Fasil Ahmed (MSc)

April 2024
 Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1

The Skin .................................................................................................................................................. 1

Anatomy of the Skin ............................................................................................................................ 2

Skin Functions ..................................................................................................................................... 3

Checkpoint 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 3

The Tongue ............................................................................................................................................. 5

Mechanism of Taste Perception of Food ............................................................................................. 6

Checkpoint 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 6

The Nose ................................................................................................................................................. 8

Anatomy and Physiology ..................................................................................................................... 8

The Mechanism of Olfaction ............................................................................................................... 9

Checkpoint 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 10

The Eye ................................................................................................................................................. 12

The external structure of the eye ....................................................................................................... 12

The internal structure of the eye ........................................................................................................ 16

How the retina works ......................................................................................................................... 22

Focusing the light .............................................................................................................................. 23

Common Eye Defects (Refractive Errors) ......................................................................................... 24

Other Examples of Eye Conditions ................................................................................................... 25

3-D vision (Stereopsis) ...................................................................................................................... 27

Checkpoint 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 27

The Ear ................................................................................................................................................. 32

The Outer Ear .................................................................................................................................... 32

The Middle Ear .................................................................................................................................. 33

The inner ear ...................................................................................................................................... 35

The Mechanism of Hearing ............................................................................................................... 38

The Senses of Balance and Movement .............................................................................................. 39

Common Disorders of the Ear ........................................................................................................... 40

Checkpoint 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 41

Answers for the Checkpoints ............................................................................................................. 45

 SENSE ORGANS
Introduction
 Sense organs are the specialized organs composed of sensory neurons, which help us to perceive
and respond to our surroundings.
 Sense organs play a crucial role in gathering information about the external world, allowing
organisms to navigate, interact, and survive in their surroundings.
 The major sense organs include the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin.

The Skin
 Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the human body.
 Skin thickness varies depending on its location on the body.
 Skin can be categorized into two as thin skin and thick skin.
 It has three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation.

Thin Skin Thick Skin

Covers most of the body surface, excluding Found in palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
Thin epidermis with fewer cell layers. Thick epidermis with additional layer.
Contains hair follicles, sebaceous glands, Lacks hair follicles and sebaceous glands; contains
and sweat glands. numerous sweat glands.
More flexible and elastic. Less flexible, but offers greater protection against
mechanical stress.
More sensitive to touch and pain. Less sensitive to touch and pain.
Less protection against mechanical stress Offers greater protection against mechanical stress
and UV radiation. and UV radiation.
Skin covering most of the body surface Palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and fingertips.

Table 1: A comparison of thin and thick skin

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 Anatomy of the Skin
 The skin is a remarkably complex organ.
 It is the largest organ of the human body in surface area and weight.
 The total surface area of the skin in adults is about 20 square feet.
 The skin accounts for approximately 16% of an individual's total body weight.
 It contains a huge variety of sense organs (touch, temperature, pressure, pain).
 The skin is composed of three layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and hypodermis.
1. The lower layer (hypodermis)
 Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) is the deepest layer of the skin, located beneath the dermis.
 It is primarily composed of adipose (fat) tissue and loose connective tissue.
 It contains fatty tissue which is both an energy store and acts as an insulation layer.
 It protects you against heat loss.
2. The middle layer (dermis)
 It is the second layer of the skin, situated beneath the epidermis and above the subcutaneous
tissue (hypodermis).
 It is a complex combination of the blood vessels, tough connective tissue, the sweat glands,
sebaceous (oil) glands, the sensory receptors and the hair follicles.
 It has collagen and elastin proteins necessary for skin health.
 The proteins offer support and elasticity.
 They also ward off wrinkles and fine lines.
 Collagen is the most plentiful protein in the skin (75-80% of the skin).
 It is particularly involved in the homeostatic mechanisms of the skin.
 It is closely involved in temperature control in homeostasis and in your sense of touch.
3. The upper layer (epidermis)
 It is the outermost layer of the skin which is made up of dead cells.
 The dead cells stop water loss and also protect against the entry of pathogens.
 It provides a waterproof barrier.
 It creates our skin tone.
 Skin tone refers to the natural color of an individual's skin.
 The epidermis is composed of several types of cells with specific functions:
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 Keratinocytes

 The most abundant cells and produce keratin, the main component of the epidermis
 Keratin makes up hair, nails, and the surface layer of the skin.
 Keratin forms the rigidity of the skin and helps with barrier protection.

Melanocytes

 They produce the pigment melanin.

 It is responsible for skin color.
 It provides protection against UV radiation.

Langerhans cells

 They play a crucial role in detecting and responding to pathogens and other antigens that
penetrate the skin
 They prevent things from getting into the skin.

Skin Functions
 It forms a waterproof layer around your body tissues.
 It protects you against the loss of water by evaporation.
 It prevents you gaining water by osmosis every time you swim in the river or wash.
 It protects you from the entry of bacteria and other pathogens.
 It protects you from damage by UV light from the sun.
 It is an excretory organ (nitrogenous wastes are lost in your sweat).
 It is vital in controlling your body temperature.
 It permits the sensations of touch, heat, and cold.

Checkpoint 1
1. How does the skin covering the eyelids compare to the skin covering the palm of the hand?
A. It is less sensitive to touch and pain.
B. It lacks hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
C. It is less flexible but offers greater protection.
D. It has thinner epidermis with fewer cell layers.

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2. What are the specialized structures within sense organs that enable them to detect specific types of
stimuli?
A. Hair cells C. Sensory receptors
B. Active sites D. Bipolar neurons
3. Select the one which is not the function of the human skin.
A. Protection C. Sensation
B. Gas exchange D. Regulation
4. Which layer of the skin is a major site of fat storage in the body?
A. Dermis C. Epidermis
B. Adipocyte D. Hypodermis
5. Which skin layer has collagen and elastin proteins necessary for skin health?
A. Dermis C. Ectodermis
B. Epidermis D. Hypodermis
6. Which layer of the skin is particularly involved in the homeostatic mechanisms?
A. Dermis C. Endodermis
B. Epidermis D. Hypodermis
7. Which of the following cell types are commonly found in the outermost layer of the skin?
A. Osteocytes C. Gametocytes
B. Hepatocytes D. Keratinocytes
8. Which pigment plays a crucial role in protecting the skin from the harmful effects of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun?
A. Keratin C. Bilirubin
B. Melanin D. Hemoglobin
9. In what cells of the epidermis does the mutation responsible for albinism occur?
A. In the osteocytes C. In the melanocytes
B. In the keratinocytes D. In the satellite cells
10. What happens to the blood vessels in the skin when the body is too warm?
A. They increase their length. C. The carry deoxygenated blood.
B. They undergo vasodilation. D. They undergo vasoconstriction.

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 The Tongue
 The tongue is a muscular organ located in the oral cavity.
 It is essential for various functions, including tasting, mastication, swallowing, and speaking.
 The average length of the human tongue is 10 cm.
 The average weight of the human tongue from adult males is 99g and for adult females 79g.
 Lingual frenulum connects the underside of the tongue to the floor of the mouth.
 The hyoid bone, situated in the neck, plays a pivotal role in anchoring the tongue.
 The tongue is covered in a moist, pink tissue called the lingual mucosa.
 Papillae are small, nipple-like projections found on the surface of the tongue.
 Papillae contribute to the tongue's texture and play a role in various functions.
 Papillae contain taste buds.
 Taste buds are specialized sensory organs. They contain receptor cells that detect different taste
sensations.
 The sensory receptors of your tongue are sensitive to solutions of certain chemical substances.
 They are located on the upper surface of the tongue, and to a lesser extent on the surface
of the throat.
 There are five basic taste sensations: sweet, sour, bitter, salt and umami.
 Umami is a very savoury flavour found in meat, cheese, broth and mushroom.
 All of the five different taste organs are spread out all over the tongue.
 Some of them may seem to be in a greater concentration in certain places.
 Most substances stimulate two, three, four or five types to varying degrees.
 The taste sensations you experience are produced by a blending of the five basic
sensations.
 The perception of taste varies among individuals due to differences in sensitivity to taste
receptors.
 The same stimulus can elicit different sensations in different people.
 It is possible for someone to have particularly sensitive sweet receptors and particularly
insensitive sour receptors.

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 Mechanism of Taste Perception of Food
1. Food dissolves in saliva.
2. Taste receptor cells in taste buds detect five primary taste sensations.
3. Specific molecules in food stimulate taste receptor cells.
4. Stimulated taste receptor cells send signals to the brain.
5. Brain interprets signals and perceives flavors.

Checkpoint 2
1. Which of the following is NOT a primary taste sensation detected by the human tongue?
A. Sour C. Spicy
B. Sweet D. Bitter
2. Which food is rich in naturally occurring glutamate that contributes to its umami taste?
A. Meat C. Honey
B. Lemon D. Chocolate
3. What is the tissue covering the tongue called?
A. Epidermis C. Lingual mucosa
B. Olfactory epithelium D. Filiform papillae
4. Which bone plays a pivotal role in anchoring the tongue?
A. Lower jawbone C. Frenulum
B. Upper jawbone D. Hyoid bone
5. Where are the taste buds located?
A. On the roof of the mouth C. Upper surface of the tongue
B. Inner surface of the cheek D. Lower surface of the tongue
6. What is the term for the small elevations on the dorsal surface of the tongue that contain taste buds?
A. Mucus C. Tonsils
B. Papillae D. Frenulum
7. What is the primary role of the lingual frenulum?
A. It anchors the tongue to the floor of the mouth
B. It lubricates the tongue and initiates swallowing
C. It connects the cheeks and the tongue to the gum.
D. It serves as an attachment point for tongue muscles

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8. Put the below processes of taste perception in their correct order.
i. The brain interprets signals and perceives taste.
ii. Electrical signals are transmitted to the brain via nerves.
iii. Detection triggers electrical signals in taste receptor cells.
iv. Taste receptors on the tongue detect molecules from food.
v. Signals reach the gustatory cortex in the brain's parietal lobe.
A. iv → iii → ii → v → i C. i → v → ii → iii → iv
B. iii → iv → i → ii → v D. ii → i → v → iv → iii
9. Which sense is most closely connected to taste perception?
A. Sight C. Touch
B. Smell D. Hearing
10. Which of the following statements about taste sensations is true?
A. Taste sensations are solely produced by the taste buds.
B. The five basic sensations are always perceived separately.
C. Each taste sensation is localized to a specific area of the tongue.
D. The perception of taste can vary depending on individual sensitivity.

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 The Nose
 The nose is the organ of smell in humans.
 Another name for smell is "olfaction."
 In the human nose, olfactory receptors are responsible for detecting odors.
 Olfactory receptors are specialized sensory neurons.
 Olfactory receptors are essential for the following:
 To identify food, mates and predators
 Warnings of danger (e.g. spoiled food, fire and chemicals)
 Sensual pleasure
 The nose conditions inhaled air (warm and humid)
 The hairs in the nose prevent large particles

Anatomy and Physiology

1. External Nose
 The visible part of the nose.
 It is composed of bone and cartilage covered by skin.
 It includes the nasal bridge, nostrils (nares), and the tip of the nose.
2. Nasal cavity
 A large air-filled space behind the external nose.
 It extends from the nostrils to the pharynx.
 It is divided into left and right sides by the nasal septum.
 It is lined with a mucous membrane called the respiratory epithelium.
3. Nasal passages
 They are the pathways within the nasal cavity.
 It allows passage of air.
 It warms and filters air.
 They are formed by the nasal septum and the turbinates (nasal conchae).
4. Nasal Septum
 A partition that separates the left and right nasal cavities.
 It is composed of bone and cartilage and covered by mucous membrane.

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 5. Nasal concha (turbinate bone)
 It is a long, narrow, curled shelf of bone.
 Bony structure covered with mucous membrane.
 They protrude into the nasal cavity from the lateral walls.
 They divide the nasal airway into four groove like air passages.
 They help increase the surface area of the nasal cavity.
 They create turbulence to enhance air conditioning and filtration.
6. Paranasal Sinuses
 Air-filled cavities located within the bones surrounding the nasal cavity.
 They help to humidify, warm, and filter inhaled air.
 They contribute to the resonance of the voice.

The Mechanism of Olfaction

 Specialized receptor cells of the olfactory epithelium detect and recognize smells.
 The air passes through the nasal cavity and through a thick layer of mucus to the olfactory bulb.
 The olfactory bulb is is situated in the forebrain.
 The olfactory bulb processes olfactory information received from the olfactory receptor neurons.
 Each smell molecule fits into a nerve cell like a puzzle piece.
 The nerve cells then send signals to the brain via the olfactory nerve.
 The brain (olfactory cortex) then interprets those molecules.

Similarities between smell receptors and taste receptors

 Both types of receptors respond to chemical stimuli.

 They work together synergistically to provide humans with a rich sensory experience.
 Both smell and taste contribute to the overall perception of flavor.
 Much of what is called taste is in fact a function of the sense of smell.
 Both smell and taste receptors can adapt to prolonged exposure to certain stimuli.
 Both smell and taste play important roles in regulating appetite and food intake.
 Both senses help humans identify potentially harmful or spoiled foods.
 Both smell and taste receptors exhibit genetic variability among individuals.

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 Differences between smell receptors and taste receptors

 Smell receptors are more specialised for detecting vapours coming from distant sources.
 Hot foods often have more ‘taste’ than cold foods because they vaporise more.
 The vapour from hot foods passes from the mouth up into the nasal passages.
 When you are suffering from a cold, your smell receptors cannot work.
 Smell receptors are specialized for detecting chemicals present in the air, where as taste
receptors are specialised for detection of chemicals present in the mouth itself.
 Smell receptors are much more sensitive than taste receptors.
 Taste receptors are primarily located in the mouth on taste buds, while smell receptors are
situated in the nasal cavity's olfactory epithelium.
 Taste receptors detect basic tastes like sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami, whereas smell
receptors contribute to the perception of various odors and aromas.

Checkpoint 3
1. What are olfactory receptors responsible for detecting?
A. Taste C. Light
B. Odors D. Sound
2. What is one of the essential functions of olfactory receptors?
A. Regulating body temperature
B. Controlling muscle movements
C. Balancing fluid levels in the body
D. Identifying food, mates, and predators
3. What do olfactory receptors help to warn against?
A. Spoiled food C. Loud noises
B. Bright lights D. Cold temperatures
4. Which of the following is NOT a component of the external nose?
A. Nostrils C. Nasal bridge
B. Nasal cavity D. Tip of the nose
5. What structures form the nasal passages?
A. Nasal bridge and nostrils C. Nasal septum and turbinates
B. Nasal septum and pharynx D. Nasal cavity and nasal septum
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6. How is the nasal cavity divided?
A. Into inner and outer regions by diaphragm
B. Into left and right sides by the nasal septum
C. Into anterior and posterior portions by sinuses
D. Into upper and lower portions by turbinate bones
7. What is the function of the nasal septum?
A. To separate the left and right lungs C. To produce mucus membrane and mucus
B. To regulate blood flow to the nasal cavity D. To separate the left and right nasal cavities
8. What is the primary function of the nasal concha (turbinate bone)?
A. To discriminate between different odors
B. To regulate blood flow to the nasal cavity
C. To increase the surface area of the nasal cavity
D. To provide structural support to the nasal septum
9. Where is the olfactory bulb situated?
A. In the forebrain C. In the spinal cord
B. In the brainstem D. In the nasal cavity
10. Why do hot foods often have more "taste" than cold foods?
A. Because they contain more flavoring agents
B. Because they have a stronger tactile sensation
C. Because they stimulate taste receptors more strongly
D. Because they vaporize more and stimulate smell receptors

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 The Eye
 It is a sensory organ of vision.
 The eyes enable us to see in clear focus, in three dimensions and in colour.
 Not many other animals can manage all three.
 The eyes receive visual stimuli in the form of light.
 Sight is an important sense for human beings.
 It is the primary sense through which we perceive the world around us.
 It is crucial for identifying potential dangers and threats.
 Sight contributes to spatial awareness and orientation.
 The eye is anchored in the eye socket (eye orbit) through a network of muscles, ligaments, and
connective tissues.
 The eye socket is a round, bony hollow formed by several different bones.
 It houses muscles, nerves, blood vessels and glands.
 It protects the eye from trauma
 It contains fat pads that cushion the eyeball.

The external structure of the eye

 It consists of several distinct components that collectively protect and support the delicate
internal structures of the eye.
1. Eyebrows
 Eyebrows are patches of hair located above the eyes.
 They protect the eyes from sweat, debris and sunlight.
 They divert sweat and rain away from the eyes.
2. Eyelids (Palpebrae)
 Eyelids are thin folds of skin that cover and protect the eyes.
 They are movable structure with associated eyelashes.
 Eyelashes are projections of stiff hair curving outward along the margins of the eye.
 They filter dust and dirt from air entering the eye.
 Each eye has an upper eyelid and a lower eyelid.
 The upper eyelid is larger and more mobile than the lower eyelid.

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  Eyelids close over the eyes to protect them from the entry of dust, sand, insects etc.
 They protect the eyes from irritants and foreign objects.
 They regulate the amount of light entering the eyes.
 They serve to distribute tears that lubricate the surface of the eye.
 The eyelids sweep tear solution regularly over the surface of your eye,
 Tears contain enzymes (e.g. Lysozyme and Lactoferrin) that destroy microbes.
 Muscles controlling the movement of eyelids can be categorized into striated (voluntary) and
smooth (involuntary) muscles.
 The upper and the lower eyelids join at two points:
 Lateral (outer) canthus: It is the point where the upper and lower eyelids meet on the
outer side of the eye.
 Medial (inner) canthus: It is the point where the upper and lower eyelids meet on the
inner side of the eye.
 The inner canthus contains the puncta.
 The puncta are two small openings that allow drainage of tears into the lacrimal system
and caruncle.
 Caruncle is a small, fleshy mass that contains sebaceous glands.
 The white space between open eyelids is called the palpebral fissure.
 It is the space through which the eyeball is visible.
 Individuals of East Asian descent have relatively smaller palpebral fissures.
3. The conjunctiva
 A thin, transparent, continuous membrane on the inner surface of the eyelids and the front
surface of the eyeball, except for the cornea.
 It is divided into two portions:
i. The palpebral conjunctiva
 It is located on the inner surface of the upper and lower eyelids.
 It protects and lubricates the inner surface of the eyelids.
ii. The bulbar conjunctiva
 It covers most of the anterior eye
 It merges with cornea at the limbus.

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  The limbus is the border or junction between the cornea and the sclera.
 It allows for inspection of underlying tissue.
 It serves to protect the eye from foreign bodies.
4. The lacrimal apparatus
 It is located in the upper outer corner of the orbital cavity just above the eye.
 It consists of glands and ducts that lubricate the surface of the eye,
 It protects the eye through the production of tears.
 Tears keep the surface of the eye moist.
 Tears contain the antimicrobial enzyme called lysozyme.
5. The extraocular muscles
 A group of six muscles attached to the outer surface of each eyeball.
 They are responsible for the movement of the eyes
 They control six different directions of the eye movement.
i. Rectus muscles
 Four muscles responsible for straight movement
ii. Oblique muscles
 Two muscles responsible for diagonal movement
6. Sclera
 The tough, white outer protective layer of the eyeball.
 It is opaque and gives the eye its white colour.
 It maintains the shape of the eye.
 It protects the eyeball from damage.
 It is approximately 1 mm thick.
 It forms the majority of the eyeball.
 It is continuous interiorly with the cornea.
 It surrounds the cornea.
 Cornea is a transparent area at the front of sclera.
 Cornea lets light into the eye.
 It provides structural support and protection for the inner eye.
 It serves as an attachment site for the extraocular muscles.

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  The sclera contains numerous blood vessels in the posterior portion of the eye.
 It supplies the retina with food and oxygen.
7. The cornea
 It is a transparent, anterior or front part of the eye.
 It is relatively thinner than the sclera.
 It permits the entrance of light.
 It covers the pupil, the iris and anterior chamber.
 It protects the delicate inner structures of the eye.
 It is avascular (has no blood vessels) and receives 2Oand nutrients from tears and aqueous
humor.
 It is well supplied with nerve endings.
 It is responsive to pain and touch.
 The curved surface of the cornea refracts (bends) light along with the lens.
 It contributes to clear vision.
 It makes sure that light enters the eye and is focused on the retina.
 Once the light has travelled through the cornea it has to pass through the pupil.
 It maintains the shape of the eyeball.

Figure 1. Surface anatomy of the eye and accessory structures.

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 The internal structure of the eye
1. Iris
 It is the pigmented, colored portion of the eye, visible externally.
 Common iris colors include brown, blue, green, hazel, and gray.
 The main function of the iris is to control the diameter of the pupil according to the light source.
 It is made up of muscles that contract or relax to control the size of the pupil.
 It controls the amount of light reaching the retina.
 The circular muscles run around the iris, while the radial muscles run across it.
When the light is relatively dim
 the radial muscles contract
 the circular muscles relax
 the pupil is pulled open wide (it dilates).
 lots of light can get into the eye
 you can see even in relatively low light levels.
In bright light
 the circular muscles of the iris contract
 the radial muscles relax
 the pupil becomes very small (it constricts).
 reduces the amount of light that goes into the eye
 the delicate light-sensitive cells are not damaged by too much bright light.
 The change in the size of the pupil in response to light is a reflex action.
2. Pupil
 It is the circular opening in the center of the iris.
 It appears black because light entering the eye is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye.
 It allows light to enter and focus on the retina.
 Automatic responses of the pupil to changes in light intensity are called pupillary reflexes.

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 Figure 2. Internal Anatomy of the Eye
3. Lens
 It is located immediately posterior to the iris.
 The lens is a biconvex, transparent, avascular, encapsulated structure
 It is a clear disc made up largely of proteins.
 The lens functions to refract (bend) light rays onto the retina.
 The lens is held in place by suspensory ligaments and the ciliary muscles.
 Suspensory ligaments attached to the ciliary muscles support the position of the lens.
 The refractive ability of the lens can be changed by a change in the shape of the lens (which is
controlled by the ciliary body).
 Adjustments must be made in the refraction depending on the distance of the object being
viewed.
 The lens bulges to focus on close objects and flattens to focus on far objects.

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 When viewing distant objects
 the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens relax.
 the suspensory ligaments attached to the lens contract.
 The contraction of suspensory ligaments flattens the lens, reducing its curvature.
 A flatter lens has less refractive power, allowing it to focus light from distant objects onto the
retina without overconverging the light rays.
When focusing on near objects
 The ciliary muscles contract.
 releases tension on the suspensory ligaments,
 the lens to assumes a more rounded shape due to its natural elasticity.
 A more curved lens has greater refractive power, enabling it to bend light rays more strongly and
focus them onto the retina.
4. Ciliary body
 It is a ring-shaped structure located behind the iris.
 The main parts of the ciliary body are ciliary muscle and ciliary processes.
 It plays a crucial role in the process of accommodation.
 Accommodation is the eye's ability to focus on objects at varying distances.
 When the eye focuses on nearby objects, the ciliary body causes contraction the ciliary muscle.
 Contraction of the ciliary muscle reduces the tension on the suspensory ligaments.
 When focusing on distant objects, the ciliary muscle is relatively relaxed.
 In a relaxed state, the ciliary muscle increases the tension on the suspensory ligaments.
 It secretes aqueous humor.
 Aqueous humor is a clear fluid that fills the anterior chamber of the eye.
5. Suspensory ligaments
 They are delicate, thread-like structures that extend from the ciliary body to the lens capsule.
 They are composed of fine, elastic fibers.
 They originate from the ciliary processes of the ciliary body.
 They play a crucial role in the support and accommodation of the lens,
 They help to maintain the shape of the lens and position within the eye.
 During accommodation, they undergo changes in tension.
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  When the eye is focused on distant objects, there is tension on the suspensory ligaments.
 As the suspensory ligaments relax, the lens becomes flattened.
 When the eye is focused on near objects, there is reduced tension on the suspensory
ligaments.
 As the suspensory ligaments relax, the lens becomes thicker and more rounded.
6. Choroid
 It is a highly vascular layer of tissue located between the retina and the sclera.
 It is one of the three primary layers that make up the wall of the eye.
 It supplies oxygen and nutrients to the outer layers of the retina.
 It is darker in color due to the high concentration of melanin pigment.
 It absorbs excess light and prevents light from reflecting internally.
 At the anterior portion of the eye, the choroid extends forward and merges with the ciliary body
and the iris.
7. Retina
 It is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of the human eye.
 It extends only to the ciliary body anteriorly.
 The specialized type of cells found in the retina are called photoreceptor cells.
 They are photosensitive cells or they are sensitive to light.
 Photoreceptor cells are capable of visual phototransduction.
 There are around 100 million light-sensitive cells in each of your retinas.
 There are two main types of photoreceptors in the retina: rods and cones.
i. Rods
 They are highly sensitive to light and specialized for low-light conditions.
 They can function in lower light better than cone cells.
 They are more numerous in peripheral retina; fewer in fovea centralis.
 There are approximately 92 million rod cells in one human retina.
 They are almost entirely responsible for night vision but have little role in color vision.
 Rod cells contain a single type of photopigment that is not sensitive to different colors.
 Rod-mediated vision lacks color perception and is limited to shades of gray.
 Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive protein found in the rod cells of the retina.

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  It is composed of a protein called opsin and a light-sensitive molecule called retinal.
 Retinal is a derivative of vitamin A.
 Rods contribute to the perception of movement primarily by detecting changes in light intensity
over time.
ii. Cones
 Cones function best in relatively bright light.
 There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye.
 They are less sensitive to light than the rod cells, but allow the perception of color.
 Cone cells contain different types of photopigments sensitive to specific wavelengths of light.
 There are three types of cones, each containing a different type of photopigment.
 The three types of cones in the retina are blue, green, and red cones.
 Each type of cone is most sensitive to a different range of wavelengths.
 The colours you see depend on which combination of cones is stimulated.
 They aid in the perception of movement by detecting slight positional changes in objects.
8. Optic nerve
 It is responsible for transmitting visual information from the retina to the occipital lobe of the
cerebral cortex.
 It emerges from the back of each eye at the optic disc (also known as the blind spot) and extends
to the brain.
9. Macula
 The macula is a small but highly specialized area within the retina of the eye.
 It is roughly circular and measures about 5.5 millimeters in diameter.
 It plays a crucial role in central vision and visual acuity.
 Within the macula, there is a central depression or pit called the fovea centralis.
10. Fovea centralis
 The fovea centralis (fovea) is a small, specialized area located in the central region of the retina.
 It is located at the center of the macula, which is a slightly larger area of the retina.
 The fovea is a tiny depression measuring only about 1–1.5 millimeters in diameter.
 The foveal depression lacks retinal blood vessels.
 It contains only cone photoreceptor cells.
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  The fovea has the highest density of cones in the entire retina.
 When light falls on your fovea you see clearly and in colour.
11. Aqueous humor
 It is a clear, watery fluid that fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye.
 Anterior chamber is the space between the cornea and the iris.
 Posterior chamber is located behind the iris and in front of the lens.
 Aqueous humor is produced by the ciliary body.
 Its composition is similar to that of plasma but with lower protein levels.
 After circulating through the anterior chamber, it is drained from the eye primarily through the
trabecular meshwork and then enters the bloodstream through a network of veins called
Schlemm's canal.
 It helps to cleanse and nourish the avascular tissues of cornea and the lens.
 It maintains intraocular pressure.
 It helps with the refractive power of the eye.
12. Vitreous humor
 It is a transparent, gel-like substance that fills the space between the lens and the retina.
 The vitreous humor is primarily composed of water (approximately 99%).
 The vitreous chamber occupies the majority of the interior volume of the eyeball.
 The vitreous chamber is the largest chamber of the eye.
 It helps maintain the spherical shape of the eye.
 It acts as a shock absorber.
 It assists in maintaining intraocular pressure.
 It contributes to the transmission and refraction of light as light passes to reach the retina.
13. Optic disc (Blind spot)
 It is a small region in the retina where the optic nerve exits the eye.
 It is typically oval-shaped and has a diameter of approximately 1.5 mm.
 Since there are no rods or cones in this area, it lacks the ability to detect light.
 Despite the absence of photoreceptor cells, the blind spot does not usually cause a noticeable gap
in our visual perception.

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  The visual cortex in the brain fills in the missing information from the blind spot based on
surrounding visual input from the other eye.
 To detect the blind spot, you can perform a simple experiment known as the blind spot test.

Procedure
1. Close your right eye and hold the paper/screen at arm's length, with the star on the paper/screen
at eye level.
2. Focus your left eye on the star while keeping your head still.
3. While maintaining your focus on the star, slowly move the paper/screen closer to your face.
4. At a certain distance, you should notice the large dot to the right of the star disappear from your
visual field. This occurs when the point falls on your blind spot.
5. To confirm that the disappearance is due to the blind spot, slowly move the paper/screen back
and forth until the big dot reappears in your visual field.

Figure 3. Blind spot test

How the retina works

 Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes through the pupil, and is focused by the lens onto
the retina.
 Light stimulates the photoreceptor cells in the retina (rods and cones).
 Rods are highly sensitive to light and function best in low-light conditions.
 Cones are responsible for color vision and function best in bright light.
 The rods and the cones are efficient energy transducers.
 When light stimulates the photoreceptor cells, it triggers a series of chemical and electrical
changes within the cells. This leads to the generation of electrical signals.
 Photoreceptor cells can convert light energy into electrical signals.
 The rods and cones use energy to restore the chemicals to their original form.

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  The electrical signals from the photoreceptor cells are integrated and processed by the neural
circuitry of the retina.
 The optic nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain's visual centers, such as the
thalamus and the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
 Once visual information is transmitted from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve, it
undergoes complex processing and interpretation.

Focusing the light

 The light from an object enters our eye and falls on the cornea first.
 The light is refracted by the cornea.
 Most of the refraction happens at the air-cornea interface.
 The refractive indices of air and the cornea are largely different.
 The light from a distant object travels in almost parallel rays, whilst the light from close objects
diverges very strongly.
 The light refracted by the cornea then travels through the aqueous humor
 From aqueous humor, light then enters the pupil and falls on the lens inside.
 The biconvex lens refracts the light such that the all light coming from an object is focused on the
retina.
 It just fine tunes all the light so that the image is formed on the retina.
 The lens can temporarily change its shape up to a certain extent.
 The lens makes sure that we can see both close and distant objects equally well.
 Light from distant objects needs little further bending once it has passed through
the cornea, so the lens is stretched long, thin and relatively flat and has little effect.
 Light from close objects still needs some considerable bending to bring it into
focus on the retina.
 The movement of the lens is controlled by muscles called ciliary muscles.
 Light travels in the space between the lens and the retina (vitreous humor).
 Light travels through different mediums before it reaches the retina.
 Retina is where the image is formed. The image that forms is a real image, i.e., it is reversed from
left to right, upside down (inverted), and smaller than the object.

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  The light signals travel through the optic nerve as impulses and reach into the occipital lobe of
the brain.
 We see everything as it is because this image again gets upright in the brain.
 Here's a simplified description of how light travels through the eye:
Air → Cornea → Aqueous humor → Pupil → Lens → Vitreous humor → Retina

Common Eye Defects (Refractive Errors)

 These are conditions that affect the eye's ability to focus light properly, leading to blurred vision.
 There are a number of common eye defects that can and do affect many people of all ages.
 Refractive errors can be corrected using various methods depending on whether the person is
nearsighted, farsighted, or has astigmatism.
 The simplest and most common way to correct refractive errors is using extra lenses.
a. Short sight (Myopia)
 It is a condition where distant objects appear blurry while close objects can be seen clearly.
 It occurs when the eyeball is too long, or the lens or the cornea is too curved.
 It causes light rays to focus in front of the retina instead of directly on it.
 It can be corrected using concave (diverging) lenses that spread the light out more before it gets
into your eye.
 An inward curve makes a concave lens that spreads the light rays out (a diverging lens).
 Concave (thick) lens can bring the rays of light into perfect focus on the retina.

Figure 4. Concave Lens

b. Long sight (Hyperopia)
 It is a condition where close objects appear blurry while distant objects may be seen more
clearly.

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  It happens when the eyeball is too short, or the lens is too flat or the cornea has too little
curvature.
 It causes light to focus behind the retina instead of directly on it.
 This problem can be corrected using convex (converging) lenses that bring the light rays
together more before they reach your eye.
 An outward curve makes a convex lens and this will bend the light rays towards each
other (a converging lens).
 Convex (thin) lens can bring the rays of light into perfect focus on the retina.

Figure 5. Convex Lens

c. Astigmatism
 It is a common refractive error caused by an irregular shape of the cornea or the lens.
 It results in distorted or blurred vision at any distance.
 It can be corrected by the use of lenses, but the situation is more complex than for long and short
sight.
 Eyeglasses with lenses that compensate for the uneven curvature of the cornea or lens can
provide clear vision.

Other Examples of Eye Conditions

a. Night blindness (Nyctalopia)
 It is a condition characterized by difficulty seeing in low-light conditions.
 People with night blindness may experience decreased visual acuity, poor depth perception, and
difficulty adapting to changes in lighting conditions.
 Night blindness can be caused by various factors, including vitamin A deficiency.
 The pigment in the rods that responds to light is based on vitamin A.

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 b. Colour blindness (Color vision deficiency)
 It is a condition characterized by difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.
 It occurs when certain cells in the retina, called cones, do not function correctly.
 It's often inherited and more common in men than in women.
 The most common type of color blindness involves difficulty distinguishing between red and
green colors.
 It is not a major problem although there are a few jobs you can’t do easily if you are colour-blind.
c. Cataracts
 They are a common age-related condition characterized by clouding of the lens of the eye.
 Advanced cataracts can cause difficulty seeing in low-light conditions.
d. Glaucoma
 It is a group of eye diseases that damage the optic nerve, often due to increased pressure within
the eye.
 Dysfunction in aqueous humor circulation, leading to high intraocular pressure, is a significant
risk factor for glaucoma.
e. Strabismus (Crossed eyes)
 It is a condition in which the eyes are misaligned and do not point in the same direction.
 It can develop in childhood or adulthood and may be caused by various factors, including
problems with eye muscles, or nerve issues.
 It can cause double vision, amblyopia (lazy eye), and reduced depth perception.
f. Conjunctivitis
 It is inflammation of the conjunctiva.
 It can be caused by infections, allergies, or irritants.
g. Trachoma
 It is an infectious eye disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.
 It is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide.
 It is commonly found in areas with poor sanitation and limited access to healthcare.
 Trachoma is spread through direct contact with discharge from the eyes or nose of infected
individuals, as well as through contaminated objects such as towels and clothing.

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 3-D vision (Stereopsis)
 Each eye sees a slightly different view of the same object.
 The brain combines the two images and uses all the information to give you a 3-D view of the
object.
 3-D vision is the ability of the brain to interpret the slightly different images received from each
eye to perceive depth and distance.
 It comes from the overlapping of the visual field from our two eyes.
 If you look at the world through one eye it appears flat.
 3-D vision is vital for giving us the judgement of distances.
 Seeing in depth depends on you using both eyes.

Checkpoint 4
1. What is the round, bony hollow that houses the eye called?
A. Eyelid C. Eye socket
B. Eyebrow D. Eye capsule
2. Which of the below structures of the orbital region protect the eyes from glare and keep perspiration
from running into the eye?
A. Eyebrows C. Palpebral fissure
B. Eyelashes D. The conjunctiva
3. Which external structures of the eye primarily prevent visual stimuli from disturbing one's sleep?
A. Eyelids C. Eyebrows
B. Eyelashes D. Conjunctiva
4. What is the function of the palpebral conjunctiva?
A. It helps maintain the integrity of the eye's surface
B. It supplies essential nutrients to the cornea and the lens
C. It helps maintain the intraocular pressure within the eye
D. It protects and lubricates the inner surface of the eyelids
5. Which statement accurately describes the function of the extraocular muscles?
A. Production of tears C. Maintain eyeball shape
B. Controlling pupil size D. Move the eyes in six directions

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6. Which of the following statements about the lacrimal apparatus is true?
A. It produces tears containing the antimicrobial enzyme called lysozyme.
B. It consists of muscles and ligaments that control lateral eye movement.
C. It produces basal tears that help in vision clarity by focusing light on retina.
D. It is located in the lower inner corner of the orbital cavity just below the eye.
7. Which muscles can be responsible for crossed eyes due to an imbalance in strength or coordination?
A. Radial muscles C. Circular muscles
B. Ciliary muscles D. Extraocular muscles
8. Which of the following is true regarding the sclera?
A. It is responsible for regulating intraocular pressure.
B. It is transparent and allows bright light to enter the eye.
C. It serve as an attachment site for the photoreceptor cells.
D. It forms the majority of the eyeball's outer protective layer.
9. What is the main function of the iris?
A. Protecting the retina from damage
B. Secreting a light-absorbing pigment
C. Controlling the diameter of the pupil
D. Provides structural support to the lens
10. In dim light conditions, what happens to the iris and pupil?
A. The iris relaxes, and the pupil dilates
B. The iris contracts, and the pupil dilates
C. The iris relaxes, and the pupil constricts
D. The iris contracts, and the pupil constricts
11. Which muscles run across the iris?
A. Radial muscles C. Circular muscles
B. Oblique muscles D. Longitudinal muscles
12. Where is the lens located in relation to the iris?
A. Inferior to the iris C. Anterior to the iris
B. Posterior to the iris D. Superior to the iris

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13. What is the primary function of the lens?
A. Refracting light onto the retina C. Controlling the diameter of the pupil
B. For vision in low light conditions D. Converting light into electrical signals
14. What supports the position of the lens within the eye?
A. Ciliary muscles attached to the optic nerve
B. Suspensory ligaments attached to the cornea
C. The six extraocular muscles attached to the sclera
D. Suspensory ligaments attached to the ciliary muscles
15. What happens to the lens when viewing objects at a close distance?
A. It bulges C. It becomes thinner
B. It flattens D. It becomes opaque
16. What happens to the ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments when viewing distant objects?
A. Ciliary muscles relax, and suspensory ligaments relax.
B. Ciliary muscles contract, and suspensory ligaments relax.
C. Ciliary muscles relax, and suspensory ligaments contract.
D. Ciliary muscles contract, and suspensory ligaments contract.
17. How does the ciliary body contribute to the process of accommodation?
A. By supplying blood to the retina and regulating the light entering the eye
B. By changing the shape of the lens to focus on objects at different distances
C. By controlling the diameter of the pupil in response to different light levels
D. By protecting the eye through distribution of tears over the surface of the eye
18. When you are looking at something closer for maximum visual acuity, where does the image fall?
A. On the iris C. On the cornea
B. On the fovea D. On the optic nerve
19. Which one is the anterior transparent region of modified sclera that admits light into the eye?
A. Pupil C. Choroid
B. Cornea D. Conjunctiva
20. From where does the retina receive its oxygen supply?
A. The iris C. The choroid
B. The lens D. The cornea

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21. Photoreceptor cells are distributed over the entire retina, except where the optic nerve leaves the
eyeball. What is this site where there are no photoreceptors called?
A. Fovea C. Optic disc
B. Cornea D. Choroid
22. Select the correct statement about cones and rods.
A. Both are most densely concentrated in the fovea.
B. They are equally sensitive to bright light conditions.
C. Both contain three different types of photopigments.
D. The rods and cones are not evenly distributed in the retina.
23. Through which structure is aqueous humor reabsorbed into the venous blood?
A. Choroid C. Retinal vessels
B. Optic disc D. Canal of Schlemm
24. Light rays are bent in the eye as they encounter all of the following EXCEPT
A. the lens C. the cornea
B. the pupil D. aqueous humor
25. Which of the following correctly describes an image that forms on the retina?
A. Virtual, reversed, inverted, and larger C. Real, reversed, upright, and larger
B. Virtual, reversed, enlarged, and upright D. Real, reversed, inverted and smaller
26. Which of the following happens when the eye focuses for far vision?
A. the lens is at its thinnest C. the ciliary muscles contract
B. increase in lens curvature D. suspensory fibers are loose
27. Which one correctly describes the pathway of light passing through the eye to the retina?
A. Cornea, Vitreous chamber, Pupil, Anterior chamber, Lens, Posterior chamber, Retina
B. Cornea, Pupil, Anterior chamber, Lens, Posterior chamber, Vitreous chamber, Retina
C. Cornea, Anterior chamber, Pupil, Posterior chamber, Lens, Vitreous chamber, Retina
D. Cornea, Anterior chamber, Lens, Posterior chamber, Pupil, Vitreous chamber, Retina
28. Your friend struggles to see nearby objects clearly, such as when reading or working on a computer.
What is the most likely eye defect your friend is experiencing?
A. Astigmatism C. Nearsightedness
B. Farsightedness D. Colour blindness

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29. Fifty-year-old Chaltu is complaining that she can’t read without holding the newspaper out at arm’s
length. What is the cause for her eye defect?
A. The accumulation of protein deposits in the lens
B. Reduced elasticity of the lens as a result of aging
C. Damage to the optic nerve due to high blood pressure
D. Age-related changes in the composition of vitreous humor
30. What eye condition is commonly treated with eyedrops that increase the rate of aqueous humor
drainage?
A. Myopia C. Glaucoma
B. Cataract D. Trachoma

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 The Ear
 The ear is a complex organ responsible for the sense of hearing, balance and position of the
body.
 The ear is divided into three regions: the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

The Outer Ear

 It is the external part of the ear that is visible on the side of the head.
 The pinna, ear canal and the eardrum form the outer ear.
a. Pinna (Auricle)
 It is made of cartilage and skin and has a flap-like appearance.
 It functions as the first point of contact for sound waves.
 It collects and directs sound waves into the ear canal.
 The pinna helps in localizing the source of sounds.
 It provides some protection to the delicate structures of the ear canal.
 A smaller pinna may have a reduced ability to capture and amplify sound.
 Humans have limited voluntary control over their pinna.
 Some animals can move their pinna to pick up sounds.
b. The ear canal (External auditory meatus)
 It is a tube-like structure that extends from the outer ear to the eardrum.
 The human ear canal is approximately 2 centimeters long.
 Its diameter ranges from about 0.7 to 1 centimeter.
 It plays a vital role in transmitting sound waves from the outer ear to the middle ear.
 At the entrance of the ear canal are a number of small hairs.
 They are called "tragus hairs" or "auricular hairs."
 They help to trap foreign particles, dust, insects, and other debris.
 The cells lining the ear canal produce a waxy material known as cerumen (earwax).
 It traps dust and germs, and lubricates the eardrum.
 Excessive accumulation of earwax can lead to hearing loss and ear discomfort.
 The ear canal is closed by the eardrum.

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 c. The eardrum (Tympanum)
 It is a sheet of very thin membrane at the end of the ear canal.
 It separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
 Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear.
 It vibrates in response to sound waves.
 The ossicles are a group of three tiny bones located in the middle ear.
 An eardrum perforation can result in hearing loss, ear pain or discomfort, and ear drainage.

Figure 6. The Outer Ear

The Middle Ear

 It is a small, air-filled cavity located between the eardrum and the inner ear.
 It contains several important structures including ossicles, Eustachian tube, oval window, and
round window.
a. Ossicles
 They are three bones in the middle ear that are among the smallest bones in the human body.
 They form joints with one another.
 They serve to transmit sounds from the air to the fluid-filled cochlea.
 The ossicles, in order from the eardrum to the inner ear, are: the malleus, incus, and stapes.

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 i. Malleus (Hammer)
 The outermost ossicle and attached to the inner surface of the eardrum.
 It receives vibrations from the eardrum and transmits it to the incus.
 The malleus resembles a hammer.
ii. Incus (Anvil)
 The middle ossicle, articulating with the malleus on one end and the stapes on the other.
 It receives vibrations from the malleus and transmits it to the stapes.
 The incus resembles an anvil.
 Anvil is a heavy iron block on which metal can be hammered and shaped.
iii. Stapes (Stirrup)
 The innermost ossicle and attached to the oval window of the inner ear.
 It measures roughly 2 to 3 mm and it is the smallest bone in the human body.
 It receives vibrations from the incus and transmits it to the oval window.
 The stapes resembles a stirrup.
 A stirrup is a device attached to a saddle that supports the horse rider's foot.
b. Eustachian Tube
 It is a narrow passage that connects the middle ear to the back of the throat (pharynx).
 It is approximately 3 to 4 centimeters in length in adults.
 It is usually closed but when the pressure in the middle ear increases, the tube opens.
 It allows air to enter or exit the middle ear.
 It helps regulate air pressure within the middle ear cavity.
 It equalizes pressure between the middle ear and the external environment.
 It allows for drainage of fluids from the middle ear.
c. Oval Window
 It is a membrane-covered opening in the wall of the inner ear to which the stapes is attached.
 It transmits sound vibrations from the middle ear to the fluid-filled cochlea of the inner ear.
d. Round Window
 It is a membrane-covered opening located below the oval window.
 It allows for the displacement of fluid within the cochlea in response to sound vibrations
transmitted through the oval window.
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  It allows fluid in the cochlea to move, which in turn ensures that hair cells will be stimulated and
that audition will occur.

Figure 7. The Middle Ear

The inner ear

 The inner ear consists of a cavity filled with a fluid, two sac-like structures called the sacculus
and utriculus, three semicircular canals and a coiled tube called the cochlea.
 The sacculus, utriculus, semicircular canals and the cochlea are filled with a liquid.
 The clear, viscous fluid found within the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear is called
endolymph.
 The utriculus, sacculus, and semicircular canals are the vestibular apparatus where as the
cochlea is the auditory apparatus.
 The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory nerve) is responsible for transmitting sensory information
related to both hearing and balance from the inner ear to the brain.

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 The vestibular apparatus
 It is responsible for detecting changes in head position and movement, as well as maintaining
balance and spatial orientation.
 The vestibular nerve primarily carries sensory information related to balance, spatial
orientation, and head movement to the brain.
 The vestibular nerve delivers sensory information to multiple brain regions such as brainstem
and cerebellum.
The auditory apparatus
 It refers to the complex system of structures involved in the process of hearing.
 The electrical signals generated by auditory apparatus are transmitted to the brain for
interpretation through cochlear nerve.
 The primary destination for auditory messages is the auditory cortex which is located in the
temporal lobe of the brain.
a. Sacculus and utriculus
 They are concerned with the sense of balance and posture.
 They work in concert with other structures such as the semicircular canals to maintain
equilibrium.
 Their inner surfaces contain sensory cells with protruding hairs.
 The hairs are embedded in a jelly-like substance containing tiny particles of chalk called
otoliths.
 Otoliths are small calcium carbonate crystals.
 The utricle and saccule are known as the otolith structures.
 When the head moves, the otoliths shift due to gravity or linear acceleration.
i. Sacculus
 It is part of the vestibule of the inner ear, adjacent to the utricle.
 It contains sensory cells and hair cells that respond to changes in linear acceleration and head
position.
 The sacculus primarily detects vertical movements, such as up-and-down motion.
ii. Utriculus
 It is a small, pear-shaped organ located within the vestibule of the inner ear.

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  It contains specialized sensory cells and hair cells that detect linear acceleration and the
orientation of the head with respect to gravity.
 The utricle is sensitive to forward and backward motion, as well as tilting of the head.
b. Semicircular canals
 They are a set of three interconnected, fluid-filled tubes located within the inner ear.
 Each semicircular canal is oriented in a different plane of space: horizontal, anterior
(superior), and posterior (inferior).
 They are concerned with the detection of motion.
 The swellings on each of the semicircular canals (the ampullae) contain sensory cells attached to
sensory nerve endings.
 The sensory cells have hairs which are enclosed in a core of jelly substance called a
cupula.
 The semicircular canals are all at right angles to each other, so each one is sensitive to movement
in a different plane.
c. Cochlea
 The cochlea is a spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure located in the inner ear.
 The cochlea resembles a snail shell and is divided into three fluid-filled chambers.
 A cross section of the cochlea reveals that it is made up of three tubes in one.
 One component of the auditory nerve (cochlear nerve) arises from the hair cells located in
the cochlea.
 The floor of the middle tube is lined with sensory cells linked to affector neurons.
 It plays a crucial role in the process of hearing by converting sound vibrations into electrical
signals that can be interpreted by the brain.

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 Figure 8. The inner Ear

The Mechanism of Hearing

1. Sound waves are collected by the pinna and directed towards the eardrum through the ear canal.
2. The eardrum vibrates in response to the incoming sound waves.
3. Vibrations from the eardrum are transmitted through the ossicles in the middle ear.
 The ossicles amplify and transmit the vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.
4. The vibrations are then transferred to the cochlea through the oval window.

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  The vibrations of the stapes make the membrane at the oval window vibrate.
5. Hair cells within the cochlea convert the mechanical vibrations into electrical signals.
6. The auditory nerve carries these electrical signals to the brainstem.
7. Auditory signals are processed and analyzed in the brainstem and auditory cortex.
8. The brain interprets the signals and generates appropriate responses to the sound.
Human auditory range
 The human ear is sensitive to vibrations ranging from approximately 20 Hz to around 20,000 Hz.
 Hertz (Hz) is the unit of frequency (number of vibrations per second).
 High notes have higher frequencies and low notes have lower frequencies.
 Sounds outside the auditory range are considered infrasound (< 20 Hz) or ultrasound (> 20 kHz).
 High notes are detected in the first part of the cochlea and low notes are recorded in the last part
of the cochlea.
 A high note sound has a higher frequency and is perceived as having a higher pitch.
 An example of a sound with a higher pitch is the sound produced by a whistle.
 A lower note sound has a lower frequency and is perceived as having a lower pitch.
 An example of a sound with a lower pitch is the sound of a bass drum.
 The range of audible sound for humans typically falls between 0 dB (the threshold of hearing)
and around 120 dB (the threshold of pain).
 The most comfortable range is usually between 20 dB and 90 dB.
 Decibel (dB) is a unit used to measure the intensity or level of a sound.

The Senses of Balance and Movement

Balance
1. When your head tilts, otoliths move in the opposite direction due to gravity.
2. This movement pulls or presses sensory hairs in the utriculus and sacculus.
3. Sensory hair stimulation initiates nerve impulses.
4. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
5. The brain detects the angle of tilt based on received signals.
6. Reflexes are initiated by the brain to return the body to its normal posture.
 The sense of balance is also affected by your vision and by stretch receptors in the muscles.

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 Movement
1. Body or head movement causes the semicircular canals to move accordingly.
2. Fluid within the semicircular canals lags behind in its motion due to inertia, seemingly moving in
the opposite direction.
3. The motion of fluid within the canals tilts the cupula.
4. The tilting cupula presses against sensory hairs of hair cells and stimulate them.
5. Stimulation of sensory hairs generates nerve impulses in sensory nerve endings.
6. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
7. The brain then interprets the direction and speed of motion of the body or head.

Common Disorders of the Ear

a. Tinnitus
 It is the perception of ringing, buzzing, humming, or other noises in the ears without any external
sound source.
 It can be temporary or chronic and may vary in intensity.
 It can be caused by exposure to loud noise, age-related hearing loss, earwax buildup, and ear
infections.
b. Cerumen impaction
 It refers to the accumulation of earwax (cerumen) in the ear canal.
 It occurs when earwax accumulates excessively or becomes hardened.
 It can obstruct the ear canal and interfere with hearing.
 Symptoms include earache, hearing loss, tinnitus, itching, and a feeling of fullness in the ear
canal.
c. Acoustic neuroma
 It is a benign tumor that develops on the vestibulocochlear nerve.
 Symptoms include hearing loss, tinnitus, imbalance or vertigo, facial numbness or weakness,
and headaches.
d. Deafness
 Deafness is one of the most common disorders of the ear.
 It is also known as hearing impairment or hearing loss.

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  Deafness may be temporary or permanent.
 The main causes of deafness include:
 Damage to the eardrum which can occur due to a blow or very loud noise.
 Damage or fusion of the ossicles by infection or aging.
 Damage to the auditory nerve.
 Middle ear infection which leads to the accumulation of thick infected mucus.
 It can be reversed if the infection is cleared with antibiotics.

Checkpoint 5
1. All of the below are functions of the ear EXCEPT
A. detecting touch and pressure C. detecting sound waves
B. detecting motion and acceleration D. maintaining body balance
2. How many regions is the ear divided into?
A. Two C. Five
B. Four D. Three
3. What comprises the outer ear?
A. Cochlea, Pinna, Eardrum C. Eardrum, Ear canal, Pinna
B. Ear canal, Pinna, Cochlea D. Pinna, Eardrum, Ossicles
4. Which structure of the outer ear funnels sound waves into the auditory canal?
A. Pinna C. Eardrum
B. Cochlea D. Eustachian tube
5. Select the correct statement regarding the human pinnae.
A. They can be rotated to capture sound from different directions.
B. They are covered in fur which provides insulation and protection.
C. They are relatively small and flat compared to the rest of the head.
D. They are inflexible as they are primarily made of bones and thick skin.
6. Which statement describes the consequence of excessive earwax accumulation?
A. Hearing loss and ear discomfort C. Improved hearing ability
B. Enhanced lubrication of the eardrum D. Reduced risk of ear infections

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7. What is the primary function of the ear canal?
A. To transmit sound waves from the inner ear to the outer ear
B. To transmit sound waves from the outer ear to the middle ear
C. To transmit sound waves from the auditory cortex to the outer ear
D. To transmit sound waves from the middle ear to the Eustachian tube
8. What is the primary function of the small hairs found at the entrance of the ear canal?
A. They transmit sound waves to the eardrum.
B. They amplify low frequency sound vibrations.
C. They enhance hearing ability by collecting sound.
D. They trap foreign particles, dust, insects, and debris.
9. All of the below are correct about tympanum EXCEPT
A. It separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
B. It remains stationary and unaffected by sound waves.
C. It has many perforations for improved hearing ability.
D. It is a thick membrane located at the end of the ear canal.
10. Which of the following bones is NOT part of the ossicles in the middle ear?
A. Incus C. Malleus
B. Stapes D. Sphenoid
11. Which of the following structures is a part of the middle ear?
A. Cochlea C. Oval window
B. Tympanum D. Auditory nerve
12. Which of the following ear structures is primarily responsible for equalizing the pressure between
the inside and outside of the ear during flight on an airplane?
A. Pinna C. Eardrum
B. Cochlea D. Eustachian tube
13. Through what structures do sound waves travel to excite the receptor cells of the cochlea?
A. Eardrum → Ear canal → Ossicles → Oval window
B. Ear canal → Eardrum → Ossicles → Oval window
C. Ear canal → Ossicles → Oval window → Eardrum
D. Ossicles → Eardrum → Ear canal → Oval window

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14. Which structures of the ear transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the oval window?
A. Auditory ossicles C. Mechanoreceptors
B. Semicircular canals D. Saccule and utricle
15. Which part of the inner ear has no role in maintaining body balance and position?
A. Cochlea C. Sacculus
B. Utriculus D. Semicircular canals
16. Which structure of the inner ear registers vertical movements, such as the sensation experienced
when moving in an elevator?
A. Cupula C. Ampulla
B. Sacculus D. Utriculus
17. In which structure are the sensory cells located within the semicircular canals?
A. The ampulla C. The vestibule
B. The cochlea D. The tympanum
18. Arrange the following steps in the correct sequence of the mechanism of hearing.
1. Cochlea receives vibrations
2. Pinna collects sound waves
3. Eardrum (tympanum) vibrates
4. Auditory nerve carries signals to brainstem
5. Brain processes signals and generates responses
6. Hair cells convert vibrations to electrical signals
7. Sound waves reach the eardrum through the ear canal
8. Ossicles transmit vibrations of tympanum to inner ear
A. 1, 2, 4, 3, 7, 5, 6, 8 C. 2, 7, 3, 8, 1, 6, 4, 5
B. 3, 1, 4, 7, 8, 5, 6, 2 D. 2, 4, 1, 7, 3, 8, 6, 5
19. Where are high notes detected within the cochlea?
A. In the middle part C. In the last part
B. Throughout the cochlea D. In the first part
20. Which range of frequencies is considered ultrasound?
A. Between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz C. Below 20 Hz
B. Between 20 kHz and 20,000 kHz D. Above 20 kHz

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21. Arrange the following steps in the correct sequence of the vestibular reflex mechanism.
1. Sensory hair stimulation initiates nerve impulses.
2. The brain detects the angle of tilt based on received signals.
3. Sensory hairs in the utriculus and sacculus are pulled or pressed.
4. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain via the vestibular nerve.
5. Reflexes are initiated by the brain to return the body to its normal posture.
6. When your head tilts, otoliths move in the opposite direction due to gravity.
A. 6, 3, 1, 4, 5, 2 C. 3, 1, 4, 6, 2, 5
B. 6, 3, 1, 4, 2, 5 D. 3, 1, 6, 4, 2, 5
22. In the mechanism of the vestibular system, what structure is tilted by the motion of fluid within the
semicircular canals to stimulate sensory hair cells?
A. Papilla C. Cupula
B. Cochlea D. Otolith
23. What nerve is responsible for transmitting information from the cochlea of the inner ear to the
brainstem?
A. Vagus nerve C. Olfactory nerve
B. Auditory nerve D. Vestibular nerve
24. Which part of the ear is damaged in cases of deafness due to a blow or very loud noise?
A. Pinna C. Cochlea
B. Eardrum D. Auditory nerve
25. Post-rotational dizziness is a common phenomenon experienced by individuals after sudden or rapid
movement, such as spinning in circles. Why does the dizziness occur?
A. It occurs due to the continued stimulation of the olfactory and light receptors.
B. It occurs due to the continued movement of fluid within the semicircular canals.
C. It occurs due to an abnormal buildup of fluid both in the middle ear and inner ear.
D. It occurs due to small CaCO3 crystals becoming dislodged from their usual position.

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 Answers for the Checkpoints
Checkpoint 1 Checkpoint 2 Checkpoint 3 Checkpoint 4 Checkpoint 5

1. D 1. C 1. B 1. C 1. A
2. C 2. A 2. D 2. A 2. D
3. B 3. C 3. A 3. A 3. C
4. D 4. D 4. B 4. D 4. A
5. A 5. C 5. C 5. D 5. C
6. A 6. B 6. B 6. A 6. A
7. D 7. A 7. D 7. D 7. B
8. B 8. A 8. C 8. D 8. D
9. C 9. B 9. A 9. C 9. A
10. B 10. D 10. D 10. B 10. D
11. A 11. C
12. B 12. D
13. A 13. B
14. D 14. A
15. A 15. A
16. C 16. B
17. B 17. A
18. B 18. C
19. B 19. D
20. C 20. D
21. C 21. B
22. D 22. C
23. D 23. B
24. B 24. B
25. D 25. B
26. A
27. C
28. B
29. B
30. C

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