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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGIOUS / SPIRITUAL PRACTICES AND PHYSICAL

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Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGIOUS/SPIRITUAL

PRACTICES AND PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
SHEHARBANO AND AFTAB AHMAD*
National Academy of Young Scientists (NAYS), School of Biological Sciences, University of the Punjab,
Lahore 54590, Pakistan.

Abstract
Effect of spirituality/religiosity (S/R) on physical and mental health is in debate to a large extent
since last three decades. A large number of empirical and non-empirical studies have been performed
to understand the effect of different religious and spiritual practices on human physiology. Now
studies are going on using scientific methods, still a lot more work is needed to understand the exact
physiological phenomena involved in these changes during S/R practices. Uptil now, most of the
work has reported positive correlation between S/R and physical health. Present study sheds light on,
how S/R affects the brain, neurotransmitters, endocrine and immune system and how can people
cope better with chronic diseases, like AIDS, cancer, diabetes, pancreatitis, etc., leading to a high
quality life? Present study highlights different methodologies and tests used in these studies, and the
relationship between neuro-feedback and S/R. It may be concluded that S/R has positive effect on
overall health of a human being and it is greatly helpful in coping with stress and chronic diseases.
Keywords: Religion, Spirituality, Health, Brain, Chronic diseases, Quality life.

Introduction about self-actualisation that is directly related to

Spirituality and religiosity (S&R) are two terms
which have been most frequently used in discussing
psychological, sociological, neuro-scientific aspects
of human life and lay literature in relation to
physical and mental health during last three
decades. Moss (2002) defined spirituality and
religion as, “Spirituality refers to a personal quest
for ultimate meaning in life and for a personal
relationship with a transcendent or sacred realm”
while “Religion refers to the organised system of
beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols that are
designed to facilitate closeness to the sacred and
that provide an average person with moral and
social guidelines for behaviour”. Although S&R are
closely related to each other, still some clear
differences are present, however the relationship of
S/R and health is in its infancy, so it looks difficult
to disentangle both terms.
During last three decades, 688% increase has
been observed in the publications on the
relationship between S/R and health (Weaver et al.,
2006). Another study revealed that, since 1993 to
2002, 600% increase has been observed in
publications on “spirituality and health” and 27%
increase on “religion and health” (Stefank et al.,
2005). Looking at the history during the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, William James, a renowned
American Psychologist, legitimised religion as a
psychological topic through his book “The Varieties
of Religious Experience” (James, 1958). In 60s,
Abraham Maslow, another renowned American
psychologist and the founder of humanistic
psychology, played a positive role in introducing
spirituality based psychology. He also discussed
spirituality. Some of the books, written by him,
were titled as, “Religions, Values and Peak
Experiences”, and “The Farther Reaches of Human
Nature” (Seligman and Csikszentmihaly, 2000). But
owing to the negative approach of Skinner and
Freud towards religion and spirituality, it became a
taboo topic in the 20th century. B.F. Skinner was an
American behaviourist who, in contrast to William
and Maslow, had a negative approach towards
religion. According to Freud, religiosity was an
insignificant exercise, used by weak people who
could not face the problems of their life and believe
on mystic powers (Freud, 1964). The same school
of thought can be observed in other European
philosophers, including Feuerbach (1969) and
Nietzsche (1966). Carl Jung, being an exception,
used spirituality, religious symbols and myths to
heal his patients and showed that there is a
relationship between S/R and health (Jung, 1964).
In the last two decades of 20th century, we saw a
flood of publications on the effect of S/R on
physical and mental health and many disciplines,
such as sociology, education, medicine and
psychology, have contributed to this topic (Powell
et al., 2003).
It is also argued by the editor of “The Oxford
Handbook of Religion and Science” that Religion
and Science should be adopted like a field of study
and should be divided into specific sub fields like
other fields of science (Knight, 2006). Harold
Koenig, a renowned researcher and a great writer in
this field, cites 1100 empirical studies on the
correlation of S/R and health in one of his books
(Moss, 2002) and in another book, “The Handbook

* aftabac@yahoo.com
Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
of Religion and Health” (Koenig, 2001), in which
he also works as a co-editor, 1200 citations are
available on this topic. In this manuscript, the
positive or negative correlation of S/R and
physiological health has been evaluated.
How do our central nervous system (CNS),
endocrine, immune and cardiovascular systems
react towards different religious and spiritual
practices? How does S/R help in coping with
different diseases, including, AIDS, cancer,
diabetes, pancreatitis, and also different infectious
diseases? In addition to this different methodologies
used in these studies to understand the relation
between S/R and physical and mental health will be
discussed in detail.
Reaction of Brain and Neurotransmitters
towards Spirituality or Religiosity
If we look at our physiology, we come to know
that central nervous system (CNS) alongwith
peripheral nervous system (PNS) directs all our
body activities. If we succeed in proving that S/R
directly affects CNS, then a relationship between
health and S/R can be established. However, there
are different questions that occupy our mind as to
how spiritual or religious practices affect brain
which is the main part of CNS? Are we able to
measure the changes in brain produced due to
different S/R activities and how? Is there any direct
relationship between these changes and our physical
health? Are these changes positive or negative?
Different empirical studies provide an evidence
of involvement of brain in different religious and
spiritual practices. Newberg’s study revealed that
during religious meditation and prayer, the blood
flow increases in some parts of the brain (frontal
cortices, cingulate gyrus and thalami) and decreases
in other (superior parietal cortices). An increased
activity in the frontal cortices represents an
increased focused attention, while decreased
activity in the parital cortices results in the loss of
clear and cognitive self consciousness (Newberg
and d’Aquili, 2001). It is also observed that during
meditation activity, the left hemisphere of brain
predominantly increases, which is positively
associated with elevated immune response, such as,
increased activity of antibodies and natural killer
cells (Davidson et al., 2003).
The engagement in different spiritual practices
or religious activities, like meditation, rituals and
prayers, plays a pivotal role in coping stress and, in
return, helps to improve physical health. McNamara
(2002) suggested that religious practices activate
frontal lobes (especially, the prefrontal cortex),
which are associated with the cognitive function.
These changes produce a positive effect on social
context and optimism. In this way, mesocortical
pathway is also activated, which is a dopaminergic
pathway, travelling from the ventral tegmental area
to the prefrontal cortex. This pathway is involved in
35
motivational and emotional response. Such
responses can affect the health through a variety of
pathways, including cardiovascular system,
immune, endocrine and central nervous system
(Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2002). As there is a
relationship between frontal lobe, limbic,
hypothalamic and amygdale, hence the activation of
frontal lobe by meditation or prayers may assist a
person in the regulation of autonomic nervous
system (McNamara et al., 2003). As the spiritual or
religious practices affect CNS, which is involved in
positive activation of immune and autonomic
nervous system, so these practices may be very
useful in reducing stress, anxiety, panic and
morbidity (Davidson et al., 2003; Ader and Kelley,
2007).
Davidson (1992) also showed that frontal lobes
mediate approach-withdrawal behaviours, which
have more positive effect in the left hemisphere and
negative effect in the right. Human nature reveals
that affiliation is necessary in its bio-behavioural
mechanism to facilitate social behaviour. A report
by the Commission on Children at Risk in 2003
concluded that “humans are born to make
connections to other people and to moral and
spiritual meanings and suffer physically,
psychologically, and behaviourally, if these
connections are not made” (Seybold, 2007).
According to Taylor’s model, affiliation serves to
reduce the body stress response by the activation of
oxytocin, dopaminergic and opoid systems, which is
also involved in strengthening and motivation
(Taylor, 2006).
The question that still remains is: what is the
main reason of stress and how does it affect our
brain and CNS? This may be explained in the
following way. When we cannot cope with
problems in our surroundings and feel danger; our
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) activates
which, in turn, causes the activity of hypothalamus,
activating the master gland (pituitary gland). It
secretes some hormones that, by activating adrenal
glands, secretes cortisol. Cortisol is the main cause
of stress which prepares us to cope with dangers,
but its continuous secretion negatively affects
physical health. The involvement in different
religious or spiritual practices, like meditation and
prayers, reduces the activation of SNS which, in
return, reduces the secretion of cortisol, thereby,
strengthening our immune system and improving
our physical health (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2002).
Meditation also increases the secretion of
different neurotransmitters, including GABA (Elias
et al., 2002), melatonin (Tooley et al., 2000), and
serotonin (Walton et al., 1995), which results in the
spiritual awareness which is done by promoting
changes in serotonin systems in the brain.
Dopamine also plays an important role in our
religious behaviour. As discussed earlier,
36 Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
dopaminergic pathway occupies our prefrontal
cortex and this portion matures with adolescence.
Changes in this region affect our religious
behaviours. The loss of dopamine activity in central
and forebrain area, resulting in the loss of
religiosity, has been observed in patients suffering
from Parkinson’s disease (McNamara et al., 2010).
As this portion of brain is directly involved in
strengthening, motivational and emotional
responses, so it has its influence on body’s response
to stress and physical health.
Response of Endocrine and Immune System
towards S/R
How do our hormonal and immune systems
respond towards S/R? Mental stress is directly
related to the cardiovascular system, and an increase
in stress negatively affects the cardiovascular
system. Stress elevates the release of fight-or-flight
hormones, e.g. norepinephrine, epinephrine and
dopamine that bring changes in immune response.
All these changes in the hormonal and immune
system bring negative health outcome (Kiecolt-
Glaser et al., 2002). As mentioned earlier, the
spiritual or religious practices produce positive
effect on CNS which, in turn, helps to keep the level
of these hormones in control under stressed
condition. Different empirical studies have also
shown that more S/R people can better defeat their
stress thereby, helping in improving their physical
and mental health (McEwen, 1998).
Genetic factors, behavioural response and
lifestyle choice, all affect our physical and mental
health. Recent research shows that S/R is positively
correlated with good behaviour, better life style and
improved quality of life. It is found that more
religious people are less likely to use drugs, alcohol,
smoking, substance abuse and risky sex, which help
them to improve their physical and mental health
(George et al., 2002). Under stressed conditions,
SNS, hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands
are activated and get involved in the release of
corticotrophin-releasing hormone, adreno-
corticotropic hormone, and glucocorticoids.
Glucocorticoids affect glucose metabolism, alter the
immune response and have a direct impact on brain
predominantly hippocampus. Hippocampus is
involved in the regulation of body’s response to
stressors and this portion of brain is also involved in
certain type of memory formation. However, a
continuous secretion of glucocorticoids (e.g.,
cortisol) badly affects hippocampus, which may
result in its cell loss or other deleterious changes
(Russell, 2006). This results in hyper-activation of
hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands, which
increase the level of glucocorticoids, leading finally
towards depression and suicide (Lopez et al., 1999).
This high level secretion of glucocorticoids also
leads to autoimmune and inflammatory
disturbances. It has who been found that the
involvement in religious and spiritual practices
helps to keep the hormonal level under control
which otherwise produces deleterious effects on the
overall physiology of human beings. It helps to
maintain the homeostasis or optimal physiological
levels that are beneficial to improve general health
and physiology of an individual (Ader and Kelley,
2007).
Different empirical studies have also shown that
S/R helps to improve the immune system in AIDS
(Woods et al., 1999) and breast cancer (Sephton et
al., 2001) patients. Most of the studies report that
S/R is positively correlated to high quality life,
optimism, better coping with bereavement,
sympathy, affiliation and social support, and one
negatively correlated with isolation, anxiety,
depression and suicide. All these associations help
to keep all our physiological system (CNS,
endocrine, immune, circulatory and respiratory
system, etc.) at a moderate level leading to a
healthier and quality life.
Effect of Spirituality/Religiosity on Different
Diseases
Two important points are to be discussed here
in this context:
1. What is the relationship between S/R and
different chronic life threatening and non-life
threatening diseases?
2. Is S/R positively or negatively related to the
health related quality of life?
Spirituality is a multileveled reality and its effect
varies from individual to individual. Moreover, it is
very difficult to study the effect of all aspects of
spirituality while evaluating the connection of
spirituality, physical and mental health (Seybold,
2007). Regarding religiosity, Bulbulia (2005)
argued that religiosity is universal and these beliefs
have evolved and selected by people because they
assist them in maintaining their health quality.
Religions provide a complete set of behaviours and,
by following them, our social life as well as
physical health is improved. Many religions teach
moderation in all aspects of life and play a very
important role in improving health. If we talk about
the religion Islam, we will find a large number of
Quranic injunctions and sayings of Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH), which directly help us to
improve our health quality. As one Quranic
injunction says: “Eat and drink but do not be
extravagant” (7:31), once Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) said: “The belly is the house of diseases,
while dieting is the best of all medicines.” One of
the companions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),
Ali (A.S.) said: “Do not eat until you are hungry,
and leave the table before you are fully satisfied.”
One of the great scholars of Islam, Zaynul Abidin
Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
(A.S.) wrote: “It is the right of your stomach that
you should not turn it into a receptacle of what is
unlawful, whether it is a little or a lot; and that you
should not overeat because that will turn eating into
gluttony and shamelessness instead of giving you
strength; and you should keep it under control when
hungry or thirsty because overeating causes
laziness, hinders work, cuts a man away from every
goodness and nobility; and overdrinking makes a
man look idiotic, ignorant and disgraced (Risãltu’l-
Huquq)” (Rizvi, 2007). It has now been
scientifically proved that overeating is injurious to
health (Roni et al., 2011). Therefore, by following
all these sayings, we may get rid of many
physiological sufferings. Similarly, many religions
of world, including Islam, strictly prohibit
alcoholism and, it is also scientifically proved that
alcoholism is the root cause of deterioration of
many biological processes. These are just few of
uncountable verses in different Holy Scriptures and
sayings by the founders of religions.
Different empirical studies show that S/R has a
great impact on physical and mental health and
most of these studies show that S/R and health are
positively correlated. It is reported that S/R is
positively associated with lower blood pressure and
less hypertension, better lipid profile and better
immune function (Woods et al., 1999; Sephton et
al., 2001; Koenig et al., 1997; Ironson et al., 2002).
Moreover, lower blood pressure and better lipid
profile reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. It
is also reported that meditation plays an important
role in reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases
and lowers cholesterol level (Schmidt et al., 1997).
Further, meditation is associated with lower stress
hormone levels (Walton et al., 1995) and less
oxidative stress too (Schneider et al., 1998).
Different studies have been performed to assess
the relationship between S/R and infectious
diseases. Wood and his colleagues in a study on gay
men affected with HIV/AIDS reported that
religiosity (prayers, attending services) was
associated with higher T-helper/inducer cell (CD4)
count and higher CD4 percentage (Woods et al.,
1999). In another study on 450 patients using 8
measures, Sian Cotton and his colleagues reported
that no significant change was observed in CD4
count in association with religiosity or spirituality.
They also reported that more religious patients have
a positive approach in disease coping and that such
patients drink less alcohol, have a greater self-
esteem and more satisfaction (Cotton et al., 2006).
It has also been found that different religious
obligations play an important role in reducing the
incidences of infections. A study was performed to
establish a relationship between male circumcision
(MC) prevalence (a religious obligation in Islam)
and 7 infectious diseases, including HIV, HSV-2,
syphilis, Hepatitis C, tuberculosis and malaria,
37
using country specific data among 118 developing
countries. The results showed that MC prevalence
was significantly associated with lower HIV
prevalence and lower cervical cancer incidences. It
was also found that MC was strongly associated
with lower HIV prevalence in those countries where
heterosexual HIV transmission is the primary mode
of transmission, but not in those where homosexual
or injection drug use HIV transmission is the
primary mode of transmission. It should be kept in
mind that homosexuality is strictly prohibited in
Islam and many other religions, however, no direct
correlation was seen in case of HSV-2, syphilis,
Hepatitis C, tuberculosis, or malaria. These findings
provide a clear evidence that MC and sexually
transmitted infectious diseases, like HIV and
cervical cancer, are biologically linked (Drain et al.,
2006).
Another study was conducted on 180 subjects in
Saudi Arabia to find the impact of religiosity
connectedness on health related quality of life
(HRQL) in patients with diabetic ulcer. The people
were divided in three groups; each with 60
individuals diabetic patients with foot ulcer diabetic
patients without foot ulcer and the healthy subjects.
They used intrinsic/extrinsic religious
connectedness scale to find the effect of religious
connectedness. Wagner’s classification was based
on the classification of the severity of diabetic foot
ulcer (Wagner, 1996) and Short Form with 36 items
(SF 36) was used to assess the HQRL (Ware and
Sherbourne, 1992). A very strong positive
relationship was found in HQRL and religious
connectedness. In another study, the influence of
religiosity on quality of life and pain intensity in
patients with pancreatitis was noted. In this study,
92 patients were divided in two groups, 35 patients
with non religion or sporadic contact with religious
services and 57 patients with deep faith and regular
participation in church activities. All patients were
treated invasively for pain with neurolytic celiac
plexus block (NCPB). Visual analogue scale (VAS)
was used to assess pain. QLQ C-30 questionnaire
was used to assess their quality of life. The results
showed that following NCPB, the quality of life in
patients with religious connectedness, improved
significantly (Basin´ski et al., 2013).
Another study was performed to evaluate the
relationship between chronic, non life threatening
pain and religiosity. In this research, fibromyalgia,
back pain, migraine headaches and chronic fatigue
syndrome were studied. The results showed that
religious people were less likely to suffer from
chronic pain and fatigue than those who were
spiritual but less religious. It was also found that
patients with chronic pain and fatigue, who were
both religious and spiritual, were psychologically
stronger and used positive coping strategies (Baetz
and Rudy, 2008).
38 Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
A large number of studies have been performed
to examine the role of spirituality and religiosity in
coping with cancer. Different methodologies were
used at different disease stages (Gall, 2000). Both
quantitative and qualitative analyses have been
performed to assess the role of S/R in coping with
the disease. A study on women with metastatic
breast cancer reported that more spiritual women
had greater number of white blood cells and total
lymphocyte counts (with greater counts of both
helper and cytotoxic T cells) (Sephton, 2001). A
number of methodologies have been used to
determine the relationship of S/R and cancer,
including, Brief RCOPE (Pargament 1996), Duke
Religious Index (DRI), (Koenig et al., 1997),
Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy,
Spiritual Well-Being (FACIT-Sp) (Fitchett et al.,
1996), God Image Scales (GIS) (Lawrence, 1997),
Index of Core Spiritual Experience (INSPIRIT)
(Kass et al., 1991), Ironson-Woods Spirituality/
Religiousness Index (I-W SR Index short form)
(Ironson et al., 2002), Religious Orientation Scale
(ROS) (Allport and Ross, 1967), Religious Problem
Solving Scales (RPSS) (Pargament et al., 1988),
Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS) (Ellison, 1983),
Spiritual Involvement and Beliefs Scale (SIBS)
(Hatch et al., 1998), Systems of Belief Inventory
(SBI-15) (Holland et al., 1998), Skalen zur
Erfassung von Lebensqualitat bei Tumorkranken
(SELT-M) (Van Wegberg et al., 1998), and Santa
Clara Strength of Religious Faith (SCSORF)
(Sherman, 2001). Different hypotheses were tested
in these studies such as “religion or spirituality
protects against cancer mortality”, “religion or
spirituality slows the progression of cancer” and it
was found that results were inadequate to conclude
whether S/R is positively or negatively related to
these hypotheses (Powell et al., 2003).
Teresa and his colleagues, in a review article,
ranked different studies, which showed the
involvement of a biological process while linking
S/R to health by following the criteria outlined by
Miller and Thoresen (Miller and Thoreson, 2003).
They divided these studies into three categories
depending on the methodology used and the
generalisation of test sample and categorised them
as A, A/B, B, B/C, and C. In category A, those
studies were included which had published in peer-
reviewed journals; Category B included the studies
which may or may not be published in peer-
reviewed journals because they had at least one
important methodological limitation, while category
C included studies which had major methodological
flaws without any conclusion. In categories A/B and
B/C, the A study was weakened by another design
features and the B study with several important
methodological weaknesses (Seeman et al., 2003).
Different literature reviews show that more than
100 instruments of spirituality and transpersonal
construct have been revealed (MacDonald et al.,
1995). Some of these, include, Ego Permissiveness
Inventor (Taft, 1970), Phenomenology of
Consciousness Inventory (PCI) (Pekala et al.,
1986), Ego Grasping Orientation (EGO)
(Knoblauch and Falconer, 1986), Spiritual
Orientation Inventory (Elkins et al., 1988),
Psychomatrix Spirituality Inventory (PSI)
(Wolman, 1997), Expressions of Spirituality
Inventory (ESI) (MacDonald, 2000), Mental,
Physical, and Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Vella-
Brodrick and Allen, 1995), Spiritual Well-Being
Scale (SWBS) (Ellison, 1983), Feelings, Reactions,
Beliefs Survey, Self-Expansiveness Level Form
(Friedman, 1983) and Transpersonal Orientation to
Learning (Shapiro and Fitzgerald, 1989). These are
some of the methodologies, used in different cross-
sectional and longitudinal studies. Different review
articles reported that even some very well
conducted studies lacked consistency. Some other
review articles in the area of cardiovascular diseases
and hypertension concluded that many studies were
irrelevant, methodologically flawed and some were
misinterpreted and only a few of them were reliable
(Sloan and Bagiella, 2002). It is obviated to review
all the methodologies so that more precise results
can be presented on the effect of S/R and
physiological health.
Biofeedback, Neurofeedback and Spirituality/
Religiosity
By different empirical studies, it is found that
latest biofeedback therapies are very close to
meditation in Christianity and Buddhism, as both of
them involved relinquishing personal control and
detaching from effortful striving, which results in
letting be or letting go physiologically and
emotionally (Moss, 1980). The biofeedback therapy
as behavioural medicinal treatment began in 1970’s,
and one of the founder of biofeedback movement,
Elmer Green emphasised through his studies that all
human beings have a potential to self control
themselves, and this tool of biofeedback mechanism
plays very important role in overcoming illness
(Green and Green, 1977). Self-regulation not only
helped to cope illness and improve physical health,
but each time, when some one underwent self
regulation, it profoundly boosted human
consciousness (Pelletier, 1977). Human
consciousness or self-actualisation is a very
important aspect of spirituality and plays an
important role in improving physical health. As
Koenig said, “Patients want to be seen and treated
as a whole person, not as diseases. A whole person
is someone whose being has physical, emotional,
and spiritual dimensions, and ignoring any of these
aspects of humanity leaves the person incomplete
and may even interfere with healing” (Koenig,
Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
2000). So, spiritual and emotional dimensions are
associated with physical health.
It is also found that biofeedback is very
effective against different diseases, including
headache, migraine, urinary and fecal incontinence
and many others. It had gain preference over
medication or surgery in urinary incontinence as
recommended by Agency for Health Care Policy
and Research and the Federal Health Care
Financing Administration (Palsson, 2003). In
biofeedback mechanisms, patients are taught to live
in close harmony of their changing physiology
and try to understand the subtle signals from their
bodies. Now a day, different sensing instruments
are in use to ensure the physiological changes
produced by biofeedback therapy, including
electromyograph (EMG), electrodermograph
(EDG), electrocardiograph (ECG), pneumograph,
rheoencephalography (REG), etc. These sensors can
also be useful in checking the physiological changes
during religious meditations which may be very
helpful in future research.
Today neuroscience researchers are trying to
find the physiological changes experienced by brain
during spiritual practices and they are trying to
introduce a new model by the name of
“neurotheology model”. In neurofeedback therapies,
patients are trained to modify their brain state and
induce a state of consciousness to spiritual
awakening and personal transformation. It is
observed that, with such a feedback, an individual
can modify cortical states at his will and can modify
consciousness (Kamiya, 1969). Alpha range
rhythms in the cortex are very important in
increasing creative, meditative and receptive
attitude of mind and based on this principle, Les
Fehmi developed, “Open Focus” Model (Fehmi and
Selzer, 1980). Today alpha/theta protocol is applied
to treat addiction and anxiety disorders and
following this treatment the patients undergo this
treatment and experience a spiritual transformation.
It is found that highly sophisticated technology of
QEEG assessment and EEG training can be very
helpful to elaborate these initial findings and, in
future, may understand the connection of S/R and
physiological health in a better scientific way.
Negative correlation between S/R and physical
health
With a number of positive correlations, some
negative correlations are also reported and some
more conservative religious people became
pessimist. Different studies in Christian community
showed that such type of people blame themselves
as “If my relationship with Christ was right, I
wouldn’t be ill”. The same attitude has been
observed in new age oriented individuals but they
blame themselves in a little different way as “I must
have an unhealthy attitude that caused my illness”,
or “I wonder why I have bad karma”? These
39
negative cognitions can never produce any positive
effect on physical health (Pargament et al., 1994).
One such study on elderly people showed that such
negative cognitions have been found associated
negatively with physical health and increased
morbidity (Pargament et al., 2001). A study
performed in Puerto Rico, where most of the people
practiced Judeo-Christian based culture, showed
that a positive relation is found in religion and
HIV/AIDS stigma (Varas-Diaz et al., 2011). In
addition to this, some ethical issues are also under
consideration as some evangelical medical
practitioners force their patients to follow their
religion for being healthier early, without giving
respect to patient’s religion. To avoid this, Koenig
suggests a guideline questionnaire which medical
practitioners may use to know about the
connectedness of a patient with his religion
(Pargament et al., 1994). It is also found that
forcible imposing of religion in childhood also
produces negative impact on an individual’s
personality. So, we should have an eye on all such
negative points in order to avoid negative
correlation between S/R and physical and mental
health.
Another worth noting point is that different
religions, under certain conditions, allow their
followers not to perform the religious duties
because healthy survival of life is most important.
For example, in Islam the sick is exempted from
fasting during Ramadan, but most of the people
carry out fasting during Ramadan. A study,
conducted in Oman, showed that although it did not
significantly affect the health of most of the type 2
diabetic patients but still it is much needed to
consult the physician, change life style and drug
regimen and to follow them strictly (Prakash et al.,
2007).
Conclusion and Future Implications
Many tests have been performed to understand
the empirical phenomena involved in the
physiological changes produced by different
spiritual or religious practices. Some studies
showed that different people behave pessimistically
and correlate S/R and health negatively, but most of
the studies reported that spiritual or religious
practices are positively correlated with changes in
brain, which regulate the endocrine and immune
response and an overall effect on physical and
mental health of an individual. It is also found that
following different religious and spiritual practices
also helps in coping different diseases that leads to
high quality of life. In spite of all these positive
correlations between S/R and physical and mental
health, a number of reviews show that a more
empirical approach is needed to reach the consensus
and methodologies used to study the relationship
between S/R need more attention. Although
spirituality and religiosity are closely related but a
40 Sheharbano and Ahmad, 2013. Sci. Tech. and Dev., 33 (1): 34-42
lot of work is needed to understand the separate
impact of spirituality and religiosity on physical and
mental health. Since most of the work has been
done on Christians and Jews, there is a great need to
involve other religions of the world in these studies.
These positive correlations in S/R and physiology
may help us to improve our life. The present day
world is full of annoyance, hate, and anger, which
are main causes of increasing depression, anxiety
and suicidal attacks. Different studies also show that
religious and spiritual practices, including,
meditation, rituals, prayers and visits to Holy
gatherings, are negatively correlated with
depression, anxiety, anger and hypertension, so it is
very important to prove this positive correlation
scientifically. This positive correlation will help to
bring people close to spirituality bringing harmony
in their lives and in the whole world.
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