat Hold) indicates high reliability.

Total N=10. ICC (Cronbach's alpha) =.90

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Table Three
ICC VALUES, MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND COEFFICIENT OF
VARIATIONS FOR VARIOUS TESTS OF MUSCLE FUNCTION
Mean Mean
Test Name/Outcome Reliable SD SD CV CV
ICC Session Session
Measure and Function Tested (yes/no) 1 2 1 2
1 2
BW Squat Symmetrical Loading
0.96 Yes 7.60 6.93 5.34 3.19 0.70 0.46
(% difference L vs R)
BW Squat Stability
0.90 Yes 0.60 0.60 0.16 0.15 0.26 0.25
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Stand Left
0.79 No 0.76 0.70 0.16 0.10 0.21 0.14
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Stand Right
0.47 No 0.72 0.63 0.15 0.13 0.21 0.20
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Stand Total
0.63 No 1.48 1.33 0.30 0.19 0.20 0.14
(left + right)
Single Leg Stand Difference
0.69 No 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.07 0.72 0.58
(side to side)
Single Leg Squat Left
0.77 No 0.90 0.84 0.20 0.14 0.22 0.17
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Squat Right
0.69 No 0.94 0.87 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.21
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Squat Total 0.86 Yes 1.75 1.63 0.22 0.24 0.13 0.15
Single Leg Squat Difference 0.59 No 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.65 0.98
Lunge Left (left in front)
0.73 No 0.79 0.76 0.14 0.18 0.18 0.23
(sway deg/sec)
Lunge Right (right in front)
0.45 No 0.79 0.78 0.15 0.12 0.19 0.15
(sway deg/sec)
Lunge Total (left+right) 0.74 No 1.50 1.49 0.17 0.31 0.12 0.21
Lunge Side to Side Difference 0.77 No 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.09 0.89 0.68
Pushup Symmetrical Loading
0.85 Yes 3.27 3.67 2.82 3.22 0.86 0.88
(% diff L vs R)
Pushup Stability
0.81 Yes 0.38 0.39 0.10 0.07 0.26 0.19
(sway deg/sec)
Stability Ball Pushup Plank
0.8 Yes 0.85 0.81 0.31 0.28 0.37 0.34
(feet on ball) (sway d/sec)
Single Arm Pushup Plank Left
0.2 No 0.31 0.33 0.10 0.08 0.34 0.23
(sway deg /sec)
Single Arm Pushup Plank
0.11 No 0.31 0.30 0.07 0.07 0.23 0.22
Right (sway deg/sec)
Single Arm Pushup Plank
0.43 No 0.62 0.63 0.15 0.09 0.24 0.14
Total
Single Arm Pushup Plank
0.45 No 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.79 0.88
Difference
Stability Ball Pushup Plank
0.75 No 0.61 0.56 0.18 0.17 0.29 0.31
(hands on ball) (sway d/s)
Bosu Ball Pushup
0.94 Yes 0.43 0.43 0.11 0.13 0.26 0.30
(sway deg/sec)
Bosu Ball Squat
0.87 Yes 1.27 1.03 0.35 0.18 0.28 0.17
(sway deg/sec)
Vertical Jump (Myotest)
0.99 Yes 14.91 14.73 2.73 2.55 0.18 0.17
(Height in Inches)
Power Pushup (Myotest)
0.98 Yes 627.16 626.15 340.44 302.31 0.54 0.48
(Power in Watts)

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Note: This is a comprehensive list of each of the 26 outcome measures of muscle function tested
in this study. Only 10 of the outcome measures were reliable. ICC values of .80 or greater were
considered reliable. For unilateral tests such as the single leg stand, single leg squat, lunge, and
single arm pushup plank, all four associated outcomes (Left, Right, Total, and Difference) each
had to be reliable in order to demonstrate high reliability for that test. Therefore the Single Leg
Squat assessment was not a reliable test as only one of four associated outcome measures (Total)
was reliable. Therefor only 9 of the 14 muscle function assessments examined in this study
were reliable although 10 of the 26 outcome measures showed high reliability.

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Table Four
ICC VALUES, MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND COEFFICIENT OF
VARIATIONS FOR VARIOUS TESTS OF MUSCLE FUNCTION
Mean Mean
Test Name/Outcome Reliable SD SD CV CV
ICC Session Session
Measure and Function Tested (yes/no) 1 2 1 2
1 2
Single Arm Pushup Plank Right
0.11 No 0.31 0.30 0.07 0.07 0.23 0.22
(sway deg/sec)
Single Arm Pushup Plank Left
0.2 No 0.31 0.33 0.10 0.08 0.34 0.23
(sway deg /sec)
Single Arm Pushup Plank
0.43 No 0.62 0.63 0.15 0.09 0.24 0.14
Total
Single Arm Pushup Plank
0.45 No 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.79 0.88
Difference
Lunge Right (right in front)
0.45 No 0.79 0.78 0.15 0.12 0.19 0.15
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Stand Right
0.47 No 0.72 0.63 0.15 0.13 0.21 0.20
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Squat Difference 0.59 No 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.10 0.65 0.98
Single Leg Stand Total
0.63 No 1.48 1.33 0.30 0.19 0.20 0.14
(left + right)
Single Leg Stand Difference
0.69 No 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.07 0.72 0.58
(side to side)
Single Leg Squat Right
0.69 No 0.94 0.87 0.14 0.18 0.14 0.21
(sway deg/sec)
Lunge Left (left in front)
0.73 No 0.79 0.76 0.14 0.18 0.18 0.23
(sway deg/sec)
Lunge Total (left+right) 0.74 No 1.50 1.49 0.17 0.31 0.12 0.21
Stability Ball Pushup Plank
0.75 No 0.61 0.56 0.18 0.17 0.29 0.31
(hands on ball) (sway d/s)
Lunge Side to Side Difference 0.77 No 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.09 0.89 0.68
Single Leg Squat Left
0.77 No 0.90 0.84 0.20 0.14 0.22 0.17
(sway deg/sec)
Single Leg Stand Left
0.79 No 0.76 0.70 0.16 0.10 0.21 0.14
(sway deg/sec)
Stability Ball Pushup Plank
0.8 Yes 0.85 0.81 0.31 0.28 0.37 0.34
(feet on ball) (sway d/sec)
Pushup Stability
0.81 Yes 0.38 0.39 0.10 0.07 0.26 0.19
(sway deg/sec)
Pushup Symmetrical Loading
0.85 Yes 3.27 3.67 2.82 3.22 0.86 0.88
(% diff L vs R)
Single Leg Squat Total 0.86 Yes 1.75 1.63 0.22 0.24 0.13 0.15
Bosu Ball Squat
0.87 Yes 1.27 1.03 0.35 0.18 0.28 0.17
(sway deg/sec)
BW Squat Stability
0.90 Yes 0.60 0.60 0.16 0.15 0.26 0.25
(sway deg/sec)
Bosu Ball Pushup
0.94 Yes 0.43 0.43 0.11 0.13 0.26 0.30
(sway deg/sec)
BW Squat Symmetrical Loading
0.96 Yes 7.60 6.93 5.34 3.19 0.70 0.46
(% difference L vs R)
Power Pushup (Myotest) 340.4 302.3
0.98 Yes 627.16 626.15 0.54 0.48
(Power in Watts) 4 1
Vertical Jump (Myotest)
0.99 Yes 14.91 14.73 2.73 2.55 0.18 0.17
(Height in Inches)

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Note: This table represents the same data presented in table 3 with the only difference being the
order information is arranged. The order of items are based on ICC Values (lowest to highest).

D is c u s s io n

To our knowledge no other study has examined the reliability of many of the
outcome measures looked at in this study particularly unilateral movements,
upper body stabilization, exercises performed on unstable surfaces, and
symmetrical loading of both upper and lower body. Furthermore many of these
outcome measures are novel markers of muscle function and determining
whether or not they are suitable for future movement studies is essential.

From the results it appears that all movements involving unilateral stabilization
in this study were not reliable measures of muscle function. The single leg stand
had four outcome measures associated with ICC values ranging from .47-.79.
Similarly the single leg squat and the lunge hold had ICC values ranging from
.59-.86 and .45-.77 respectively. Although these unilateral stabilization
movements show moderate reliability (>.4) according to various sources (Kivlan
& Martin, 2012), the guidelines mandated in this study were kept stringent
therefore all associated outcome measures of the assessment had to produce ICC
values of .80 (high reliability) or greater to be considered reliable. However the
results for these lower limb unilateral assessments are similar to another study
performed by Kivlan et al. (2012) that also examined reliability of single leg
stands and single leg squats where ICC values were .58 and .61-.80 respectively.

Although reliability of the lower limb unilateral movement assessments were

moderately reliable and also produced values in accordance to other literature, no
data exists to compare the unusually poor ICC values obtained from the upper
body unilateral stabilization movement specifically the single arm pushup plank
hold. In this case the four outcome measures associated with this assessment
ranged from .11-.45 representing very poor to moderately low levels of reliability.
However this is not surprising as several of the participants involved in the study
made suggestions of slight discomfort in the supporting limb during this
assessment. Levels of fatigue, discomfort, and inflammation may have caused
variation from session to session amongst subjects particularly in the case where
several subjects had no discomfort during the first session but experienced mild
discomfort in the second session. Such information is particularly important for
future research as highly complex skills involving greater than normal levels of

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stabilization and strength may not be appropriate for testing unless subjects are
highly advanced or have had experience with similar activities.

Other factors may be responsible for the results produced from the unilateral
stabilization assessments. First, the fact that no single unilateral assessment
demonstrated high reliability may be indicative of large variation in the learning
effect achieved by the participants from session 1 to session 2 in these specific
movements. Most of the bilateral movements in this study such as variations of
pushups and squats are common exercises performed regularly by trainees.
Because criteria for participation in this study required current involvement in
strength training for 6 months leading up to this study, it is safe to assume that
each of these subjects had performed variations of upper and lower body
bilateral movements similar to tested in this study. Even if the typical training
program consisted of leg press and bench press variations, the fact that the
participants were familiar with bilateral movement patterns suggests that the
learning effect for all involved subjects would have been somewhat similar from
person to person. Furthermore bilateral movements are typically less complex
therefor the learning effect is not as lengthy compared to more complex
variations. This may explain why nearly all bilateral movements demonstrated
high reliability

In contrast unilateral movements such as single leg squats, isometric lunges, and
single arm pushup plank holds represent atypical movement patterns normally
not included in traditional training programs and also have steeper and more
varied learning curves amongst individuals. (Voight et al., 2007). Several of the
participants in this study mentioned having prior experience with these
variations. Therefore the level of stability from session 1 to session 2 may have
varied significantly as some subjects may have experienced little to no learning
effect as pre-existing movement strategies may had already been formed while
others had to develop such strategies as they study progressed. In essence the
level of experience as well as variation in coordination and individual balance
may have had a large effect on these more complex unilateral stabilization
movements in which case reliability was impacted. In the future it may be best
to develop more specific criteria for screening subjects. In such a case all
subjects would either be required to have experience with these specific
movements or all subjects would have no experience all of which may help
adjust for some of the variability accompanying individual differences. Although
there is a small amount of literature surrounding the single leg stand and single
leg squat (Kivlan & Martin, 2012), to the best of our knowledge no research

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regarding reliability of assessing stability levels of isometric lung holds has been
performed. Unfortunately our results showed only moderate levels of reliability
for the lunge however it still may be useful in scenarios where athletes or
participants have similar levels of experience and strength.

When examining the assessments that utilized unstable surfaces such as the 2
variations of the Stability Ball Pushup Plank only the variation with the feet on
the ball and hands on the ground was reliable (ICC=.80) while the other
variation (hands on the ball and feet on the floor) although still having
moderately high levels of reliability (ICC=.75) was not considered reliable based
on criteria established for this study. Participants seemed to have a difficult time
determining how to properly position themselves on the ball for both of these
variations which may explain part of the reasoning for slightly more average
values of reliability. However these tests may be most suitable for participants
who have higher levels strength and stabilization training experience. To the best
of our knowledge no research has been performed on either of these variations
of unstable plank holds. However one study used a similar exercise (one arm
pushup plank hold with feet on a BOSU ball) to assess upper body stability and
muscle function in football players and college age non-athletes (Laudner, 2012).
However literature on the reliability of that assessment is lacking.

The other tests in this study incorporating unstable surfaces was the BOSU Ball
pushup and Bosu Ball squat both of which had ICC values of .94 and .87
respectively, indicating high reliability. To the best of our knowledge there is no
research in any form utilizing or addressing these specific tests. However these
movements are commonplace in specialized training programs where
stabilization and balance are of primary concern (Voight et al., 2007). Therefore
such test may be highly valuable for specific training venues.

Two of the tests in this study examined symmetrical loading which describes the
ability to equally distribute weight or load on both limbs equally. If an individual
squats with 50% of the weight on the left leg and 50% on the right leg then it
could be said that this individual has ideal levels of lower body symmetrical
loading under conditions of hip and knee flexion. Although this characteristic is
highly valued in strength and conditioning settings (Baechle & Earle, 2008) few
studies have examined the reliability of tests that assess this attribute although
several studies have used the squat to measure levels symmetrical loading (Hakim
et al., 2012; Rossi et al., 2013). To the best of our knowledge this is the first
study to examine upper body symmetrical loading as seen with the pushup. This
study showed that both the bodyweight squat and bodyweight pushup when
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examining symmetrical loading were reliable measures of muscle function with

ICC values of .96 and .85 respectively.

Although there is a fairly large body of literature demonstrating the reliability of

the Myotest SPORT Pro (Casartelli, Muller, & Maffiuletti, 2010; Nuzzo, Anning,
& Scharfenberg, 2011) there appears to be no research examining the reliability
of this instrument in assessing power output for the pushup. For the vertical
jump the Myotest proved to be a reliable instrument producing very high ICC
value of .99. This number is similar to other studies such as those by Cassertelli
et al. (2010), and Anning et al. (2011) in which cases reliability ranged from .92-
.96. The power pushup utilizing the Myotest also proved to be a reliable
assessment of upper body power as this test produced an ICC value of .98.

Pr a c tic a l A pplic a tio n

Researcher and strength coaches alike may find this study valuable as our results
either confirmed those witnessed by other researchers or in many cases
demonstrated reliability of novel and unique tests of muscle function that have
yet to be examined by others in the field. Those wishing to utilize unilateral
movements such as the single leg stand, single leg squat, lunge hold, and single
arm pushup plank hold may want to consider other tests or at minimum ensure
that all participants demonstrate similar levels of skill, strength, and experience in
those particular movements. Although our results showed only moderate levels
of reliability for these tests, findings may have been different had the number of
participants been greater as only 10 total subjects were used in our study.

If strength coaches or scientists wish to assess lower or upper body symmetrical

loading patterns both the bodyweight squat and bodyweight pushup appear to be
reliable indicators of this characteristic so long as a force platform is utilized to
analyze loading patterns.

Under conditions in which trainers, researchers, therapists or other kinesiologists

would want to assess stability utilizing unstable surfaces, the stability ball plank
hold with feet on the ball as well as the BOSU Ball Squat and BOSU Ball
Pushup appear to be reliable tests for this. Although the stability ball pushup
plank hold with hands on the ball lacked the high reliability values of the other
unstable surface tests, conditions in which subjects had similar experience and
strength as well as utilizing greater number of participants may have provided
different results.

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Finally more strength coaches and researchers may want to consider using the
Myotest Sports Pro to assess their athletes and participants as our results
confirmed that the device is highly reliable specifically when it comes to
explosive high-speed movements. Not only is this device practical for large
group settings, little equipment other than the device itself is needed.
Furthermore the fact bodyweight exercises such as the vertical jump and pushup
can be utilized to assess explosive performance may make these assessments
ideal for conditions in which there are large number of participants.

The main limitation that other kinesiologists may find when applying our results
deals with the practicality and cost of attaining a highly calibrated force platform
such as that used in this study. For athletic settings or research scenarios in
which maximizing performance is the goal, accurately assessing specific
components related to balance, stability, sway, symmetrical loading, and power
are critical in order to determine if progress in these all important characteristics
of performance are being attained. Therefore an investment such as a force
platform may be may be worth the cost. Although the results of this study are
informative and shed new light on specific assessments of muscle function, more
research as well as studies utilizing higher number of participants is needed to
confirm our findings.

A c k n o w led g m en ts

The author thanks UGA Ramsey Rec Sports staff for providing special
equipment and gear used throughout this study.

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R efer en c es

Baechle, T. R., & Earle, R. W. (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and

Conditioning NSCA.

Baumgartner, T.A., Jackson, A.S., Mahar, M.T., & Row, D.A. (2007).
Measurement for Evaluation in Physical Education and Exercise Science (8th
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Casartelli, N., Muller, R., & Maffiuletti, N. A. (2010). Validity and

reliability of the Myotest accelerometric system for the assessment of
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Cook, G. (2011). Movement: Functional Movement Systems: Screening,

Assessment, Corrective Strategies: Lotus Publishing.

Cook, Gray, & Burton, Lee. (2007). Functional Movement Screening. In

M. Voight, B. Hoogenboom & W. Prentice (Eds.), Musculoskeletal
Interventions: Techniques for Therapeutic Exercise.

Couture, E., & Simoneau, M. (2013). Estimate of body motion during

voluntary body sway movements. Gait Posture.

Goss, D. L., Christopher, G. E., Faulk, R. T., & Moore, J. (2009).

Functional training program bridges rehabilitation and return to duty. J
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Hakim, R. M., Davies, L., Jaworski, K., Tufano, N., & Unterstein, A.
(2012). A computerized dynamic posturography (CDP) program to
reduce fall risk in a community dwelling older adult with chronic stroke:
a case report. Physiother Theory Pract, 28(3), 169-177.

Impellizzeri, F. M., Rampinini, E., Maffiuletti, N., & Marcora, S. M.

(2007). A vertical jump force test for assessing bilateral strength
asymmetry in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 39(11), 2044-2050.

Kivlan, B, & Martin, R. (2012). Functional Performance Tesiting of the

Hip in Athletes: A Systematic Rewiew for Reiablity and Validity.
Internaltion Journal of Sports and Physical Therapy, 2012 August; 7(4): 402–
412.

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Laudner, Kevin G. (2012). Upper Extremity Sensorimotor Control

Among Collegiate Football Players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning
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of familiarization on the reliability of force variables measured during
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of three devices used for measuring vertical jump height. J Strength Cond
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Rossi, M. D., Eberle, T., Roche, M., Brunt, D., Wong, M., Waggoner,
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Voight, Michael, Hoogenboom, Barbara, & Prentice, William. (2007).

Musculoskeletal Interventions: Techniques for Therapeutic Exercise.

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