ASSIGNMENT

Submitted By:

Momin Shakeel
EE-20-62
7th Semester Electrical Engineering
Subject: Power Station Practice
 1 Grid Connected Solar
1.1 Introduction: In recent years, renewable technologies especially photovoltaics (PV) has become
one of most promising power generation technologies worldwide. The distributed solar power generation
is advantageous in providing enhance energy security, low transmission losses, employment generation,
and lowering dependence on fossil fuels . PV technology is vital not only for large scale power generation but
also in building integrated PV segment and would continue to play an important role in residential and commercial
sectors. Thus, for large scale market penetration of building rooftop solar, the formulation of a comprehensive
policy is essential. The renewable energy net metering policy allows a consumer to become a power producer and
feed the extra power to the grid at a certain tariff.

1.2 Building Rooftop Grid Connected Photovoltaic System: Generally, gross metering and
net metering are implemented for billing electricity by state utilities. In gross metering, the electricity
generated by a solar power plant is fed to the grid and the owner is compensated at a tariff rate known as
the Feed in Tariff (FIT) which is generally fixed from time to time. In a typical standard gross-metering
systema unidirectional electricity meter is used which records the imported electricity from the utility grid
whereas in a solar net-metering.
1.3 Classification of solar photovoltaic: Crystalline semiconductors viz. Si and GaAs have the
highest performance as compared the other options available in the market. While, the solar cells based
on the less pure materials viz. polycrystalline or amorphous inorganic or organic materials, or
combination of these having less performance but cost is low. Therefore, researchers all over the world
are exploring other options with higher performance to produce electricity by the means of solar cells.
Also due to low cost and light weight as compared to the mono and poly crystalline solar cells, the thin
film technology has been seen as a potential technology but its low efficiency is still a cause of concern
among the scientific community.For efficiency enhancement of the thin film technology, the experimental
work on three different materials such as, the amorphous silicon, CdS/CdTe and CIS is going on
worldwide. However, due to the environmental related problems associated to these materials, the
polymer and organic materials based thin film technology are the other competent options . The
advancement in the research related to different types of solar cell materials are given as below:
i. Crystalline materials: The crystalline silicon solar cells have many advantages such as, high
efficiency than that of other solar cells and easy availability which forced the manufacturers to use
them as a potential material for solar cells . In most of the cases, the monocrystalline type solar cells
are used as they have high efficiency but due to higher cost of the material, it is still a cause of
concern for both the manufacturers and the end users. Therefore, the industries are looking for
alternatives and polycrystalline type of solar cell may be another option which has lower cost as
compared to the mono crystalline cell. The scientific community also looking for GaAs based solar
cell as an alternative, which is a compound semiconductor, form by gallium (Ga) and arsenic (As)
 having the similar structure as silicon. The GaAs material is having high efficiency and low weight,
but higher cost as compared to the mono- and polycrystalline silicon solar cells. However, the GaAs
based solar cell exhibits to have high heat resistance and found to be suitable for concentrated PV
module for power generation, hybrid use and space applications.
ii. Thin film solar cells: The thin film technology based solar cells are cheaper as compared to
silicon based solar cells due to the fact that the requirement of material is lesser in the
manufacturing process of the former. The amorphous silicon being non-crystalline and disordered
structure form of silicon is having 40 times higher absorptivity rate of light as compared to the
monocrystalline silicon. Thus the amorphous silicon based solar cells are very famous as compared
to other materials such as, CIS/CIGS and CdS/cdTe due to the higher efficiency of the former.
1.1 Power Converter Technology for PV Systems: Typically, the power converters are
classified into string inverters, multi-string inverters, central, and module level (AC module and DC
module) inverters. For solar power farms/plants configured as three-phase systems, the central and
multi-string converters are widely utilized. Comparatively, in residential applications configured as a
single-phase system, string and module converters are intensively adopted . ,Though the configuration
of the power converters is different, the power converters have the same major functions, including
islanding detection and protection, reactive power control, grid code compliance, synchronization,
power transfer and DC to AC conversion, and PV power maximization. Advanced and intelligent
controls are required for effective incorporation of these functionalities and to fulfill customized
demands. Additionally, the PV integration can be enhanced by forecasting, monitoring, and
communication technology.
1.2 Block Diagram of Grid Connected Solar:
 2 Wind Power Generation

2.1 Introduction: Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind turbines
located on land (onshore) or in sea- or freshwater (offshore). Wind energy has been used for millennia, but
onshore and offshore wind energy technologies have evolved over the last few years to maximize the electricity
produced - with taller turbines and larger rotor diameters.Though average wind speeds vary considerably by
location, the world’s technical potential for wind energy exceeds global electricity production, and ample
potential exists in most regions of the world to enable significant wind energy deployment.Many parts of the
world have strong wind speeds, but the best locations for generating wind power are sometimes remote ones.
Offshore wind power offers tremendous potential.

2.2 Recent trends of wind turbine technology: In the modern wind turbine technology, the
HAWTs are highly developed and currently available in the entire existing wind farm. On the other hand,
the VAWT in the present wind farm is very rare. The technical development of VAWTs lags significantly
behind that of HAWTs, though VAWTs are aerodynamically more efficient than HAWTs. Moreover, it
has been suggested that VAWTs are more appropriate in large scale (10 MW) wind energy generation .
Very recently there has been a revivification regarding VAWTs and many researches have been carried
out due to its aerodynamic efficiency and performance regarding flow separation and alleviating adverse
effects on energy production. It is observed that wind is always changing its speed, and direction is rarely
uniform. VAWTs do not need any unidirectional wind speed to produce electricity from wind as its
counterpart HAWTs very much needed. In other words, VAWTs are omnidirectional that negates the
need for a yawing mechanism. Therefore, VAWTS can be more effective in the complex urban terrains to
harness the wind energy that helps to increase the capacity of small-scale wind power generation .

2.3 Generator Types: The choice of generating device for wind turbines is one of the prime design
considerations. The generators to be used for wind applications must be robust, cost effective, fault
tolerant and should require minimum maintenance. These attributes are necessary for wind applications as
the machines often have to work in hostile environments at isolated places which may be away from the
immediate technical help. The modern wind turbine generators may be classified into following four
categories:

 Fixed-speed wind turbine generators (Type 1).

 Variable-slip, wind turbine generators with variable rotor resistance (Type 2).

 Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine generators (Type 3).

  Full-converter wind turbine generators (Type 4).

i. Fixed-speed wind turbine generators (Type 1): The fixed speed or type 1 wind turbine generators
(WTGs) do not administer substantial controlling mechanisms and are often referred as self excited
induction generators (SEIGs) due to absence of an exciter. They are squirrel caged induction
machines and may be used both in isolated as well as grid connected modes. Whether operating in
isolated or grid connected mode in both scenarios the main operational constraint is that they do not
generate reactive power rather consume it and hence have an inherently poor voltage regulation.
The voltage regulation, however, can be improved to a large extent by various means readily
available such as series capacitances, statcoms, switched capacitors etc. Furthermore, because of
their poor frequency and voltage regulations they are suited only for constant speed operations as
both the generated voltage as well as frequency are very sensitive to speed variations.

ii. Variable-slip, wind turbine generators with variable rotor resistance (Type 2): The type 2
wind turbine generators work on opti slip concept and are wound rotor induction machines with
capability to offset the effects of variation in wind speed on generated power. The type 2 wind
turbine generators are able to maintain constant output power at speeds higher than the rated speed
by extracting slip power of the machine through a variable resistance connected in series with the
rotor and dissipating the extracted power into heat through an external resistance. Typically, these
generators can maintain constant output power up-to a speed variation of 10 % above of the
synchronous speed of machine. In the nominal and below nominal speed range their response is
similar to type 1 generators. Presently, most of the modern wind turbine manufacturers are
successfully implementing the technology in their designs.

iii. Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine generator (Type 3): The doubly fed
induction generators are essentially the wound rotor induction machines. They have three phase
windings both on stator and rotor and may be fed both on the stator as well as rotor windings which
is why they are called doubly fed or double output induction generators. Typically DFIGs can work
both in generating and motoring modes. However, for dual modes of operation the power electronic
converters and the associated components should be capable of handling power in both directions.
When operated as a generator, the DFIGs are capable of maintaining constant voltage and
frequency over a wide range of variations in speed of wind turbine. This, attribute is especially
useful for grid connected wind turbine generators. They are able to operate at constant frequency
and voltage at variable turbine speeds by maintaining a continuous coordination with the grid.
 iv. Full-converter wind turbine generators (Type 4): The type 4 full- converter WTGs consist of full
stage converters between the generator and the grid. They administer control on full power flowing
between the electrical generator and the grid, unlike DFIGs which only control about 30% to 40%
of the generated power, and hence are costly. The type 4 WTGs are able to effectively separate the
generator from the grid which makes the fault response of the system very rapid as well as shields
the generator from other transient grid disturbances. The inclusion of full converters provide greater
flexibility with respect to variable speed operation as the WTG can operate with a wide range of
turbine speeds facilitating higher power extraction.

2.4 Batteries as a recently developed energy storage technology: Introducing an energy

storage element in connection to a wind power plant changes the spectrum and statistical
distribution of the output power. By increasing the amount of storage systems to the wind power
plant, the output of wind farm has become more controllable and predictable . Due to the stochastic
nature of wind, electric power generated by wind turbines is highly erratic and may affect both the
power quality and the planning of power systems. Therefore, energy storage and conversion have
become a prime area of research to address both the societal concerns regarding the environment
and pragmatic applications such as the powering of an ever increasing cadre of portable electronic
devices. Storage system will have to play an important role in the wind power plant by controlling
wind power output that enables the increased penetration of wind power in the grid syst. A variety
of storage technologies are available for storage of energy in the power system. Recently the
electrical energy storage technologies include the following types of storage media.

 Batteries
 Flow batteries
 Fuel cells
 Flywheels
 Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
 Super capacitors
 Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

 Pumped hydro

However, by considering all aspects along with flywheel, fuel cells and batteries are the two most
impacting energy storage devices in the RE systems. Batteries take in electricity from another
producing source, convert the electricity to chemical energy, and store it as a liquid of solution.
When operators need energy from the battery, an electric charge chemically converts the energy
back into electrons, which then move back into a power line on the electric grid. There are several
promising battery technologies for grid energy application including advanced lead-acid, nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), sodium–sulfur (NaS) and
flow batteries.

3 Grid Integration Problem & Solutions:

3.1 Introduction: The increasing share of renewables in the power grid will bring both
positive and negative consequences. The positive aspects include relief in line congestion, reliable
power in remote locations, energy security, reduction in pollution and global warming. However,
the issues arising from RE power in grid is much more challenging and thus needs more
considerations. Renewables can be embedded into all types of electric networks, from small to
large capacity grids. But, due to the relatively small capacity and the remoteness from HV
transmission lines, these generators are usually grid connected at the distribution level, either at
LV level or MV level. The grid integration of RE power depends on a number of factors. These
include: the share of RE power, size and location of network in which it is connected, energy
conversion technology, the effect on system inertia, droop, power quality, system protection etc.

3.2 Issues With Grid Integration Of Renewables: An electric power system is a network of
electrical components comprising of generators, transformers, feeders, protection devices and
loads; used to generate, transmit, protect and use electric power. Traditionally, power system
networks are designed in such a way that both active power (P) and reactive power (Q) flows from
the higher to the lower voltage levels, that is, from the transmission network to the distribution
system; and from there it is distributed to the customers. This is the conventional radial system,
represented by a single voltage source on each distribution feeder. Due to the absence of
generators connected, distribution systems are called passive circuits. However, with the
introduction of renewable based generators, the situation will reverse. There will be many voltage
sources in a single feeder. With significant level of RE based generators connected at distribution
level, the power flows in the circuit may become reversed and the distribution network is no
longer a passive circuit supplying loads. Depending up on the generation capacity, grid integration
of renewable systems can be done at the transmission level (large capacity) or at the distribution
level (small capacity). At present, majority of the RE systems are connected at LV distribution
level. The technical issues that need to be addressed while integrating RE resources on the
distribution system are:
 i.Point of common coupling (PCC) and Voltage level
ii. Voltage variations & Power quality
iii. Voltage ride-through capability
iv. Reactive power compensation capability
v. Frequency regulation capability
vi. Protection issues.
3.3 Possible Solutions to Address Renewable Integration Challenges: Several possible
solutions are being proposed in the literature for addressing the challenges associated with the variability
and uncertainty of RE power generation. The main consideration in selecting a particular method is the
cost-effectiveness of the technology and the characteristics of the network. Grid infrastructure,
operational practices, generation type, and regulatory aspects all impact the types of solutions that are
most economic and viable. Generally, systems need additional flexibility to be able to accommodate the
additional variability of renewables. Flexibility can be achieved through better forecasting, operational
practices, energy storage, demand side flexibility, flexible generators, and other mechanisms.
i. Forecasting of wind and solar resources: Forecasting of solar and wind can help reduce the
uncertainties associated with these generations. It can help grid operators more efficiently commit or de-
commit units to accommodate changes in wind and PV generation, besides helping to reduce the amount
of operating reserves. There are different forecast methods such as short-term and long-term forecasts.
The short-term forecast, usually in hours, is relatively less complex as compared to long-term forecast.
Forecast errors typically range from 3 to 6% of rated capacity one hour ahead and 6 to 8% a day ahead. ii.
Operational Practices: Fast Dispatch and Larger Balancing Authority Areas: Fast dispatch helps manage
the variability of RE power as it reduces the need for regulating resources, improves efficiency, and
provides access to a broader set of resources to balance the system. With faster dispatch, load and
generation levels can be more closely matched, reducing the need for more expensive regulating reserves.
iii. Reserves management: Modified reserve management practices can be used to help address the
variability of wind and solar power. This include a). putting limits on wind and PV power ramps to
reduce the need for reserves and b). by enabling variable renewables to provide reserves or other ancillary
services such as regulation, inertia etc.
iv. Interconnecting more distributed resources: The impacts of intermittence of RE power can be
minimised by interconnecting large number of small distributed resources spread over a larger
geographical area instead of 9 large unit concentrating in one area. Fluctuations in the total output will be
minimum as the local variations affect only small units, not the total output power.
v. Energy Storage: with increased levels of renewable penetration, energy storage is a standard solution
to minimise generation curtailment. An alternative to expensive storage systems is large “overbuilding”
(200- 300%) and curtailment.
 vi.Wind-PV hybrid systems: Since wind and solar PV outputs are complementary types, hybrid
arrangement of these two resources will improve the overall power fluctuations to some extent. vii.
Demand Response: Flexibility at demand-side is a good option to reduce the impacts of fast ramps.
Demand response can be used to supply reserves and ancillary services as well as peak reduction. The use
of demand response to balance the system during infrequent events in which there is substantial under- or
oversupply of renewable generation can lead to cost savings compared to continually maintaining
additional reserves.

4 Electric Vehicles.
4.1Introduction:Growing concern about climate change intensifies the trend towards decarbonization
and interest in clean technology. As a substitute for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), EVs
powered by renewable electricity, can reduce petroleum usage and greenhouse emission . Besides, new
technologies on the powertrain of EVs, e.g., wide-band-gap component based motor drive that improves
battery-to-wheel efficiency, make EVs more competitive on energy saving. The convenience of EV
recharging significantly influences EV adoption and utilization. The charging power level is generally
categorized into two classes - the slow charging and the FC.
4.2 Batteries: The most common type of electric vehicle battery is made of lithium-ion. This is due to
their specific energy (Wh/kg), cycle life and high efficiency. The battery is made up of two electrodes in
an electrolyte.The electrolyte is where the exchange of ions takes place to produce electricity. The
lithium ions act as the charge carrier, allowing for the simultaneous exchange of positive and negative
ions in the electrolyte. There are many options for the materials of the electrodes and electrolytes, hence
there are different possible battery chemistries, each with their own advantages and disadvantages.
These Include:
 Cobalt Oxide (LCO)
 Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO)
 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC)
 Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (NCA)
 Lithium Titanate (LTO).
4.3 Impacts of EV charging on the electric grid : EV integration into the electricity grid comes
with many positive effects, such as power management and V/f regulation. Electric charging stations
must supply the load with continuous power at the desired time and in the dispersed locations; therefore,
they are not favorable for utility companies as utilities try to have a homogenous load profile, and
otherwise, they will face future issues implied on the grid, such as local power shortages.Also Due to EV’s
dynamic characteristics, they have a natural effect on the grid’s e power quality, such as harmonics, sag, swell,
voltage, and phase imbalance. However, companies follow power quality standards while manufacturing EVs to
prevent devastating impacts on the grid. As power electronics devices are sources of harmonics and other power
quality issues in the grid. Therefore, since EV chargers use power electronics devices that include switching
semiconductor-based elements, harmonics are produced when converting power is carried out. Harmful sequence
components in the load currents are also produced in EV charging stations, impacting the converter’s performance.
These harmful sequence components produce a second-order harmonic ripple in the DC link voltage, which results
distortions in the grid’s currents.
Therefore, proper economical solutions must be found to deal with this growth. While there are software-based and
hardware-based solutions, utilities usually install new electric energy storage systems at different locations to get
charged in off-peak hours and charge the EVs in peak hours, or PVs to cover the peak demand, invest in new
infrastructures such as new charging stations, parallel lines, new transformers, etc. They can also concentrate on
smart charging solutions that rely mostly on regulating of the charging of EVs, dynamic pricing, offering different
charging patterns.

5 Micro & Mini Hydro

5.1 Introduction: Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale suitable for local
community and industry, or to contribute to distributed generation in a regional electricity grid. Small
hydro can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as 100 to 1,000 kilowatts (kW),
and micro hydro which is 5 to 100 kW. Micro hydro is usually the application of hydroelectric power
sized for smaller communities, single families or small enterprise. The smallest installations are pico
hydro, below 5 kW.
5.2 . Some Recent Trends In The Mini And Micro Hydro Power Plant:
1. Advancements in Turbine Technology:There have been continuous improvements in turbine
technology, with a focus on enhancing efficiency, durability, and adaptability to varying flow rates and
head conditions. Innovations such as new blade designs, materials, and controls have led to higher
performance levels.
2. Smart Grid Integration:Mini and micro hydro power plants are increasingly being integrated into
smart grids, enabling better coordination with other renewable energy sources, demand response
mechanisms, and energy storage systems. This integration allows for optimized operation and improved
grid stability.
3.Digitalization and Remote Monitoring:The implementation of digital technologies, such as SCADA
(Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems, IoT sensors, and predictive maintenance algorithms,
has enabled remote monitoring, control, and condition-based maintenance of mini and micro hydro power
plants. This digitization enhances operational efficiency and reduces downtime.
4. Modular and Scalable Systems: The trend towards modular and scalable systems allows for easier
customization and deployment of mini and micro hydro power plants in various settings. Modular
components, such as prefabricated turbines and control s
ystems, simplify installation and expansion, making these systems more accessible and cost-effective.
 5.Environmental Impact Mitigation:Design and operational practices aim to minimize the
environmental impact of mini and micro hydro power plants. Techniques such as fish-friendly turbines,
sediment management, and habitat restoration help preserve local ecosystems and biodiversity.
6.Hybrid Systems: Integration of mini and micro hydro power plants with other renewable energy
sources, such as solar and wind, in hybrid systems is gaining traction. Hybrid systems leverage the
complementary nature of different energy sources to increase overall energy production and reliability.
These technical advancements and trends collectively contribute to the ongoing evolution of mini and
micro hydro power plants as sustainable, efficient, and versatile sources of renewable energy.

6 Challenges Among Utilities

1. Disruptive events: As we’ve seen in the last few years, no area of the world is safe from the chaos
caused by both natural events and human behaviour. The energy sector is also facing myriad other
disruptions in the form of political and economic events that have massive impacts on supply, demand,
and pricing. Additionally, the cost of preparing for disruptions continues to rise. Utility companies must
have predictive and compensatory solutions in place to ensure that they are agile and resilient enough to
guarantee continued service.
2. Increased complexity: As more renewable and distributed energy sources are incorporated into the
power network, it makes existing grids more complex to operate. Renewable energy sources are typically
prone to variability and intermittency, meaning that they need to be managed with particular care.
3. Urgent need for digital transformation: In order to manage complex networks and distribution systems,
digital transformation is an essential priority. AI-powered utilities technologies will assist in supporting
consumer demands for smart metering, offer a greater degree of protection from cybercrime, and help
meet compliance standards across a vast array of generation points.
4. Changing customer expectations and behaviours: As prosumers become increasingly capable of
generating and distributing their own power, they are becoming less reliant on traditional, centralised
utilities providers.
5. Less control over power sources: A shift to renewables means a shift away from human-controlled
carbon-based power generation, and a shift toward nature-controlled power generation like solar or wind.
This variability creates cost and complexity in supply and demand forecasting models. Additionally,
increased prosumer power generation and the proliferation of smaller energy companies also requires
utilities companies to develop more complex analytical and strategic systems to help anticipate and
compensate for this loss of centralised control.