Week1 - 2 Lecture 1

Measurement systems and Sensors
Course Instructor:
Dr. Iyad Hashlamon
Mechanical Engineering Dept.,
Faculty of Engineering,
PPU
Measurment systems and sensors

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Why Study this subject ??

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Cars
Washing Machines
Hard drives
Air conditioners
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Medical diagnostics Instruments

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Basic Concepts
1. The purpose of the measurement system
link the observer to the process

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Basic Concepts
2. The structure of the measurement system
Transmission noise
Transmitter
Transducer
G1 G2 G3

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Basic Concepts
2. The structure of the measurement system
1- The sensor (sensing element) is the element that produces a physical
change (not signal) in response to changes in certain physical variables.
2- The transducer is the element that produces a signal which is related to

the quantity being measured
3- The signal converter ( signal processing element) takes the signal from
the transducer and converts it into a condition which is suitable for the display
part of a measurement system
4- The display element is where the output from the measuring system is
displayed. For example: a pointer moving across a scale.

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Standards and Dimensional units of
Measurement:
1- Primary units (7 units)

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2- Derived units

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Standards and Dimensional units
1- The Standard of length:
The meter is the length of path traveled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458
seconds
1 inch=2.54 centimeters (exactly)
2- The Standard of Mass:
The kilogram is defined by the mass of an alloy
cylinder (90% Platinum, 10% iridium) of equal height
and diameter, held at the international Bureau of
Weights and Measures at Sevres in France..
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3- The Standard of Time
The second is defined as a duration of 919,263,770
periods of oscillation of the radiation emitted by the
vaporized caesium-133 atom.
4- The standard of Current

The ampere is defined as that constant current
flowing through two infinitely long parallel conductors
of negligible cross-section placed 1 meter apart in
vacuum and producing between these conductors a
force equal to 2 x 10-7 N per meter length of the
conductor.
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5- The Standard of Temperature

The kelvin (K) is defined so that the temperature at
which liquid water, water vapour and ice are in
equilibrium (known as the triple point) is 273.16K.
Kelvin : (K) ( o C)  273.15

Rankine : ( o R) ( o F)  459.67
Fahrenheit :( o F)  1.8 ( o C)  32
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6- The Standard of Luminous intensity
The candela is defined as the luminous intensity, in
a given direction, of a specified source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 Hz
and that has a radiant intensity of 1/683 watt per
steradian
(1 steradian is the solid angle of a cone which, having its vertex at the center of a sphere, cuts off an
area of the sphere surface equal to the square the sphere radius).
7- The standard of Matter
The mole is defined as the number of atoms in
a 0.012kg mass of the carbon-12
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Performance Terminology of Measurement
Systems (Measurement system characteristics)
1- Static characteristics
2- Dynamic characteristics

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Performance Terminology of Measurement Systems
Static (steady-state characteristics)

the relationships which may occur between the output
O and input I of an element when I is either at a
constant value or changing slowly

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1- Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement of uncertainty)
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of

the instrument is to the true value.
The inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often
quoted as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument.
Example: A pressure gauge has a range of 0-12 bar It has an inaccuracy of  1.0%
. Determine the maximum expected error and the instrument accuracy
 1 
Error  12     0.12 bar
 100  Measurement
uncertainty
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2- Precision (repeatability)
The precision of an instrument is a measure of the scatter of results obtained
from measurements as a result of random errors. It described the closeness of
the agreement occurring between the results obtained for a quantity when it is
measured several times under the same conditions.

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Instrument
output
True value
Average value of measurements Average value of measurements

random measurement random measurement
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Average value of measurements Average value of measurements

random measurement random measurement
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3. Bias error: is the difference between the average and the true value
(constant error)
Instrument
output
True value
Average value of measurements

random measurement

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4. Range:
Imax , min Omax ,Omin
5. Span: Imax  min

Omax  Omin
Example 1: thermocouple may have input range 100 to 250 C and output
range 4 to 10 mV . The input span is 250-100=150 C and the output
span is 6 mV
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6. Linearity and non-linearity
Linearity error: It is the difference between the true value and the reading value
when linear relationship is assumed.
Question: Find the equation of the straight line in example 1?

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 Linearity
 Non-linearity
Note1: the nonlinearity might be expressed in terms of polynomials and

exponential functions look at equations 2.6-2.8

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7. Sensitivity (S)
Change in instrument scale reading

Sensitivity =
Change in the quantity being measured
Slope of the straight line

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Example:
If a pressure of 2 bar
produces a deflection
of 10 degrees in a
pressure transducer,
then the sensitivity of degrees
the instrument =
5 degrees/bar
5 degrees/bar
bar
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 Sensitivity (S)
O dO
S  if I  0, S 
I dI
dO
S   K  slope
dI
dO dN (I )
S  K 
dI dI

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8. Hysteresis: An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a
deference in readings depending on whether the value of the measured quantity
is approached from above or below. Hysteresis may be the result of mechanical
friction, magnetic effect, elastic deformation, or thermal effect.
Example: backlash in gears

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9. Resolution: the largest change in I that can occur without any corresponding
change in O
Or The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured that will produce an observable change in the reading of the
instrument

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10. Wear and ageing: These effects can cause the characteristics of an element
to change slowly but systematically throughout its life. One example is the
stiffness of a spring decreasing slowly with time due to wear.

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10. Threshold: The Threshold of an instrument is the minimum value a
signal must have reached before the instrument responds and gives an
output reading.
Example: car speedometer has a threshold of about 15 km/h.
no output reading can be observed until the speed reaches
15km/h
output
15
input
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11. Dead space Dead space/ Dead band/ Dead zone: Is the range of values of
the input (quantity being measured) for which the instrument gives no
reading (it is the threshold when the input starts from a zero value)

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12. Signal-to-noise ratio: The signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the signal
level Vs, to the internally generated noise level Vn. It is usually expressed in
decibels, i.e.
Signal-to-noise ratio in dB = 20 log10(Vs / Vn)
decibel: used to express

the ratio between two
quantities

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Signal-to-noise ratio
Vn
Vs
signal
noise
+
Time Time
Signal with noise
s/n ratio = (Vs / Vn)

s/n ratio in dB =
20 log10Vs / Vn)

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13. Sensitivity to disturbance (Environmental effects): All Specifications of an
instrument are only valid under controlled ambient conditions of temperature, pressure, ..etc.
if these standard ambient conditions change, the instrument may be affected in two main
ways, known as zero drift (or bias) due to I I and sensitivity drift due to I M
Results in zero shift error, ez Results in sensitivity error, ek

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Sensitivity to disturbance
(Environmental effects ):

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Example:

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Solution: T=10 deg
At 20 deg:
Sensitivity = line slope
= 20 mm/kg
Deflection [mm]
At 30 deg:
Sensitivity = line slope
= 22 mm/kg
Bias (zero drift)= 5 mm
Sensitivity drift = 22-20
5
=2 mm/kg
Load [kg]
Zero drift/deg=5/10=0.5mm/deg
Sensitivity drift/deg =2/10 =0.2 (mm/kg)/deg
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Overall instrument error (δOI): An estimate of the overall instrument
error is made based on all known errors.
For example, for an instrument having known hysteresis, linearity, sensitivity,

and repeatability errors, the overall error is
O I  e  e  e  e
2
h
2
L
2
S
2
R

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Example:
% O I  e L2  e h2  e R2  e z2
1000
δOI = 0.287%× = 2.87 N
 (0.10) 2  (0.10) 2  (0.15) 2  (0.20) 2 100%
 0.287 %
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Systematic characteristics
 Error Bands
 Non-linearity, hysteresis and resolution effects in many modern sensors and
transducers are so small that it is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly

quantify each individual effect.
 In these cases the manufacturer defines the performance of the element in
terms of error bands O  Oideal  h

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HW
A nominally linear electrical output force measuring device has the following
manufacturer specifications
 Input range 0-1000 N Full-scale output 24mV
 Linearity 0.1%full scale Hysteresis 0.08%full scale
 Repeatability 0.05%full scale Zero balance 1%full scale
 Temperature effect on
 Zero 0.002%full scale / C Span 0.002%of reading /o C

o
The device is used in an environment where the ambient temperature is not

controlled and can vary between 10 and 35 C. for an input of 200 N:
A) what will be the nominal output voltage
B) estimate the uncertainty due to each of the error sources that can be determined
from the specifications. Express the uncertainties both in millivolts and as a
percentage of reading.
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HW

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HW

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HW

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Dynamic characteristics
 The ways in which an element responds to input changes
are termed as its dynamic characteristics
 The dynamics are summarized by a Transfer function.
 Zero order elements
 First-order elements
 Second-order elements
 Dynamic errors in measurement systems

 Techniques for dynamic compensation ( will be in control
systems)

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For dynamic signals, the sensor or the measurement system must be able to
respond fast enough to keep up with the input signals.
Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system
In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a qualitative

understanding of the operation that the sensor or measurement system performs is
imperative to understanding the input signal correctly.

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In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general nth Order ordinary
linear differential equation with constant coefficient relation can be written between the
input and output for t > 0
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy(t ) d m x(t ) d m1 x(t ) dx(t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
   a1  a0 y (t )  bm m
 bm 1 m 1
   b1  b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt
Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system F(t) = forcing function
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t )  y h  y p
x(t) y(t) Where yh = homogenous part of solution

Measurement
system yp = particular-solution

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Zero-order Systems, (no derivative terms)
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m 1x (t ) dx (t )
an  a   L  a  a y (t )  b  b   L  b  b0 x (t )
dt n 1 dt m 1
n 1 1 0 m m 1 1
dt n dt dt m dt
a0 y(t )  b0 x(t ) y(t )  Kx(t )

x (t )
where K =instrument static sensitivity = b0/a0
Sharp like the input

The behavior is characterized by its
static sensitivity, K and remains
constant regardless of input frequency y (t )
(ideal dynamic characteristic).

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Zero-order Systems, (no derivative terms)
a0 y(t )  b0 x(t ) y(t )  Kx(t )
Example: A linear potentiometer used as position sensor is a zero-order

sensor
L
x
V V s  here, K V s / L
Vs + L
Where 0  x  L and Vs is a reference voltage
y=V
x=0 -

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First-order Systems, (one derivative)
Instrument is said to be first order when the relation between the input
and the output depends on the rate at which the output changes
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m 1x (t ) dx (t )
an  an 1  L  a  a y (t )  b  b m 1  L  b  b0 x (t )
dt n 1 dt m 1
1 0 m 1
dt n dt dt m dt
dy (t )
a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x (t )
dt

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First-order Systems, (one derivative)
dy (t ) a1 dy (t ) b
a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x (t )  y (t )  0 x (t )
dt a0 dt a0
dy (t )
  y (t )  Kx(t )
dt
Time constant Static sensitivity

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Dynamic characteristics x=A
First order instrument
Step input of
For step input (x= A), the solution magnitude A
of the previous equation is
y (t )  A K (1  e t  )
      
Time [s]
where
  a1 a0
It is known as the time constant
y Steady
state
of the instrument. It is the time Transient response
taken for the output q0 to reach
63% of the steady state value.
Note that the steady state is
reached at t  5       
Time [s]
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Example: consider a thermometer at temperature T
in a liquid at temperature Tl
dQ
Rate at which heat
enters the thermometer
 k (Tl  T ) T
dt
constant Tl
Rate at which energy is dQ dT

stored in the thermometer  mc
dt dt
Specific heat of the

thermometer fluid
Mass of the thermometer fluid

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Heat in = Energy stores
dT
k (Tl  T )  mc
dt
T
 mc  dT Tl
   T  Tl
 k  dt
input

dT
 T  Tl  mc 
where     Is the thermometer
dt  k  time constant
output
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Response: T  Tl (1  e t  )
T
Tl Tl
Steady state value
The mercury
T column in the
0.63Tl thermometer will
settle after 5
 mc 
  
 k 

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First order systems

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First order systems

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First order systems

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First order instruments
What is the effect of the instrument time constant on the
measurement response?
Larger 
y(t)
means slower response

Time [s]
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First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
dy (t )
  y (t )  Kx(t )
dt
From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs, x(t )  A sin t
we have dy
  y  KA sin t
dt
The steady state solution: y (t )  B ( )sin t   ( ) 
1 4 4 42 4 4 43
Steady state  Frequency
response response
KA
B( )   ( )   tan 1 
1  ( ) 
2 1/ 2
Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
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First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
sin t  tan 1  
t / KA
y (t )  Ce
{ 
Transient 1  ( ) 2
response 1 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 43
Steady state  Frequency
response response
If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form y (t )  Ce t /  B ( )sin t   ( ) 
{
at steady state  0
 B ( )sin t   ( ) 
KA
B( ) 
1  ( )  2 1/ 2
 ( )   tan 1 
Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
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Dynamic characteristics B( ) 
KA
1  ( ) 
2 1/ 2
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response B 1

M ( )  
1

KA 1   2 1/ 2 
The amplitude ratio M ( )  The phase angle is  ( )   tan 1 ( )
( )  1
2
1.2 Dynamic error 0

-10
1.0 0
-20
Phase shift, ()

Amplitude ratio
-30
Decibels (dB)
.8 -2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
 Frequency response of the first order system 

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Dynamic Definitions
Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)
Dynamic error, () = 1- M() a measure of the inability of a system or sensor to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Bandwidth the frequency band over which M()  0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)
Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.
0.35
tr 
fc

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Example
A temperature probe has a time constant of 10 s when used to measure a particular gas
flow. The gas temperature varies sinusoidal between -75 F and 75 F with a period of 20 s.
what is the temperature readout inters of the gas temperature ? What time constant should
the probe have to give 99% of the correct temperature amplitude?
Solution y (t )  B ()sin t   ( )
KA
B( ) 
T gas  75sin(
2
t ), note that  =2 f=
2 
1  ( ) 2 
1/ 2
20 20
75
T sensor   22.7486F
 2 
2
1  102   
 20 
 2 
   tan 1  10   72.5 Late. For how long???
 20 
2 72.5
T sensor  22.7486sin( t  72.5) t lag   20  4s
20 360
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Example-continued
T sensor 1
Solution   0.99
2  2 
KA 2
1   
 20 
  0.45
1  2  8.05
   tan   .45   8.0467 t lag   20  0.4470s
 20  360

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Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to
100 Hz with an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What
will be the phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz?
1
Solution: M ( ) 
 2 2  1
M ( )  M (0)  1 
Dynamic error  100%    1 100%
M (0)    1 
2 2
1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0.95   1.05
  1
2 2
But for the first order system, the term 1 /  2 2  1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95  1
  1
2 2
Solve this inequality give the range 0    0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is    0.52 ms
2 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from    arctan 
This give  = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

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Second order instruments
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) d 2 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x (t ) d m 1x (t ) dx (t )
an n
 an 1 n 1
 L  a2 2
 a1  a0 y (t )  bm m
 bm 1 m 1
 L  b1  b0 x (t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
d 2 y (t ) a1 dy (t ) a0 d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
  y (t ) 
b0
x (t ) 2
 2n  n
2
y (t )  n
2
Kx (t )
dt 2
a2 dt a2 a2 dt dt
The essential parameters

b0
K = the static sensitivity
a0
a1
 = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2
a0 = the natural angular frequency

n 
a2
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Second order instrument response for different damping
ratios
Fastest response without

overshoot, 1.0
Input
Possible values of 
  0  No damping (oscillator y )
0    1 Under damping
  1  Critical damping
  1  Over damping ( slow)
Recommendation: Select   (0.6  0.8)

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m
Example: Force measuring spring scale
Applying Newton's 2nd law to the movable mass k
gives 2
d x
  Fx  m 2
dt
dx d 2x
f i  kx  c  m 2 c
dt dt
d 2 x c dx k 1
  x  fi k
dt 2
m dt m m n  x
m
1 1
c kx
 
kx
d 2x dx 1 2 2
2
 2 n  n x  f i
2
2 km dx
dt dt m c
Measurment systems and sensors dt
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The transfer function of instruments:
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable, with
all initial conditions assumed to be zero. It may only be defined for
linear time-invariant systems such that
Input, x(s) G(s) Output, y(s)
System dynamics
d
Here: s  is the Laplace operator
dt
and Y (s )  G (s ) X (s ) y (t )  L1 G (s ) X (s )
Laplace transform of Instrument Laplace transform of the

the output, t(t) transfer function input, x(t)
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Transfer function of the zero order instruments

y (t )  K x (t )
Y (s )  K X (s )
Input, X(s) K Output, Y(s)
System dynamics
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Transfer function of the first order instruments
dy
  y  Kx
dt
 sY (s ) Y (s )  Kx (s )
( s  1)Y (s )  KX (s )
K
Y (s )  X (s )
 s 1
K
Input, X(s) Output, Y(s)
s  1
System dynamics
Iyad Hashlamon 75
Transfer function of the second order instruments
Kn2
Input, X(s) Output, Y(s)
s 2  2 n s  n2
System dynamics

Iyad Hashlamon 76
Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response
The steady response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the
form x(t) = Asint
ysteady (t )  B( ) sint   ()
where
B( ) 
KA 2
1  /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2  ( )   tan 1
 / n  n / 
Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase
shift
B 1
M ( )  
 
KA 1   /  2 2  2 /  2 1/ 2
n n 
Iyad Hashlamon 77
Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response
The amplitude ratio The phase angle
1 2
M ( )   ( )   tan 1
1  /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 
0
0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
 = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5
Phase shift, 

Amplitude ratio
1.5 0.3
Decibel (dB)
3 -60
1.0
0.5 -80
1.0 0 -100 2.0
-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
Iyad Hashlamon 78
Example
A pressure transducer consists of a circular steel diaphragm mounted in a housing.

One side of the diaphragm is exposed to varying pressures, which cause the
diaphragm to deflect. The elastic deflection of the diaphragm is sensed by a
piezoelectric quartz crystal mounted within the housing, on the rear side of the
diaphragm. It represents a second order spring mass system. The elastic stiffness of
the diaphragm provides the spring force. The damping and natural frequency are
0.025 and 188000 rad/s respectively.
This sensor is being considered to be used for measuring combustion-engine

cylinder pressure. Will this transducer have adequate frequency and phase response
at typical engine speeds of 3000-6000 rpm? What is the amplification ratio at the
transducer natural frequency?

Iyad Hashlamon 79
Solution M ( ) 
1
1  /     2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
n  188000rad / sec,   0.025

2
 ( )   tan 1
  6000rpm  628rad / sec  / n  n / 
 628
  0.0033
n 188000
1
magnitude _ ratio  1
 
2
1  0.00332  4  0.0252  0.00332
 2  0.025  0.0033 
   tan 1    0.0095
 1  0.00332

1
magnitude _ ratio   20 At natural freq
0  4  0.0252
Iyad Hashlamon 80
Bandwidth
A ﬁrst-order element has a bandwidth
between 0 and l/ τ rad/s

Iyad Hashlamon 81

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Measurement systems and Sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

link the observer to the process

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

2- The transducer is the element that produces a signal which is related to

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

4- The standard of Current

5- The Standard of Temperature

Kelvin : (K) ( o C)  273.15

Measurment systems and sensors

Static (steady-state characteristics)

Measurment systems and sensors

The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of

The precision of an instrument is a measure of the scatter of results obtained

from measurements as a result of random errors. It described the closeness of

measured several times under the same conditions.

Measurment systems and sensors

Average value of measurements Average value of measurements

Average value of measurements Average value of measurements

Average value of measurements

Measurment systems and sensors

Imax , min Omax ,Omin

5. Span: Imax  min

Question: Find the equation of the straight line in example 1?

Measurment systems and sensors

Note1: the nonlinearity might be expressed in terms of polynomials and

Measurment systems and sensors

Change in instrument scale reading

Slope of the straight line

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Example: backlash in gears

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

decibel: used to express

Measurment systems and sensors

s/n ratio = (Vs / Vn)

Measurment systems and sensors

Results in zero shift error, ez Results in sensitivity error, ek

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

For example, for an instrument having known hysteresis, linearity, sensitivity,

Measurment systems and sensors

transducers are so small that it is difficult and not worthwhile to exactly

terms of error bands O  Oideal  h

Measurment systems and sensors

 Zero 0.002%full scale / C Span 0.002%of reading /o C

The device is used in an environment where the ambient temperature is not

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

Measurment systems and sensors

 Dynamic errors in measurement systems

Measurment systems and sensors

Sensor Output signal

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a qualitative