Satan in the Book of Job; development towards the later Jewish

understanding of Satan as a specific demonic being who is a leader of the

forces of evil

Group members

1. Abel Kagnewu

2. Amanuel Getu

3. Bilisuma Werkisa

4. Gemechis Buli

5. Dr. Shiferawu Mitiku

Course Instructor: Mr. Endashaw Negash

Understanding the Old Testament (BS 502)

ETHIOPIAN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY (EGST)

April 8. 2024
Table of Contents

1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1

1.1. Overview of the book of Job........................................................................................................1

2. Etymology and Meaning of “Satan”....................................................................................................2

3. Satan in the Book of Job......................................................................................................................3

3.1 Scene 1: Description of Job’s Character, His Family and Possessions (Job 1:1-5)............................3

3.2 Scene 2: The First Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 1:6-12)..............................................5

3.3 Scene 3: The Second Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 2:1-6)............................................7

4. Development towards the later Jewish understanding of Satan as a specific demonic being who is a

leader of the forces of evil.........................................................................................................................11

4.1 Satan in Numbers 22:22, 32.............................................................................................................11

4.2 The Satan in Zechariah 3:1..............................................................................................................12

4.3. 1 Chronicles 21:1: Satan as a Proper Name....................................................................................13

4. The Evolution of the Celestial Satan: A Metaphysical Perspective on Biblical Concepts.....................15

4.4 The influence of Persian dualism.....................................................................................................17

4.5 Satan in the Pseudipigrapha.................................................................................................................18

5. Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................19

Reference..................................................................................................................................................21
 1. Introduction
1.1. Overview of the book of Job

The Book of Job begins by introducing Job, a righteous and prosperous man who enjoys a close

relationship with God. However, tragedy strikes Job's life when he loses his wealth, family, and

health, leading him to question the purpose and fairness of his suffering. The bulk of the book

consists of poetic dialogues between Job and his friends, who attempt to explain his suffering as

a consequence of sin.

Job's friends adhere to a traditional viewpoint that suffering is a direct result of wrongdoing.

However, Job vehemently defends his innocence, expressing his frustration and despair while

longing for a chance to confront God and plead his case.

Throughout the dialogues, Job grapples with profound questions about the nature of God and the

meaning of suffering. He yearns for answers and demands a hearing before God to justify his

suffering. The book presents various arguments and perspectives as Job and his friends engage in

a series of intense debates.

Toward the end of the book, God finally responds to Job's cries, appearing in a whirlwind and

challenging Job's limited human understanding. In a poetic and majestic monologue, God reveals

His wisdom, power, and sovereignty over creation, reminding Job of his finite perspective in the

grand scheme of things.

The Book of Job concludes with Job humbling himself before God, acknowledging the

limitations of his understanding and repenting of his audacity to question the Almighty. God

restores Job's fortunes and blesses him abundantly, illustrating His ultimate justice and mercy.
1
 2. Etymology and Meaning of “Satan”

The term "Satan" is derived from the Hebrew verb "Sätän," which means "to accuse," "to

slander," or "to be an adversary." In the Hebrew Bible, "Satan" is used to refer to both human

adversaries and a supernatural adversary. When the term is applied to human adversaries, it

signifies a political opponent or a legal accuser. For example, in 1 Samuel 29:4, the Philistines

fear that David may become their adversary by aligning himself with Saul. In 2 Samuel 19:17-

24, Abishai is described as an adversary when he suggests killing Shimei, who had insulted

David. Similarly, in 1 Kings 11:14, 23, 25, God raises adversaries against Solomon as a

punishment for his sins. In these cases, "Satan" has a legal connotation, representing accusers or

enemies in political or legal contexts. Another instance of a terrestrial Satan is found in Psalm

109:6, where an accuser is mentioned in a legal setting. The meaning of "Satan" here can be

either a wicked person bringing false accusations or the words of the psalmist against his

opponents. This understanding suggests that the terrestrial Satan refers to human adversaries,

opponents, or slanderers.1

The word "Satan" is mentioned 26 times in the Hebrew Scriptures, specifically in four passages:

Numbers 22:22, 23; the Book of Job (chapters 1-2); Zechariah 3:1; and 1 Chronicles 21:1. 2 In

three of these passages, the word is preceded by the definite article "hassätän," indicating that it

functions as a common noun meaning "the accuser." Only in 1 Chronicles 21:1 is it possibly

used as a proper name without the definite article. Let's now explore these four texts to

understand the meaning of the term in its specific contexts.

1
T.C. YOUNG, “Satan”, ABD V, New York: Doubleday 1992, 985.
2
G.J. BOTTERWECK – H. RINGGREN – H. FABRY, TDOT, 74

2
 3. Satan in the Book of Job

The term "Satan" is introduced in the prologue of the Book of Job, specifically in the prose

section comprising Job 1-2. This section serves as a significant preamble to the poetic dialogues

between Job and his friends. It unfolds through five distinct scenes, alternating between the

earthly realm and the heavenly realm, establishing a profound connection between the two. 3

While the human characters remain oblivious to the events transpiring in heaven, the reader is

granted insight into this celestial backdrop. It is within this heavenly setting that the questions

and dilemmas, which the subsequent dialogues aim to address, are brought forth. Thus,

according to Leonce F. Rambauthe structure of Job 1-2 can be summarized and reimagined as

follows: 1:1-5. Earthly Setting: Description of the person of Job, his character, and his family.

1:6-12. Heavenly Court: The first dialogue between the Satan and God. 1:13-22. Earthly Setting:

the Satan brings to realization the deliberations of the Heavenly Court, and Job reacts. 2:1-6

Heavenly Court: The second dialogue between the Satan and God. 2:7-13. Earthly Setting: the

Satan brings to realization the deliberations of the Heavenly Court. Job reacts; so do his friends.

This interplay between the earthly and heavenly realms sets the stage for an exploration of the

meaning and function of Satan within the Hebrew Bible and its implications for theology and

culture.4

3.1 Scene 1: Description of Job’s Character, His Family and Possessions (Job 1:1-5)
There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job; and that man was blameless

and upright, one who feared God, and turned away from evil. There were born to him

seven sons and three daughters. He had seven thousand sheep, three thousand camels,

five hundred yoke of oxen, and five hundred she-asses, and very many servants; so that
3
Clines, D.A. Job 1–20, page 8.
4
Leonce F. Rambau, ‘The Meaning and Function of Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)’. December 2017, pp. 129-129

3
 this man was the greatest of all the people of the east. His sons used to go and hold a

feast in the house of each on his day; and they would send and invite their three sisters to

eat and drink with them. And when the days of the feast had run their course, Job would

send and sanctify them, and he would rise early in the morning and offer burnt offerings

according to the number of them all; for Job said, “It may be that my sons have sinned,

and cursed God in their hearts.” Thus Job did continually.5

The first scene serves as a setting for the unfolding of the events in the prose section, which

forms in some sense, the basis for the dialogues. It introduces Job, the main character in the

book. In 1:1, Job is described as a perfect human being, blameless, upright, God-fearing, who

turns away from evil. His character is described using a pair of words, which are common in

proverbial wisdom and the Psalms6 This description suggests completeness and perfection,

integrity and respectful piety.7

In Job 1:2-3, the author describes Job’s family, property, his household and status. Newsome

suggests that the conjunction wü connects Job’s integrity and piety with his prosperity: “Does

Job just happen to be rich and have a large family, or does he have these things because he is a

man of exemplary piety? Although the narrator does not say explicitly, the very description of

Job’s family and wealth suggests a connection. All the numbers used are symbolic, suggesting

completeness and perfection … Just as Job’s piety is complete, so also his family and property

are complete and perfect.”8 His prosperity is the result of his exemplary piety, the sign of God’s

5
The book of job., 1-6 The Holy Bible: The Revised Standard Version, (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1971), and the Hebrew texts are
taken from Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, Edited by K. Elliger, W. Rudulph, and Institute for NT Textual Research Munster (Munster: German
Bible Society, 2006).
6
D.A. CLINES, Job 1–20, 8.
7
C.A. NEWSOM, “The Book of Job” 345.
8
Ibid.

4
blessings. This is the principle of Divine Justice and Retribution, that is, God rewards the just

and punishes the wicked.

In verses 4-5, Job’s exemplary piety is emphasized by showing how he goes to extraordinary

lengths to ensure that his sons do not sin against God. The Hebrew expression for what the sons

may be doing is literally “blessing” God “in their hearts”. The verb “blessing”, however, seems

to be a euphemism (cf. v. 11). As the translation above indicates, the word seems surely to mean

“cursing.” This scene prepares the ground for the second scene, which takes place in the

Heavenly Court (1:6-12).

3.2 Scene 2: The First Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 1:6-12)

The scene is set in heaven, where God presides over the Heavenly Council, surrounded by divine

counselors. The "sons of God" present themselves before God as courtiers, signifying their

membership in the heavenly or divine sphere (Job 1:6). 9The term "sons of God" does not imply

literal progeny but rather beings belonging to the heavenly or divine realm (Job 1:6). This

concept reflects a common Semitic usage of "son" to denote membership in a class or group.

Over time, the notion of "sons of God" became fused with the concept of angels (Job 1:6).10

Among the members of the Heavenly Court is Satan, who comes before God to report on his

duties. Although Satan has an adversarial relationship with humans, he remains under God's

authority and control. Notably, the conversations between Satan and God in Job 1:7-12 and 2:2-6

are unique in the Hebrew Scriptures, with God initiating both dialogues (Job 1:7; 2:2).

9
5 B. BYRNE, “Sons of God”, ABD VI, New York: Doubleday 1992, 156.
10
M.H. POPE, Job. AB 15, New York: Doubleday 1965, 9-10

5
When God asks Satan where he has come from, Satan describes his activities of roaming and

observing the earth (Job 1:7). The verb "going to and fro" used by Satan forms a poetic parallel

with the noun Satan and is reminiscent of Zechariah 4:10b, where the lamps symbolize God's

eyes that go to and fro throughout the earth (Job 1:7). The use of "going to and fro" may also be

analogous to a Persian context, where royal officials known as "the eyes and ears of the king"

were responsible for surveillance and security. 11 This suggests that Satan functions as a roving

secret agent, patrolling the earth and reporting evils to God. God then brings up the topic of Job

in the heavenly dialogue, praising him as His servant and emphasizing that there is no one like

him on earth (Job 1:8). This reinforces the depiction of Job's righteousness presented in the first

scene (Job 1:8).

Newsom suggests that God's question to Satan indicates an ongoing rivalry between them.

According to Newsom, Satan's function involves both defending a king's honor by uncovering

hidden disloyalty and potentially exposing the king to dishonor by revealing disrespect. To

preempt this activity and defend His own honor, God directs attention to Job, highlighting his

unwavering loyalty and regard for God.12

In his reply, Satan shifts the focus of the debate. He questions Job's sincerity and suggests that

Job serves God to obtain prosperity. Satan accuses God of providing divine patronage to Job,

multiplying his possessions and protecting him. This challenges the validity of the doctrine of

Divine Justice and Retribution, which asserts that righteousness is rewarded with material

prosperity. By doing so, Satan questions whether Job's motives for serving God are truly

disinterested and indirectly accuses God of favoritism. 13 Day argues that there is a shift from

11
M.H. POPE takes this as an etymology of the noun Satan. Cf. Job, 11.
12
C.A. NEWSOM, “The Book of Job”, 349.
13
T.C. YOUNG, “Satan,” 987.

6
testing Job's loyalty to testing God. Satan attacks the world order established by God. While this

claim may be overstated, it is clear that Satan raises fundamental questions about human motives

for serving God and casts doubt on the possibility of disinterested piety. Can humans serve God

for God's sake if they are rewarded for their piety?14

Newsom suggests that Satan insinuates that Job and God are both self-deceived in thinking that

piety can be freely offered when it is routinely met with blessings. Breaking this pattern would

prove Satan right. If God breaches the protective hedge around Job and destroys what he has,

Satan believes Job will openly reject God. In verse 11, the word "bless" is used euphemistically

to mean "curse," as Satan predicts that Job will curse God.

God grants Satan permission to test Job but reserves the protection of Job's person for Himself.

In scene three, the setting shifts to the earth as God removes the protective fence around Job's

possessions. Job experiences a series of catastrophes that result in the loss of his possessions, but

contrary to Satan's expectations, Job blesses the name of the Lord and does not sin or accuse God

of wrongdoing. Job's actions contradict Satan's prediction, demonstrating that disinterested piety

is possible. Job remains faithful to God throughout these trials.

3.3 Scene 3: The Second Dialogue between God and the Satan (Job 2:1-6)

2:1 again there was a day when the sons of God came to present themselves before the

LORD, and Satan also came among them to present himself before the LORD. 2 And the

LORD said to Satan, “Whence have you come?” Satan answered the LORD, “From

going to and fro on the earth, and from walking up and down on it.” 3 And the LORD

said to Satan, “Have you considered my servant Job, that there is none like him on the

14
C.A. NEWSOM, op.cit., 349.

7
 earth, a blameless and upright man, who fears God and turns away from evil? He still

holds fast his integrity, although you moved me against him, to destroy him without

cause.” 4 Then Satan answered the LORD, “Skin for skin! All that a man has he will give

for his life. 5 But put forth thy hand now, and touch his bone and his flesh, and he will

curse thee to thy face.” 6 And the LORD said to Satan, “Behold, he is in your power;

only spare his life.”

In scene four (Job 2:1-6), another session of the Heavenly Court takes place. Verses 1-3a of this

second chapter are almost a verbatim reproduction of Job 1:6-7. The word breaks with 1:6-7

starts in verse 3b in God’s description of Job’s character. This signals a change of the focus of

attention, namely, the focus falls on God’s and the Satan’s actions: “He still holds fast his

integrity, although you moved me against him, to destroy him without cause: The Satan has

incited God to treat Job undeservedly. In this text, “for nothing” recalls the Satan’s words in 1:9

that Job does not serve God “for nothing.” This word could mean, ‘without compensation,’ ‘in

vain,’ ‘without cause,’ ‘undeservedly.’ But whether the word means the same in both verses 1:9

and 2:3, Newsom argues that the use of the same word in these verses suggests a complex issue

underlying the whole story: “The didactic tale has been guiding the reader to affirm that

disinterested piety, a fully unconditional love of God, is both possible and commendable. [The

Lord’s] echo of the term Hinnäm in the context of ‘gratuitous destruction’ however, suggests the

dark possibilities inherent in a relationship that is radically unconditional.”15

In Job 2:4-6, instead of admitting defeat, the Satan shifts the ground of the argument. He

proposes a more severe level of the test, namely, to afflict Job’s own person. For the Satan, the

test had been too lenient: “the real test of the relationship of Job’s piety and his prosperity has

15
C.A. NEWSOM, op.cit., 354.

8
not yet begun, he means to say; it is only when the man himself, his own ‘bone’ and ‘flesh’ is

smitten that one can determine the truth about the piety of Job.” 16 The Satan quotes a proverb,

“skin for skin, The meaning of this proverb is enigmatic. Clines give a likely meaning of this

proverb as follows:

The phrase may well have had to do originally with what was fair: proverbially speaking,

the only indisputably fair exchange for one pelt is another pelt …. Job judged his

possessions (including his children) and his own life (including his health) to be of equal

value to him; he can afford to forgo his goods to save his life – and indeed he must, for if

he refuses to afford to, he loses his life … the only means he has of securing his life is to

give up his possessions with good grace – and not curse God.17

Understood in this way, the proverb means that Job has held fast in his integrity “to save his own

skin,” for it was understood that whenever someone cursed God, God would smite him instantly

(cf. 2:9, Job’s wife’s suggestion). In this way the Satan proposes a new test, that God allow Job

to suffer physical harm, “his bone and his flesh,” hoping that Job will curse God (v. 5). God

gives him the permission to afflict Job, but again, God reserves for himself the protection of

Job’s life. Just as in scene two, the Satan goes forth from God’s presence, to act according to the

permission he has received (verse 7a) in scene five. The Satan afflicts Job with miserable bodily

ailments, but Job maintains his piety towards God, and this proves the Satan wrong: disinterested

piety is possible: “In all this Job did not sin with his lips” (Job 2:10).

In this analysis we have seen how the Satan carries out his function as a prosecuting attorney, an

accuser. Unlike the other texts treated, the Satan does not point out human sinfulness and

16
D.A. CLINES, Job 1–20, 43.
17
Ibid, 44.

9
disloyalty to God, but he examines motives; he suggests putting humans to the test in order to

reveal ulterior motives for serving God. In carrying out this task however, the Satan not only puts

himself in opposition to human beings but also in opposition to God. The Satan questions the

system that God has put into place, the one which rewards virtue with material prosperity and

stable physical health. But, in the final analysis, the Satan is firmly under God’s control, and

does only what God permits him to do. In Job 1–2, the author brings to light the Satan’s activities

and functions in order to address the fundamental questions that he intended to address

throughout the entire book. The author simply uses the concepts that were already present in the

biblical tradition: the concept of a legal, heavenly accuser, the concept of the Heavenly Court,

and more fundamentally, the notion inherent in Deuteronomistic theology that human

righteousness meets with God’s blessings through material prosperity and physical wellbeing,

and that sins are met with divine punishment (see Deut 27- 28). This would explain why the

Satan disappears from the dialogues, and never appears at all in the epilogue, for the author

conceives of him as the trigger that raises the fundamental questions that he aimed to address in

the poetic section. The dialogue between the Satan and God lays a firm foundation for the book,

since it puts forward the premises that are discussed at length in the poetic section of the book of

Job. Job and his friends exhaust every possible explanation of Job’s misfortunes. The dialogues

between Job and his friends hinge on the fact they are unaware of what transpired in the

heavenly court. However, they address the questions that arise therein, namely, does human

righteousness automatically lead to God’s blessings through material prosperity and general

well-being and vice versa?

10
 4. Development towards the later Jewish understanding of Satan as a
specific demonic being who is a leader of the forces of evil

4.1 Satan in Numbers 22:22, 32

In the Book of Numbers, we encounter the earliest mention of the celestial Satan in the Hebrew

Bible. As the story goes, Balaam embarks on a journey and encounters the angel of the Lord,

who is identified as an adversary or Satan. The angel, taking on the role of an opponent, tries to

prevent Balaam from continuing his journey not once, but twice. Eventually, the angel reveals

himself to Balaam and explains that he has been sent as an adversary.18

It's important to note that in this context, the celestial Satan, portrayed as a heavenly messenger,

is not hostile towards God. Instead, he is fulfilling a specific role assigned by God as an

adversary to Balaam. The purpose of this opposition is to deter Balaam from engaging in sinful

actions. It becomes evident that the angel's actions are authorized by God. In this passage, Satan

is not presented as a proper name but rather as a functional role. The term "Satan" here refers to

an opponent or someone who obstructs Balaam's plans. In a similar vein, we see God raising up a

Satan against Solomon twice in the Hebrew Scriptures, where the Satan acts as an adversary to

the king.19

Ultimately, the presence of the celestial Satan in Numbers 22 serves the purpose of thwarting the

Moabites' plan. God intervenes by standing in their way, utilizing the figure of the angel as his

representative. This early depiction of Satan highlights its role as a celestial adversary, carrying

out God's will in specific situations. It demonstrates the complexity of the celestial Satan's

18
P.L. DAY, An Adversary in Heaven, 48-57
19
Leonce F. Rambau., The Meaning and Function of Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) ., pp.122

11
character and its alignment with divine purposes, rather than being a malevolent entity opposing

God.20

4.2 The Satan in Zechariah 3:1

In the book of Zechariah, we encounter the fourth vision, which takes place in the Heavenly

Court. This vision portrays God as the King, surrounded by His courtiers. The concept of a

heavenly court, also found in Job 1-2, is well-established in the Hebrew Bible, with references in

passages like 1 Kings 22:19-23, Psalms 82, Isaiah 6:1-5, and Daniel 7:9-14. Scholars note that

this depiction is deeply rooted in mythology, where the Heavenly Court corresponds to the

council of 'El, a common motif in the ancient Near East.

The Israelites held the belief that God regularly convened a court where counsel was given, and

judgments were rendered on various matters. Both in Zechariah 3:1 and Job 1-2, Satan assumes

the role of a prosecuting attorney within this Heavenly Court. Another possibility is that the

imagery draws from the common practice of a royal council, where the king would be

surrounded by courtiers who provided reports, counsel, and received directives. This concept

was familiar in Egypt and likely existed in Israel as well.

Regardless of its origins, these texts reflect the Israelite notion of a Heavenly Court. In Zechariah

3:1, we see Joshua, the High Priest, standing as the accused, while God presides as the judge.

Satan acts as the prosecuting attorney, challenging Joshua's dignity and worth. On the other

hand, the angel of the Lord stands as Joshua's defense attorney or advocate.

20
Botterweck, G.J., Ringgren, H., and Fabry, H. TDOT, page 74.

12
In this lawsuit scenario, the Satan questions Joshua's standing as the High Priest, seeking to

undermine his reputation and worthiness. Although the specific crime is not explicitly

mentioned, it can be inferred from the symbolism of Joshua's filthy garments. The Hebrew word

used here for "filthy" conveys the idea of human excrement or a drunkard's vomit, suggesting a

symbolic representation of moral impurity.

In this passage, the defining characteristic of Satan is his function within the Heavenly Court as

an accuser and prosecuting attorney. It is important to note that he operates firmly under God's

control. While the Satan maintains an adversarial relationship with human beings, as seen in his

zealous prosecution of Joshua, he appears to overlook God's qualities of mercy and faithfulness

to His covenant with His people.21

Overall, this depiction illustrates the Heavenly Court's existence in the Israelite belief system. It

showcases the interplay between the roles of the accuser, the judge, and the advocate, shedding

light on the Israelites' understanding of divine justice and the complexities of the heavenly realm.

4.3. 1 Chronicles 21:1: Satan as a Proper Name

In the Hebrew Bible, the word "Satan" appears as a proper name in 1 Chronicles 21:1. This is the

only instance where a celestial Satan is mentioned without a definite article. Most English

translations render it as "Satan" as a proper name. However, some scholars suggest that it could

also be translated as "an anonymous adversity," whether terrestrial or celestial, as an indefinite

noun.

21
Rambau, Leonce F., op. cit., pages 124-126.

13
The context of this development is worth noting. The same incident is mentioned in 2 Samuel

24:1. While 1 Chronicles 21:1 states that Satan incited David to take a census, 2 Samuel 24:1

attributes it to the anger of the Lord. In other words, the Lord was angry with the Israelites, so He

incited David to take the census as a means to punish Israel.

In both accounts, David is punished for taking the census. L.C. Allen proposes the idea that the

anger of the Lord, as mentioned in the Psalms, sometimes represents an amoral violent force

beyond human control. Thus, 1 Chronicles 21:1 could be an attempt to personify this force and

distance it from God.

Allen suggests that 1 Chronicles 21:1 can be understood in light of Job 2:3 and Zechariah 3:1,

which predate Chronicles. In Chronicles, the verb "incite" is used with Satan as the subject.

Therefore, the First Book of Chronicles adopts both the activity and hostile posture associated

with Satan, but introduces a development by using Satan as a proper noun instead of a functional

description. Thus, Satan's activity in this passage can be seen as a test, which David ultimately

fails.22

C. Young offers three possible explanations for this shift in Chronicles:23

1. The Chronicler may have been uneasy about attributing a morally dubious action to God.

Therefore, he refrains from implying that God incites David to take the census and then punishes

him for it.

2. The Chronicler may have wanted to present a positive relationship between God and David,

who was chosen as God's servant. To achieve this, he substitutes Satan for God, recasting the

story as a temptation episode.

22
Rambau, Leonce F., op. cit., pages 127-128.
23
Young, T.C. "Satan." In Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. V, page 987.

14
3. This passage reflects a development in how the Old Testament explains evil. Earlier texts

primarily attributed evil to a single cause, namely, the Lord. However, later texts like Chronicles

introduced the concept of a secondary cause in explaining evil, namely, Satan.

This signifies a shift from single Divine causality to double causality in understanding evil. In

this text, Satan is presented as an independent figure who acts as a seducer, tester, and inciter of

humans to sin.

4. The Evolution of the Celestial Satan: A Metaphysical Perspective on

Biblical Concepts.

After analyzing the four texts featuring the celestial Satan, a question arises regarding the

relationship between these usages. R.S. Kluger suggests that these texts represent a development

in the concept of Satan, reflecting the biblical authors' understanding of divine causality on a

metaphysical level.

In the earliest appearance of the Satan, found in Numbers 22:22, the concept is primarily

functional. The angel of the Lord acts as an adversary to Balaam, obediently following God's

will. The angel serves as a messenger, functioning under God's directive. There is no indication

in the text of a permanent office or function for a heavenly adversary.

In the subsequent text, Job 1-2, there is a noticeable evolution in the Satan's function. As one of

the "sons of God," the Satan operates within the divine realm, specifically the Heavenly Court.

Kluger suggests that the Satan is not merely a messenger but a personification, standing in

opposition to God in a dialectical relationship. In this divine realm, the Satan represents a divine

15
function, acting as an adversary. The adversarial relationship becomes more pronounced as the

Satan not only opposes humans but also challenges the order established by God.24

In Zechariah 3:1, the Satan confronts the angel of the Lord, implying a confrontation with God,

to accuse Joshua. Kluger posits that the Satan is again a personification of a divine function, with

both the Satan and the angel of the Lord representing different aspects of God engaged in an

inner dialogue. Here, two aspects of the divine, the merciful and just, confront each other.

In the last appearance of the concept of Satan in 1 Chronicles 21:1, the concept appears without a

definite article, indicating a further development. This text interprets "the anger of the Lord"

from 2 Samuel 24:1 as an activity of Satan. In this instance, the Satan becomes an independent

personality with a specific function, separate from God. Kluger suggests that the term refers to

the previously mentioned figure, the personified divine function of opposition, which has now

become an independent personality.

Therefore, Kluger proposes that biblical authors attempted to separate certain functions, which

they increasingly found morally dubious, from God. This reflects a movement away from

attributing all causality to God, delineating morally ambiguous functions and assigning them to

an independent heavenly figure. The concept of Satan evolves from a non-proper name to a

proper name, signifying a detachment from the divine personality.25

Throughout all the examined texts, the Satan appears as a hostile being. While always acting on

behalf of and under the authority of God, the Satan gradually emerges as a more independent and

antagonistic personality in carrying out its functions. Eventually, as it becomes completely

24
Kluger, R.S. Satan in the Old Testament, page 40.
25
Kluger, R.S. Satan, page 39.

16
separate from God, this concept paves the way for further development in intertestamental

literature and the New Testament.

4.4 The influence of Persian dualism

During the period of the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, there was a theological challenge in

reconciling the concept of God's control over all events, including both good and evil, with the

existence of suffering and injustice in the world. However, during the Persian period (539-332

BCE), the influence of Zoroastrianism brought about a new way of thinking.26

Zoroastrianism, a religion that emerged in ancient Persia, introduced the idea of dualism.

According to this belief system, evil did not originate from the supreme deity, Ahura Mazda,

who represented goodness and light. Instead, it was attributed to a separate malevolent being

known as Ahriman or Angra Mainya.

This dualistic framework provided a solution to the theodicy problem, addressing the question of

why a benevolent God would allow suffering and evil to exist. It proposed that God, being

inherently good, did not directly create evil but allowed for the presence of a separate entity

responsible for it. This concept allowed for the notion that God employed subordinate figures,

such as the evil being Ahriman, to carry out unpleasant tasks within the world.

The influence of Persian dualism had a profound impact on the understanding of the existence of

evil and suffering within a world created by a loving God. It provided a framework for

reconciling the coexistence of divine goodness and the presence of evil forces. This framework

laid the foundation for the entrance of the figure of Satan into Jewish thought.

26
Gregory Mobely and T.J. Wray, The Birth of Satan: Tracing the Devil’s Biblical Roots (New York, Palgrave Macmillan 2005), pp. 85-87.

17
By incorporating elements of Persian dualism, Jewish thinkers began to conceptualize a celestial

figure known as Satan, who acted as an adversary or tempter within the divine order. This

development allowed for a more nuanced understanding of the nature of evil, attributing it to an

independent entity rather than directly associating it with God. The influence of Persian dualism

thus expanded the theological landscape, providing a framework for grappling with the

complexities of theodicy and the coexistence of divine benevolence and human suffering. 27

4.5 Satan in the Pseudipigrapha

In the Pseudipigrapha, a collection of ancient Jewish texts, Satan takes on a distinct role separate

from God. In the apocalyptic Book of I Enoch, Satan is depicted as an independent figure who

acts as a leader, giving orders to the Watchers. Second Temple theologians recognized the

importance of delineating Satan's role from that of God, emphasizing God's inherent goodness

and preserving the contrast between various spiritual powers.

The Book of I Enoch provides further insight into the origins of Satan and his connection to

fallen angels known as the Watchers. According to this text, God appointed angels as watchers to

oversee humanity. However, under the leadership of Semyaz, a group of these angels descended

to Earth and engaged in illicit relationships with human women. Among the fallen angels, Azazel

emerges as a malevolent force associated with spreading violence and corruption throughout the

world. Satan, portrayed as the head of demonic spirits, plays a significant role in this narrative. 28

Satan, depicted as the source of sin and corruption, is described as instructing men in the art of

weapon-making and women in the ways of seduction. The fallen angels, including Satan, possess

27
Lucas Sweeney, The History and Origins of Satan: p.6-8
28
William H. Shea, "Azazel in the Pseudepigrapha," Journal of the Adventist Theological Society 13/1 (2002): 1-9, 2

18
the freedom to carry out their evil activities, further emphasizing their separate existence from

God's direct control.

Another prominent figure in the pseudepigraphic literature is Belial, who is described as the

angel of wickedness and the ruler of this world. Belial is associated with accusations and

ensnaring people, leading them astray from the path of righteousness. While the term Belial is

not frequently used in the Hebrew Scriptures to refer to a specific individual, it is employed to

convey the notion of worthlessness or evil, often in the sense of lawlessness.29

The influence of these pseudepigraphic texts expands our understanding of Satan's role and the

complex hierarchy of spiritual beings within Jewish thought. They portray Satan as a distinct

entity, separate from God, with the ability to exert influence and lead other evil spirits. This

nuanced portrayal of Satan and related figures contributes to the broader theological landscape

and lays the groundwork for their continued development and reinterpretation in later religious

texts, including the New Testament.

5. Conclusion

In the Hebrew Scriptures, the term "Satan" is used in different contexts, referring to both

terrestrial and celestial beings. However, Satan is never portrayed as completely independent and

is always limited by God's permission. He is depicted as a servant of God rather than the source

of evil. The understanding of Satan evolves over time, and in the book of Job, he starts to exhibit

some individuality but remains inherently not evil. Satan is presented as an angel entrusted with

the task of bringing human guilt to God's attention. During the intertestamental period, Satan's

character develops further, gaining independence and responsibility for evil actions. The
29
Martin, Word Biblical Commentary 40, pages 199-200.

19
influence of texts like the Book of I Enoch introduces the idea of fallen angels as the origin of

evil and the leaders of demonic forces. These ideas lay the groundwork for the emergence of the

character of Satan in the New Testament.

20
Reference

Byrne, B. "Sons of God." In Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. VI, 156. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Newsom, C.A. "The Book of Job." Page 345.

Clines, D.A. Job 1–20, page 8.

Botterweck, G.J., Ringgren, H., and Fabry, H. TDOT, page 74.

Rambau, Leonce F. "The Meaning and Function of Satan in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)." December 2017, pp. 129-129.

Pope, M.H. Job. AB 15. New York: Doubleday, 1965, pages 9-10.

Young, T.C. "Satan." In Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. V, 985. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

The Holy Bible: The Revised Standard Version. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1971.

Elliger, K., Rudulph, W., and Institute for NT Textual Research Munster. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Munster: German Bible

Society, 2006.

Martin, Word Biblical Commentary 40, pages 199-200.

Sweeney, Lucas. The History and Origins of Satan: pages 6-8.

Shea, William H. "Azazel in the Pseudepigrapha." Journal of the Adventist Theological Society 13/1 (2002): 1-9, page 2.

Mobely, Gregory, and Wray, T.J. The Birth of Satan: Tracing the Devil’s Biblical Roots. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005,

pages 85-87.

Kluger, R.S. Satan in the Old Testament, page 40.

Kluger, R.S. Satan, page 39.

Young, T.C. "Satan." In Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. V, page 987.

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